MCS-201

Programming in C
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Computer and Information
Sciences (SOCIS)
and Python

An introduction to C 1
 MCS-201

BLOCK 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO C
UNIT 1 Programming Fundamentals 5
UNIT 2 Data Types, Operators And Expressions 33
UNIT 3 Decision And Loop Control Statements 60
UNIT 4 Arrays And Strings 84

BLOCK 2 FUNCTIONS, STRUCTURES, POINTERS

AND FILE HANDLING IN C
UNIT 5 Functions 117
UNIT 6 Structures And Unions 139
UNIT 7 Pointers 155
UNIT 8 File Handling 177

BLOCK 3 INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON

PROGRAMMING
UNIT 9 Introduction To Python 199
UNIT 10 Data Structures And Control Statements In 213
Python
UNIT 11 Functions And Files Handling In Python 279
UNIT 12 Modules And Packages 300

BLOCK 4 ADVANCED FEATURES IN PYTHON

UNIT 13 Classes In Python 317
UNIT 14 Exception Handling In Python Programming 339
UNIT 15 Python-Advance Concepts 350
UNIT 16 Data Access Using Python 361
COURSE INTRODUCTION
This course introduces you the two most powerful programming languages
i.e. C and Python. After completing this course you will be able to perform
programming in both C and Python, the two are chosen to provide you the
flavour of both conventional and modern programming. You will appreciate
that both programming languages are equally powerful.
To build the carrier path the skill of programming can be a fun and profitable
way, but before starting the learning of this skill, one should be clear about
the choice of programming language. Before learning any programming
language, one should figure out which language suits best to the learner.
This course makes you to compare the functionalities of both C and Python
programming language, which may help the learners to analyse and generate
a lot of opinions about their choice of programming language, from the
comparison of C and Python, you will find that Python is an high-
level, general-purpose, interpreted programming language. It is dynamically
typed and garbage-collected, and supports multiple programming paradigms
like structured (particularly, procedural,) object-oriented, and functional
programming, and due to its comprehensive standard library Python is often
described as a "batteries included" language.
Python programming is widely used in Artificial Intelligence, Machine
Learning, Neural Networks and many other advanced fields of Computer
Science. Ideally, It is designed for rapid prototyping of complex applications.
Python has interfaces with various Operating system calls and libraries,
which are extensible to C, C++ or Java. Many large companies like NASA,
Google, YouTube, Bit Torrent, etc. uses the Python programming language
for the execution of their valuable projects.
This course gives you an exposure to both programming languages i.e. C and
Python, based on your requirement you can choose your option to build your
carrier in programming.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This block is on Introduction to C programming language.

Problem-solving skills are recognized as an integral component of computer

programming and in this block the primary focus of this course is to teach the
basic programming constructs of C language. Emphasis is placed on
developing the student's ability to apply problem-solving strategies to design
algorithms and to implement these algorithms in a structured procedural
programming language. This course includes a laboratory componentalso
where in which the student gets the hands on experience.Basically one must
explore possible avenues to a solution one by one until s/he comes across a
right path to an optimized and efficient solution. In general, as one gains
experience in solving problems, one develops his/her own techniques and
strategies, though they are often intangible.
This block consists of 4 units and is organized as follows:
Unit- 1 provides an overview of problem solving techniques, algorithm
design, top – down design and basic C language features

Unit -2outlines the overview of the various datatypes, operators and

expressions in C.
Unit – 3 provides an overview of the decision and control loop statements in
C language.
Unit - 4 introduces you the concept of the Arrays and String-handling in the
C programs.

Happy Programming!!
 Indira Gandhi
National Open University MCS-201
School of Computer and
Information Sciences PROGRAMMING IN
C AND PYTHON

Block

1
AN INTRODUCTION TO C
UNIT 1
Programming Fundamentals

UNIT 2
Data Types, Operators and Expressions

UNIT 3
Decision and Loop Control Statements

UNIT 4
Arrays and Strings
Programme / Course Design Committee
Prof. Sanjeev K. Aggarwal, IIT, Kanpur
Prof. V.V. Subrahmanyam
Prof. M. Balakrishnan, IIT , Delhi Director
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof Harish Karnick, IIT, Kanpur Prof P. Venkata Suresh
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. C. Pandurangan, IIT, Madras
Dr. Shashi Bhushan
Dr. Om Vikas, Sr. Director, MIT Associate Professor
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof P. S. Grover, Sr. Consultant, Shri Akshay Kumar
Prof. (Retd.) S.K. Gupta Associate Professor
IIT, Delhi SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. T.V. Vijay Kumar Shri M. P. Mishra

Dean, Associate Professor
School of Computer & System Sciences, SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
JNU, New Delhi Dr. Sudhansh Sharma
Prof. Ela Kumar, Asst. Professor
Dean, Computer Science & Engg SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
IGDTUW, Delhi
Prof. Gayatri Dhingra
GVMITM, Sonipat, Haryana
Mr. Milind Mahajani
Vice President
Impressico Business Solutions
Noida UP

Block Preparation Team

Prof P. S. Grover (Content Editor) Ms. Priti Sehgal
(Sr Consultant Dept. of Computer Science
SOCIS, IGNOU) Keshav Mahavidyalya
University of Delhi
Ms. Charu Devgon
Dept. of Computer Science Prof. V.V. Subrahmanyam
A N Dev College SOCIS, IGNOU
University of Delhi
Shri S.S. Rana
Ms. Namita Gupta New Delhi Language
Dept. of Computer Science Editors
Maharaja Agrasen Institute Prof Sunaina Kumar,
of Technology SOH, IGNOU
Delhi
Course Coordinator : Dr. Sudhansh Sharma
(Units 1 to 4 are adapted from MCS-011 Problem Solving and Programming)

Block Production Team

March, 2021

Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021

ISBN-

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.

Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
 Programming
UNIT 1 PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Problem - Solving Techniques
1.2.1 Steps for Problem - Solving
1.2.2 Using Computer as a Problem-Solving Tool
1.3 Basics of Algorithms
1.3.1 Definition
1.3.2 Features of Algorithm
1.3.3 Criteria to be followed by an Algorithm
1.3.4 Top-Down Design
1.4 Flowcharts
1.4.1 Basic Symbols used in Flowchart Design
1.5 Program and a Programming Language
1.6 Structured Programming Concepts
1.7 C Programming Language
1.7.1 History of C Programming Language
1.7.2 Salient Features of C
1.8 Writing a C Program
1.9 Compiling a C Program
1.9.1 The C Compiler
1.9.2 Syntax and Semantic Errors
1.10 Link and Run the C Program
1.10.1 Run the C Program through the Menu
1.10.2 Run from an Executable File
1.10.3 Linker Errors
1.10.4 Logical and Runtime Errors
1.11 Diagrammatic Representation ofC Program Execution Process
1.12 Summary
1.13 Solutions / Answers
1.14 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life, we routinely encounter and solve problems. We pose
problems that we need or want to solve. For this, we make use of available
resources, and solve them. Some categories of resources include: the time and 5
An Introduction to C efforts of yours and others; tools; information; and money. Some of the
problems that you encounter and solve are quite simple.But some others may
be very complex.
In this unit we introduce you to the concepts of problem-solving, especially as
they pertain to computer programming.
The problem-solving is a skill and there are no universal approaches one can
take to solving problems. Basically one must explore possible avenues to a
solution one by one until s/he comes across a right path to a solution. In
general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one develops one’s own
techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible. Problem-solving
skills are recognized as an integral component of computer programming. It is
a demand and intricate process which is equally important throughout the
project life cycle especially – study, designing, development, testing and
implementation stages. The computer problem solving process requires:
 Problem anticipation
 Careful planning
 Proper thought process
 Logical precision
 Problem analysis
 Persistence and attention.

At the same time it requires personal creativity, analytic ability and expression.
The chances of success are amplified when the problem solving is approached
in a systematic way and satisfaction is achieved once the problem is
satisfactorily solved. The problems should be anticipated in advance as far as
possible and properly defined to help the algorithm definition and development
process.
Computer is a very powerful tool for solving problems. It is a symbol-
manipulating machine that follows a set of stored instructions called a
program. It performs these manipulations very quickly and has memory for
storing input, lists of commands and output. A computer cannot think in the
way we associate with humans. When using the computer to solve a problem,
you must specify the needed initial data, the operations which need to be
performed (in order of performance) and what results you want for output. If
any of these instructions are missing, you will get either no results or invalid
results. In either case, your problem has not yet been solved. Therefore, several
steps need to be considered before writing a program. These steps may free
you from hours of finding and removing errors in your program (a process
called debugging). It should also make the act of problem solving with a
computer a much simpler task.
All types of computer programs are collectively referred to as software.
Programming languages are also part of it. Physical computer equipment such
as electronic circuitry, input/output devices, storage media etc. comes under
hardware. Software governs the functioning of hardware. Operations
6 performed by software may be built into the hardware, while instructions
executed by the hardware may be generated in software. The decision to Programming
Fundamentals
incorporate certain functions in the hardware and others in the software is
made by the manufacturer and designer of the software and hardware. Normal
considerations for this are: cost, speed, memory required, adaptability and
reliability of the system. Set of instructions of the high level language used to
code a problem to find its solution is referred to as Source Program. A
translator program called a compiler or interpreter, translates the source
program into the object program. This is the compilation or interpretation
phase. All the testing of the source program as regards the correct format of
instructions is performed at this stage and the errors, if any, are printed. If there
is no error, the source program is transformed into the machine language
program called Object Program. The Object Program is executed to perform
calculations. This stage is the execution phase. Data, if required by the
program, are supplied now and the results are obtained on the output device.
The complete process is shown in fig 1.1 below:

Source Compiler / Object Data,

Program Interpreter Program if
required

Results

Fig 1.1: Conversion of Source Program to Object Program

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 apply problem solving techniques;
 define an algorithm and its features;
 design flowcharts;
 Define a program;
 Understand the history of C programming language;
 Compile a C program;
 Identify the syntax errors;
 Run a C program; and
 Understand what are run time and logical errors.

1.2 PROBLEM - SOLVING TECHNIQUES

Problem solving is a creative process which defines systematization and
mechanization. There are a number of steps that can be taken to raise the level
of one’s performance in problem solving.
7
An Introduction to C 1.2.1 Steps for Problem - Solving
A problem-solving technique follows certain steps in finding the solution to a
problem. Let us look into the steps one by one:
Problem definition phase
The success in solving any problem is possible only after the problem has been
fully understood. That is, we cannot hope to solve a problem, which we do not
understand. So, the problem understanding is the first step towards the solution
of the problem. In problem definition phase, we must emphasize what must be
done rather than how is it to be done. That is, we try to extract the precisely
defined set of tasks from the problem statement. Inexperienced problem
solvers too often gallop ahead with the task of problem - solving only to find
that they are either solving the wrong problem or solving just one particular
problem.
Getting started on a problem

There are many ways of solving a problem and there may be several solutions.
So, it is difficult to recognize immediately which path could be more
productive. Sometimes you do not have any idea where to begin solving a
problem, even if the problem has been defined. Such block sometimes occurs
because you are overly concerned with the details of the implementation even
before you have completely understood or worked out a solution. The best
advice is not to get concerned with the details. Those can come later when the
intricacies of the problem has been understood.
The use of specific examples
To get started on a problem, we can make use of heuristics i.e., the rule of
thumb. This approach will allow us to start on the problem by picking a
specific problem we wish to solve and try to work out the mechanism that will
allow solving this particular problem. It is usually much easier to work out the
details of a solution to a specific problem because the relationship between the
mechanism and the problem is more clearly defined. This approach of focusing
on a particular problem can give us the foothold we need for making a start on
the solution to the general problem.
Similarities among problems
One way to make a start is by considering a specific example. Another
approach is to bring the experience to bear on the current problem. So, it is
important to see if there are any similarities between the current problem and
the past problems which we have solved. The more experience one has the
more tools and techniques one can bring to bear in tackling the given problem.
But sometimes, it blocks us from discovering a desirable or better solution to
the problem. A skill that is important to try to develop in problem - solving is
the ability to view a problem from a variety of angles. One must be able to
metaphorically turn a problem upside down, inside out, sideways, backwards,
forwards and so on. Once one has developed this skill it should be possible to
get started on any problem.
8
Working backwards from the solution Programming
Fundamentals
In some cases we can assume that we already have the solution to the problem
and then try to work backwards to the starting point. Even a guess at the
solution to the problem may be enough to give us a foothold to start on the
problem. We can systematize the investigations and avoid duplicate efforts by
writing down the various steps taken and explorations made. Another practice
that helps to develop the problem solving skills is, once we have solved a
problem, to consciously reflect back on the way we went about discovering the
solution.

1.2.2 Using Computer as a Problem - Solving Tool

The computer is a resource - a versatile tool - that can help you solve some of
the problems that you encounter. A computer is a very powerful general-
purpose tool. Computers can solve or help to solve many types of problems.
There are also many ways in which a computer can enhance the effectiveness
of the time and effort that you are willing to devote to solving a problem. Thus,
it will prove to be well worth the time and effort you spend to learn how to
make effective use of this tool.
In this section, we discuss the steps involved in developing a program.
Program development is a multi-step process that requires you to understand
the problem, develop a solution, write the program, and then test it. This
critical process determines the overall quality and success of your program. If
you carefully design each program using good structured development
techniques, your programs will be efficient, error-free, and easy to maintain.
The following are the steps in detail:
1. Develop an Algorithm and a Flowchart.
2. Write the program in a computer language (for example say C
programming language).
3. Enter the program using some editor.
4. Test and debug the program.
5. Run the program, input data, and get the results.

1.3 BASICS OF ALGORITHMS

The first step in the program development is to devise and describe a precise
plan of what you want the computer to do. This plan, expressed as a sequence
of operations, is called an algorithm. An algorithm is just an outline or idea
behind a program something resembling C or Pascal, but with some statements
in English rather than within the programming language. It is expected that one
could translate each pseudo-code statement to a small number of lines of actual
code, easily and mechanically.

9
An Introduction to C 1.3.1 Definition
An algorithm is a finite set of steps defining the solution of a particular
problem. An algorithm is expressed in pseudocode - something resembling C
language or Pascal, but with some statements in English rather than within the
programming language. Developing an efficient algorithm requires lot of
practice and skill. It must be noted that an efficient algorithm is one which is
capable of giving the solution to the problem by using minimum resources of
the system such as memory and processor’s time. Algorithm is a language
independent, well structured and detailed. It will enable the programmer to
translate into a computer program using any high-level language.

1.3.2 Features of Algorithm

Following features should be present in an algorithm:
Proper understanding of the problem
For designing an efficient algorithm, the expectations from the algorithm
should be clearly defined so that the person developing the algorithm can
understand the expectations from it. This is normally the outcome of the
problem definition phase.
Use of procedures / functions to emphasize modularity
To assist the development, implementation and readability of the program, it is
usually helpful to modularize (section) the program. Independent functions
perform specific and well defined tasks. In applying modularization, it is
important to watch that the process is not taken so far to a point at which the
implementation becomes difficult to read because of fragmentation. The
program then can be implemented as calls to the various procedures that will
be needed in the final implementations.

Choice of variable names

Proper variable names and constant names can make the program more
meaningful and easier to understand. This practice tends to make the program
more self documenting. A clear definition of all variables and constants at the
start of the procedure / algorithm can also be helpful. For example, it is better
to use variable day for the day of the weeks, instead of the variable a or
something else.
Documentation of the program
Brief information about the segment of the code can be included in the
program to facilitate debugging and providing information. A related part of
the documentation is the information that the programmer presents to the user
during the execution of the program. Since, the program is often to be used by
persons who are unfamiliar with the working and input requirements of the
program, proper documentation must be provided. That is, the program must
specify what responses are required from the user. Care should also be taken to
avoid ambiguities in these specifications. Also the program should “catch”
10
incorrect responses to its requests and inform the user in an appropriate Programming
Fundamentals
manner.

1.3.3 Criteria to be followed by an Algorithm

The following is the criteria to be followed by an algorithm:
 Input: There should be zero or more values which are to be supplied.
 Output: At least one result is to be produced.
 Definiteness: Each step must be clear and unambiguous.
 Finiteness: If we trace the steps of an algorithm, then for all cases, the
algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps.
 Effectiveness: Each step must be sufficiently basic that a person using
only paper and pencil can in principle carry it out. In addition, not only
each step is definite, it must also be feasible.

Example 1.1
Let us try to develop an algorithm to compute and display the sum of two
numbers
1. Start
2. Read two numbers a and b
3. Calculate the sum of a and b and store it in sum
4. Display the value of sum
5. Stop

Example 1.2
Let us try to develop an algorithm to compute and print the average of a set of
data values.
1. Start
2. Set the sum of the data values and the count to zero.
3. As long as the data values exist, add the next data value to the sum and
add 1 to the count.
4. To compute the average, divide the sum by the count.
5. Display the average.
6. Stop
Example 1.3
Write an algorithm to calculate the factorial of a given number.
1. Start
2. Read the number n
3. [Initialize]
i 1 , fact  1
4. Repeat steps 4 through 6 until i = n
11
An Introduction to C 5. fact  fact * i
6. i  i + 1
7. Print fact
8. Stop

Example 1.4
Write an algorithm to check that whether the given number is prime or not.
1. Start
2. Read the number num
3. [Initialize]
i 2 , flag  1
4. Repeat steps 4 through 6 until i < num or flag = 0
5. rem  num mod i
6. if rem = 0 then
flag 0
else
i i + 1
7. if flag = 0 then
Print Number is not prime
Else
Print Number is prime
8. Stop

1.3.4 Top Down Design

Once we have defined the problem and have an idea of how to solve it, we can
then use the powerful techniques for designing algorithms. Most of the
problems are complex or large problems and to solve them we have to focus on
to comprehend at one time, a very limited span of logic or instructions. A
technique for algorithm design that tries to accommodate this human limitation
is known as top-down design or stepwise refinement.
Top down design provides the way of handling the logical complexity and
detail encountered in computer algorithm. It allows building solutions to
problems in step by step. In this way, specific and complex details of the
implementation are encountered only at the stage when sufficient groundwork
on the overall structure and relationships among the various parts of the
problem.Before the top down design can be applied to any problem, we must at
least have the outlines of a solution. Sometimes this might demand a lengthy
and creative investigation into the problem while at another time the problem
description may in itself provide the necessary starting point for the top-down
design. Top-down design suggests taking the general statements about the
solution one at a time, and then breaking them down into a more precise
subtask / sub-problem. These sub-problems should more accurately describe
how the final goal can be reached. The process of repeatedly breaking a task
12
down into a subtask and then each subtask into smaller subtasks must continue
until the sub-problem can be implemented as the program statement. With each Programming
Fundamentals
spitting, it is essential to define how sub-problems interact with each other. In
this way, the overall structure of the solution to the problem can be maintained.
Preservation of the overall structure is important for making the algorithm
comprehensible and also for making it possible to prove the correctness of the
solution.

Figure 1.2: Schematic breakdown of a problem into subtasks as employed in

top down design

Let us see how to represent the algorithm in a graphical form using a flowchart
in the following section.

1.4 FLOWCHARTS
The next step after the algorithm development is the flowcharting. Flowcharts
are used in programming to diagram the path in which information is
processed through a computer to obtain the desired results. Flowchart is a
graphical representation of an algorithm. It makes use of symbols which are
connected among them to indicate the flow of information and processing. It
will show the general outline of how to solve a problem or perform a task. It is
prepared for better understanding of the algorithm.

13
An Introduction to C 1.4.1 Basic Symbols used in flowchart design

Start/Stop

DECISION MAKING
(Branching)

Input/
Output

Lines or arrows represent the direction of

the flow of control.

Connector (connect one part of the

flowchart to another)

Process, Instruction

Comments, Explanations, Definitions

Additional Symbols Related to more advanced programming

Preparation (may be used with “do Loops” )

Refers to separate flowchart

Example 1.5

The flowchart for the Example 1.1 is shown below:

Start

Read a,b

Sum = a +b

Print sum

14
Stop
 Programming
Fundamentals

Example 1.6

The flowchart for the Example 1.3 (to find factorial of a given number) is
shown low:
Start

Read n

i= 1
fact= 1

is i
<= n?
No

Yes
i = i+1

Print
fact = fact*i fact

Stop

Example 1.7:

The flowchart for Example 1.4 is shown below:

15
An Introduction to C

Start

Read num

i=2
flag = 1

no
is
i<num?

yes

no
is
flag = 0?

yes

rem =
num mod i

no
is rem
!= 0?

yes

i=i+1 flag = 0

no
Print is flag
“number is = 1?
not prime”

yes

Print
“Number
stop is prime

16
Check Your Progress 1 Programming
Fundamentals

1. Differentiate between flowchart and algorithm.

……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
2. Compute and print the sum of a set of data values.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
3. Write the following steps are suggested to facilitate the problem solving process
using computer.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
4. Draw an algorithm and flowchart to calculate the roots of quadratic equation
Ax^2 + Bx + C = 0.
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...

1.5 PROGRAM AND PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE
A language is a mode of communication between two people. It is necessary
for those two people to understand the language in order to communicate. But
even if the two people do not understand the same language, a translator can
help to convert one language to the other, understood by the second person.
Similar to a translator is the mode of communication between a user and a
computer is a computer language. One form of the computer language is
understood by the user, while in the other form it is understood by the 17
An Introduction to C computer. A translator (or compiler) is needed to convert from user’s form to
computer’s form. Like other languages, a computer language also follows a
particular grammar known as the syntax.
In this unit we will introduce you the basics of programming language C.

We have seen in the earlier section’s that a computer has to be fed with a
detailed set of instructions and data for solving a problem. Such a procedure
which we call an algorithm is a series of steps arranged in a logical sequence.
Also we have seen that a flowchart is a pictorial representation of a sequence
of instructions given to the computer. It also serves as a document explaining
the procedure used to solve a problem. In practice it is necessary to express an
algorithm using a programming language. A procedure expressed in a
programming language is known as a computer program.

Computer programming languages are developed with the primary objective of

facilitating a large number of people to use computers without the need for
them to know in detail the internal structure of the computer. Languages are
designed to be machine-independent. Most of the programming languages
ideally designed, to execute a program on any computer regardless of who
manufactured it or what model it is.
Programming languages can be divided into two categories:
i) Low Level Languages or Machine Oriented Languages: The language
whose design is governed by the circuitry and the structure of the machine
is known as the Machine language. This language is difficult to learn and
use. It is specific to a given computer and is different for different
computers i.e. these languages are machine-dependent. These languages
have been designed to give a better machine efficiency, i.e. faster program
execution. Such languages are also known as Low Level Languages.
Another type of Low-Level Language is the Assembly Language. We will
code the assembly language program in the form of mnemonics. Every
machine provides a different set of mnemonics to be used for that machine
only depending upon the processor that the machine is using.

ii) High Level Languages or Problem Oriented Languages: These

languages are particularly oriented towards describing the procedures for
solving the problem in a concise, precise and unambiguous manner. Every
high level language follows a precise set of rules. They are developed to
allow application programs to be run on a variety of computers. These
languages are machine-independent. Languages falling in this category are
FORTRAN, BASIC, PASCAL etc. They are easy to learn and programs
may be written in these languages with much less effort. However, the
computer cannot understand them and they need to be translated into
machine language with the help of other programs known as Compilers or
Translators.

18
 Programming
1.6 C PROGRAMMINGLANGUAGE Fundamentals

Prior to writing C programs, it would be interesting to find out what really is C

language, how it came into existence and where does it stand with respect to
other computer languages. We will briefly outline these issues in the following
section.

1.6.1 History of C Programming Language

C is a programming language developed at AT&T’s Bell Laboratory of USA

in 1972. It was designed and written by Dennis Ritchie. As compared to other
programming languages such as Pascal, C allows a precise control of input and
output.
Now let us see its historical development. The late 1960s were a turbulent era
for computer systems research at Bell Telephone Laboratories. By 1960, many
programming languages came into existence, almost each for a specific
purpose. For example COBOL was being used for Commercial or Business
Applications, FORTRAN for Scientific Applications and so on. So, people
started thinking why could not there be a one general purpose language.
Therefore, an International Committee was set up to develop such a language,
which came out with the invention of ALGOL60. But this language never
became popular because it was too abstract and too general. To improve this, a
new language called Combined Programming Language (CPL) was developed
at CambridgeUniversity. But this language was very complex in the sense that
it had too many features and it was very difficult to learn. Martin Richards at
CambridgeUniversity reduced the features of CPL and developed a new
language called Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL). But
unfortunately it turned out to be much less powerful and too specific. Ken
Thompson at AT & T’s Bell Labs, developed a language called B at the same
time as a further simplification of CPL. But like BCPL this was also too
specific. Ritchie inherited the features of B and BCPL and added some features
on his own and developed a language called C. C proved to be quite compact
and coherent. Ritchie first implemented C on a DEC PDP-11 that used the
UNIX Operating System.
For many years the de facto standard for C was the version supplied with the
UNIX version 5 operating system. The growing popularity of microcomputers
led to the creation of large number of C implementations. At the source code
level most of these implementations were highly compatible. However, since
no standard existed there were discrepancies. To overcome this situation,
ANSI established a committee in 1983 that defined an ANSI standard for the C
language.
1.6.2 Salient features of C

C is a general purpose, structured programming language. Among the two

types of programming languages discussed earlier, C lies in between these two
categories. That’s why it is often called a middle level language. It means that
it combines the elements of high level languages with the functionality of 19
An Introduction to C assembly language. It provides relatively good programming efficiency (as
compared to machine oriented language) and relatively good machine
efficiency as compared to high level languages). As a middle level language, C
allows the manipulation of bits, bytes and addresses – the basic elements with
which the computer executes the inbuilt and memory management functions. C
code is very portable, that it allows the same C program to be run on machines
with different hardware configurations. The flexibility of C allows it to be used
for systems programming as well as for application programming.

C is commonly called a structured language because of structural similarities to

ALGOL and Pascal. The distinguishing feature of a structured language is
compartmentalization of code and data. Structured language is one that divides
the entire program into modules using top-down approach where each module
executes one job or task. It is easy for debugging, testing, and maintenance if a
language is a structured one. C supports several control structures such as
while, do-while and for and various data structures such as strucs, files,
arrays etc. as would be seen in the later units. The basic unit of a C program is
a function - C’s standalone subroutine. The structural component of C makes
the programming and maintenance easier.
Check Your Progress 2
1. “A Program written in Low Level Language is faster.” Why?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
2. What is the difference between high level language and low level
language?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
3. Why is C referred to as middle level language?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...

20 ……………………………………………………………………………………...
 Programming
1.7 STRUCTURE OF A C PROGRAM Fundamentals

As we have already seen, to solve a problem there are three main things to be
considered. Firstly, what should be the output? Secondly, what should be the
inputs that will be required to produce this output and thirdly, the steps of
instructions which use these inputs to produce the required output. As stated
earlier, every programming language follows a set of rules; therefore, a
program written in C also follows predefined rules known as syntax. C is a
case sensitivelanguage. All C programs consist of one or more functions. One
function that must be present in every C program is main(). This is the first
function called up when the program execution begins. Basically, main()
outlines what a program does. Although main is not given in the keyword
list,it cannot be used for naming a variable. The structure of a C program is
illustrated in Figure.1.3 where functions func1() through funcn() represent user
defined functions.

Preprocessor directives
Global data declarations
main ( ) /* main function*/
{
Declaration part;
Program statements;
}

/*User defined functions*/

func1( )
{
…………
}

func2 ( )
{
…………
}
.
funcn ( )
{
…………
}
Figure. 1.3: Structure of a C Program.

A Simple C Program
From the above sections, you have become familiar with, a programming
language and structure of a C program. It’s now time to write a simple C
program. This program will illustrate how to print out the message “This is a C
program”.
Example 1.8: Write a program to print a message on the screen.
/*Program to print a message*/

#include<stdio.h> /* header file*/ 21

An Introduction to C main() /* main function*/
{
printf("This is a C program\n"); /* output statement*/
}

Though the program is very simple, a few points must be noted.

Every C program contains a function called main(). This is the starting point
of the program. This is the point from where the execution begins. It will
usually call other functions to help perform its job, some that we write and
others from the standard libraries provided.
#include <stdio.h> is a reference to a special file called stdio.h which contains
information that must be included in the program when it is compiled. The
inclusion of this required information will be handled automatically by the
compiler. You will find it at the beginning of almost every C program.
Basically, all the statements starting with # in a C program are called
preprocessor directives. These will be considered in the later units. Just
remember, that this statement allows you to use some predefined functions
such as, printf(), in this case.
main() declares the start of the function, while the two curly brackets { }
shows the start and finish of the function. Curly brackets in C are used to group
statements together as a function, or in the body of a loop. Such a grouping is
known as a compound statement or a block. Every statement within a function
ends with a terminator semicolon (;).
printf(“This is a C program\n”); prints the words on the screen. The text to
be printed is enclosed in double quotes. The \n at the end of the text tells the
program to print a newline as part of the output. That means now if we give a
second printf statement, it will be printed in the next line.
Comments may appear anywhere within a program, as long as they are placed
within the delimiters /* and */. Such comments are helpful in identifying the
program’s principal features or in explaining the underlying logic of various
program features.
While useful for teaching, such a simple program has few practical uses. Let us
consider something rather more practical. Let us look into the example given
below, the complete program development life cycle.
Example 1.9
Develop an algorithm, flowchart and program to add two numbers.
Algorithm
1. Start
2. Input the two numbers a and b
3. Calculate the sum as a+b
4. Store the result in sum
5. Display the result
6. Stop.
22
Flowchart Programming
Fundamentals

START

INPUT
a, b

Sum = a + b

PRINT
Sum

STOP

Figure 1.4: Flow chart to add two numbers

Program

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
int a,b,sum; /* variables declaration*/

printf(“\n Enter the values for a and b: \n”);

scanf(“%d, %d”, &a, &b);

sum=a+b;

printf("\nThe sum is %d",sum); /*output statement*/

}

OUTPUT

Enter the values of a and b:

23
The sum is 5

In the above program considers two variables a and b. These variables are
declared as integers (int), it is the data type to indicate integer values. Next
statement is the printf statement meant for prompting the user to input the
values of aand b. scanf is the function to intake the values into the program
provided by the user. Next comes the processing / computing part which
computes the sum. Again the printf statement is a bit different from the first
program; it includes a format specifier (%d). The format specifier indicates the 23
An Introduction to C kind of value to be printed. We will study about other data types and format
specifiers in detail in the following units. In the printf statement above, sum is
not printed in double quotes because we want its value to be printed. The
number of format specifiers and the variable should match in the printf
statement.
At this stage, don’t go much in detail. However, in the following units you will
be learning all these details.

1.8 WRITING A C PROGRAM

A C program can be executed on platforms such as DOS, UNIX etc. DOS
stores C program with a file extension .c. Program text can be entered using
any text editor such as EDIT or any other. To edit a file called testprog.c using
edit editor, gives:
C:> edittestprog.c
If you are using Turbo C, then Turbo C provides its own editor which can be
used for writing the program. Just give the full pathname of the executable file
of Turbo C and you will get the editor in front of you. For example:
C:> turboc\bin\tc
Here, tc.exe is stored in bin subdirectory of turboc directory. After you get the
menu just type the program and store it in a file using the menu provided. The
file automatically gets the extension of .c.
UNIX also stores C program in a file with extension is .c. This identifies it as
a C program. The easiest way to enter your text is using a text editor like vi,
emacs or xedit. To edit a file called testprog.c using vi,
$ vi testprog.c
The editor is also used to make subsequent changes to the program

1.9 COMPILING A C PROGRAM

After you have written the program the next step is to save the program in a
file with extension . c . This program is in high-level language. But this
language is not understood by the computer. So, the next step is to convert the
high-level language program (source code) to machine language (object code).
This task is performed by a software or program known as a compiler. Every
language has its own compiler that converts the source code to object code.
The compiler will compile the program successfully if the program is
syntactically correct; else the object code will not be produced. This is
explained pictorially in Figure 1.5.

High Level Machine

Translator Language
Language (Compiler)
                  Source                                                                      Program
 Object 
Program
                    Code                                                                          Code 
Figure 1.5: Process of Translation
24
1.9.1 The C Compiler Programming
Fundamentals
If you are working on UNIX platform, then if the name of the program file is
testprog.c, to compile it, the simplest method is to type
cc testprog.c
This will compile testprog.c, and, if successful, will produce a executable file
called a.out. If you want to give the executable file any other, you can type
cc testprog.c -o testprog
This will compile testprog.c, creating an executable file testprog.
If you are working with TurboC on DOS platform then the option for
compilation is provided on the menu. If the program is syntactically correct
then this will produce a file named as testprog.obj. If not, then the syntax
errors will be displayed on the screen and the object file will not be produced.
The errors need to be removed before compiling the program again. This
process of removing the errors from the program is called as the debugging.

1.9.2 Syntax and Semantic Errors

Every language has an associated grammar, and the program written in that
language has to follow the rules of that grammar. For example in English a
sentence such a “Shyam, is playing, with a ball”. This sentence is
syntactically incorrect because commas should not come the way they are in
the sentence.
Likewise, C also follows certain syntax rules. When a C program is compiled,
the compiler will check that the program is syntactically correct. If there are
any syntax errors in the program, those will be displayed on the screen with the
corresponding line numbers.Let us consider the following program.
Example 1.10: Write a program to print a message on the screen.

/* Program to print a message on the screen*/

#include <stdio.h
main( )
{
printf(“Hello, how are you\n”)

Let the name of the program be test.c .If we compile the above program as it is
we will get the following errors:
Error test.c 1:No file name ending
Error test.c 5: Statement missing ;
Error test.c 6: Compound statement missing }
Edit the program again, correct the errors mentioned and the corrected version
appears as follows:
#include <stdio.h>
main( )
{ 25
An Introduction to C printf (“Hello, how are you\n”);
}

Apart from syntax errors, another type of errors that are shown while
compilation are semantic errors. These errors are displayed as warnings. These
errors are shown if a particular statement has no meaning. The program does
compile with these errors, but it is always advised to correct them also, since
they may create problems while execution. The example of such an error is
that say you have declared a variable but have not used it, and then you get a
warning “code has no effect”. These variables are unnecessarily occupying the
memory.
Check Your Progress 3
1. What is the basic unit of a C program?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...

2. “The program is syntactically correct”. What does it mean?

……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...

3. Indicate the syntax errors in the following program code:

include <stdio.h>
main( )
[
printf(“hello\n”);
]
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………..

1.10 LINK AND RUN THE C PROGRAM

After compilation, the next step is linking the program. Compilation produces
26 a file with an extension .obj. Now this .obj file cannot be executed since it
contains calls to functions defined in the standard library (header files) of C Programming
Fundamentals
language. These functions have to be linked with the code you wrote. C comes
with a standard library that provides functions that perform most commonly
needed tasks. When you call a function that is not the part of the program you
wrote, C remembers its name. Later the linker combines the code you wrote
with the object code already found in the standard library. This process is
called linking. In other words, Linker is a program that links separately
compiled functions together into one program. It combines the functions in the
standard C library with the code that you wrote. The output of the linker in an
executable program i.e., a file with an extension .exe.

1.10.1 Run the C Program Through the Menu

When we are working with TurboC in DOS environment, the menu in the GUI
that pops up when we execute the executable file of TurboC contains several
options for executing the program:
i) Link , after compiling
ii) Make, compiles as well as links
iii) Run

All these options create an executable file and when these options are used we
also get the output on user screen. To see the output we have to shift to user
screen window.

1.10.2 Run From an Executable File

An .exe file produced by can be directly executed.

UNIX also includes a very useful program called make. Make allows very
complicated programs to be compiled quickly, by reference to a configuration
file (usually called makefile). If your C program is a single file, you can
usually use make by simply typing –
make testprog
This will compile testprog.c as well as link your program with the standard
library so that you can use the standard library functions such as printf and put
the executable code in testprog.

In case of DOS environment , the options provided above produce an

executable file and this file can be directly executed from the DOS prompt just
by typing its name without the extension. That is if the name of the program is
test.c, after compiling and linking the new file produced is test.exe only if
compilation and linking is successful.
This can be executed as:
c>test
1.10.3 Linker Errors
If a program contains syntax errors then the program does not compile, but it
may happen that the program compiles successfully but we are unable to get
the executable file, this happens when there are certain linker errors in the 27
An Introduction to C program. For example, the object code of certain standard library function is
not present in the standard C library; the definition for this function is present
in the header file that is why we do not get a compiler error. Such kinds of
errors are called linker errors. The executable file would be created
successfully only if these linker errors are corrected.

1.10.4 Logical and Runtime Errors

After the program is compiled and linked successfully we execute the program.
Now there are three possibilities:
1) The program executes and we get correct results,
2) The program executes and we get wrong results, and
3) The program does not execute completely and aborts in between.

The first case simply means that the program is correct. In the second case, we
get wrong results; it means that there is some logical mistake in our program.
This kind of error is known as logical error. This error is the most difficult to
correct. This error is corrected by debugging. Debugging is the process of
removing the errors from the program. This means manually checking the
program step by step and verifying the results at each step. Debugging can be
made easier by a tracer provided in Turbo C environment. Suppose we have to
find the average of three numbers and we write the following code:
Example 1.11:Write a C program to compute the average of three
numbers
/* Program to compute average of three numbers *?
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int a,b,c,sum,avg;
a=10;
b=5;
c=20;
sum = a+b+c;
avg = sum / 3;
printf(“The average is %d\n”, avg);
}
OUTPUT
The average is 8.

The exact value of average is 8.33 and the output we got is 8. So we are not
getting the actual result, but a rounded off result. This is due to the logical
error. We have declared variable avgas an integer but the average calculated is
a real number, therefore only the integer part is stored in avg. Such kinds of
errors which are not detected by the compiler or the linker are known as
logical errors.
The third kind of error is only detected during execution. Such errors are
known as run time errors. These errors do not produce the result at all, the
program execution stops in between and the run time error message is flashed
28 on the screen. Let us look at the following example:
Example 1.12: Write a program to divide a sum of two numbers by their Programming
Fundamentals
difference

/* Program to divide a sum of two numbers by their difference*/

#include <stdio.h>

main( )
{

int a,b;
float c;

a=10;
b=10;

c = (a+b) / (a-b);
printf(“The value of the result is %f\n”,c);
}

The above program will compile and link successfully, it will execute till the
first printf statement and we will get the message in this statement, as soon as
the next statement is executed we get a runtime error of “Divide by zero” and
the program halts. Such kinds of errors are runtime errors.

1.11 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF C

PROGRAM EXECUTION PROCESS
The following figure 1.6 shows the diagrammatic representation of the
program execution process.

WRITE A C PROGRAM

COMPILE THE PROGRAM

DEBUG SYNTAX
ERRORS (IF ANY), SAVE
AND RECOMPILE

LINK THE PROGRAM

EXECUTE THE POGRAM

TEST AND VERIFY THE

RESULTS

Figure 1.6: Program Execution Process

29
An Introduction to C Check Your Progress 4
1. What is the extension of an executable file?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
2. What is the need for linking a compiled file?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
3. How do you correct the logical errors in the program?
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………...

1.12 SUMMARY
To solve a problem different problem - solving tools are available that help in
finding the solution to problem in an efficient and systematic way. Steps
should be followed to solve the problem that includes writing the algorithm
and drawing the flowchart for the solution to the stated problem. Top down
design provides the way of handling the logical complexity and detail
encountered in computer algorithm. It allows building solutions to problems in
a stepwise fashion. In this way, specific and complex details of the
implementation are encountered only at the stage when sufficient groundwork
on the overall structure and relationships among the carious parts of the
problem. We present C language - a standardized, industrial-strength
programming language known for its power and portability as an
implementation vehicle for these problem solving techniques using computer.
In this unit, you have learnt about a program and a programming language.
You can now differentiate between high level and low level languages. You
can now define what is C, features of C. You have studied the emergence of C.
You have seen how C is different, being a middle level Language, than other
High Level languages. The advantage of high level language over low level
language is discussed.
30
You have seen how you can convert an algorithm and flowchart into a C Programming
Fundamentals
program. We have discussed the process of writing and storing a C program in
a file in case of UNIX as well as DOS environment.
You have learnt about compiling and running a C program in UNIX as well as
on DOS environment. We have also discussed about the different types of
errors that are encountered during the whole process, i.e. syntax errors,
semantic errors, logical errors, linker errors and runtime errors. You have also
learnt how to remove these errors. You can now write simple C programs
involving simple arithmetic operators and the printf( ) statement. With these
basics, now we are ready to learn the C language in detail in the following
units.

1.13 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. The process to devise and describe a precise plan (in the form of sequence
of operations) of what you want the computer to do, is called an
algorithm. An algorithm may be symbolized in a flowchart or
pseudocode.
2. 1. Start
2. Set the sum of the data values and the count of the data values to zero.
3. As long as the data values exist, add the next data value to the sum
and add 1 to the count.
4. Display the average.
5. Stop
3. The following steps are suggested to facilitate the problem solving process:
a) Define the problem
b) Formulate a mathematical model
c) Develop an algorithm
d) Design the flowchart
e) Code the same using some computer language
f) Test the program
Check Your Progress 2
1. A program written in Low Level Language is faster to execute since it
needs no conversion while a high level language program need to be
converted into low level language.
2. Low level languages express algorithms on the form of numeric or
mnemonic codes while High Level Languages express algorithms in the
using concise, precise and unambiguous notation. Low level languages are
machine dependent while High level languages are machine independent.
Low level languages are difficult to program and to learn, while High
31
An Introduction to C level languages are easy to program and learn. Examples of High level
languages are FORTRAN, Pascal and examples of Low level languages
are machine language and assembly language.
3. C is referred to as middle level language as with C we are able to
manipulate bits, bytes and addresses i.e. interact with the hardware
directly. We are also able to carry out memory management functions.
Check Your Progress 3
1. The basic unit of a C program is a C function.
2. It means that program contains no grammatical or syntax errors.
3. Syntax errors:
a) # not present with include
b) {brackets should be present instead of [ brackets.
Check Your Progress 4
1. The extension of an executable file is .exe.
2. The C program contains many C pre-defined functions present in the C
library. These functions need to be linked with the C program for
execution; else the C program may give a linker error indicating that the
function is not present.
3. Logical errors can be corrected through debugging or self checking.

1.14 FURTHER READINGS

1. How to solve it by Computer, 5th Edition, R G Dromey, PHI, 1992.

2. Introduction to Computer Algorithms, Second Edition, Thomas H. Cormen, MIT
press, 2001.
3. Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition, Donald E Knuth, Addison-Wesley,
1997.
4. C Programming Language, Kernighan & Richie, PHI Publication.
5. Programming with C, Second Edition, Byron Gottfried, Tata Mc Graw Hill,
2003.
6. The C Complete Reference, Fourth Editon, Herbert Schildt, Tata Mc Graw Hill,
2002.
7. Programming with ANSI and Turbo C, Ashok N. Kamthane, Pearson Education
Asia, 2002.
8. Computer Science A Structured Programming Approach Using C, Second
Edition, Behrouza A. Forouzan, Richard F. Gilberg, Brooks/Cole, Thomson
Learning, 2001. 

32
 Data Types,
UNIT 2 DATA TYPES, OPERATORS AND Operators and
Expressions
EXPRESSIONS

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 C Language Character Set
2.3 Identifiers and Keywords
2.3.1 Rules for Forming Identifiers
2.3.2 Keywords
2.4 Data Types and Storage
2.5 Data Type Qualifiers
2.6 Variables
2.7 Declaring Variables
2.8 Initializing Variables
2.9 Constants
2.9.1 Integer Constants
2.9.2 Floating Point Constants
2.9.3 Character Constants
2.9.4 String Constants
2.10 Symbolic Constants and Others
2.11 Expressions and Operators – An Introduction
2.12 Assignment Statements
2.13 Arithmetic Operators
2.14 Relational Operators
2.15 Logical Operators
2.16 Comma and Conditional Operators
2.17 Type Cast Operator
2.18 Size of Operator
2.19 C Shorthand
2.20 Priority of Operators
2.21 Summary
2.22 Solutions / Answers
2.23 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION
As every natural language has a basic character set, computer languages also
have a character set, rules to define words. Words are used to form
statements. These in turn are used to write the programs.
Computer programs usually work with different types of data and need a way
to store the values being used. These values can be numbers or characters. C 33
An Introduction to C language has two ways of storing number values—variables and
constants—with many options for each. Constants and variables are the
fundamental elements of each program. Simply speaking, a program is
nothing else than defining them and manipulating them.

A variable is a data storage location that has a value that can change during
program execution. In contrast, a constant has a fixed value that can’t change.
This unit is concerned with the basic elements used to construct simple C
program statements. These elements include the C character set, identifiers
and keywords, data types, constants, variables and arrays, declaration and
naming conventions of variables.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 define identifiers, data types and keywords in C;
 know name the identifiers as per the conventions;
 describe memory requirements for different types of variables;
 define constants, symbolic constants and their use in programs.write and
evaluate arithmetic expressions;
 express and evaluate relational expressions;
 write and evaluate logical expressions;
 write and solve compute complex expressions (containing arithmetic, relational
and logical operators), and
 use simple conditions using conditional operators.

2.2 C LANGUAGE CHARACTER SET

When you write a program, you express C source files as text lines
containing characters from the character set. When a program executes in the
target environment, it uses characters from the character set. These character
sets are related, but need not have the same encoding or all the same
members.
Every character set contains a distinct code value for each character in the
basic C character set. A character set can also contain additional characters
with other code values. The C language character set has alphabets, numbers,
and special characters as shown below:
1. Alphabets including both lowercase and uppercase alphabets - A-Z and
a-z.
2. Numbers 0-9
3. Special characters include:
; : { , ‘ “ |
} > < / \ ~ _
[ ] ! $ ? * +
= ( ) - % # ^ @ & .

34
 Data Types,
2.3 IDENTIFIERS AND KEYWORDS Operators and
Expressions

Identifiers are the names given to various program elements such as

constants, variables, function names and arrays etc. Every element in the
program has its own distinct name but one cannot select any name unless it
conforms to valid name in C language. Let us study first the rules to define
names or identifiers.

2.3.1 Rules for Forming Identifiers

Identifiers are defined according to the following rules:
1. It consists of letters and digits.
2. First character must be an alphabet or underscore.
3. Both upper and lower cases are allowed. Same text of different case is not
equivalent, for example: TEXT is not same as text.
4. Except the special character underscore (_), no other special symbols can
be used.
For example, some valid identifiers are shown below:
Y
X123
_XI
temp
tax_rate

For example, some invalid identifiers are shown below:

123 First character to be alphabet
“X.” . not allowed
order-no Hyphen not allowed
error flag Blank space not allowed

2.3.2 Keywords
Keywords are reserved words which have standard, predefined meaning in C.
They cannot be used as program-defined identifiers.
The list of keywords in C language are as follows:
char while do typedef auto
int if else switch case
printf double struct break static
long enum register extern return
union const float short unsigned
continue for signed void default
goto sizeof volatile

Note: Generally all keywords are in lower case although uppercase of same
names can be used as identifiers.

35
An Introduction to C
2.4 DATA TYPES AND STORAGE
To store data inside the computer we need to first identify the type of data
elements we need in our program. There are several different types of data,
which may be represented differently within the computer memory. The data
type specifies two things:
1. Permissible range of values that it can store.
2. Memory requirement to store a data type.

C Language provides four basic data types viz. int, char, float and double.
Using these, we can store data in simple ways as single elements or we can
group them together and use different ways (to be discussed later) to store
them as per requirement. The four basic data types are described in the
following table 2.1:
Table 2.1: Basic Data Types
DATA TYPE TYPE OF DATA MEMORY RANGE
int Integer 2 Bytes  32,768 to 32,767
char character 1 Byte  128 to 128
float Floating point 4 bytes 3.4e  38 to 3.4e +38
number
double Floating point 8 bytes 1.7e  308 to 1.7e + 308
number with higher
precision

Memory requirements or size of data associated with a data type indicates the
range of numbers that can be stored in the data item of that type.

2.5 DATA TYPE QUALIFIERS

Short, long, signed, unsigned are called the data type qualifiers and can be
used with any data type. A short int requires less space than int and long int
may require more space than int. If int and short int takes 2 bytes, then long
int takes 4 bytes.
Unsigned bits use all bits for magnitude; therefore, this type of number can
be larger. For example signed int ranges from –32768 to +32767 and
unsigned int ranges from 0 to 65,535. Similarly, char data type of data is
used to store a character. It requires 1 byte. Signed char values range from –
128 to 127 and unsigned char value range from 0 to 255. These can be
summarized as follows:
Data type Size (bytes) Range
Short int or int 2 32768 to 32,767
Long int 4 2147483648 to 2147483647
Signed int 2 32768 to 32767
Unsigned int 2 0 to 65535
Signed char 1 128 to 127
Unsigned char 1 0 to 255

36
 Data Types,
2.6 VARIABLES Operators and
Expressions

Variable is an identifier whose value changes from time to time during

execution. It is a named data storage location in your computer’s memory. By
using a variable’s name in your program, you are, in effect, referring to the
data stored there. Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the
size and layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be
stored within that memory; and the set of operations that can be applied to
the variable. Note that a value must be assigned to the variables at some point
of time in the program which is termed as assignment statement. The variable
can then be accessed later in the program. If the variable is accessed before it
is assigned a value, it may give garbage value. The data type of a variable
doesn’t change whereas the value assigned to can change. All variables have
three essential attributes:
 the name
 the value
 the memory, where the value is stored.

2.7 DECLARING VARIABLES

Before any data can be stored in the memory, we must assign a name to these
locations of memory. For this we make declarations. Declaration associates a
group of identifiers with a specific data type. All of them need to be declared
before they appear in program statements, else accessing the variables results
in junk values or a diagnostic error. The syntax for declaring variables is as
follows:
data- type variable-name(s);

For example,
int a;
short int a, b;
int c, d;
long c, f;
float r1, r2;

2.8 INITIALISING VARIABLES

Variable initialization means assigning a value to the variable. Initial values
can be assigned to them in two ways:
a) Within a Type Declaration
The value is assigned at the declaration time.
For example,

int a = 10;
float b = 0.4 e –5;
char c = ‘a’;
37
An Introduction to C
b) Using Assignment Statement
The values are assigned just after the declarations are made.
For example,
int a;
float b;
char c;

a = 10;
b = 0.4 e –5;
c = ‘a’;

Check Your Progress 1

1) Identify keywords and valid identifiers among the following:
hello function day-of-the-week
student_1 max_value “what”
1_student int union
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2) Declare variables roll no, total_marks and percentage with appropriate
datatypes.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

3) How many byte(s) are assigned to store for the following?

a) Unsigned character b) Unsigned integer c) Double

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

2.9 CONSTANTS
A constant is an identifier whose value cannot be changed throughout the
execution of a program whereas the variable value keeps on changing. In C
there are four basic types of constants. They are:
1. Integer constants
38
2. Floating point constants Data Types,
Operators and
3. Character constants Expressions
4. String constants

Integer and Floating Point constants are numeric constants and represent
numbers.
Rules to form Integer and Floating Point Constants
 No comma or blankspace is allowed in a constant.
 It can be preceded by – (minus) sign if desired.
 The value should lie within a minimum and maximum permissible range
decided by the word size of the computer.

2.9.1 Integer Constants

Further, these constant can be classified according to the base of the numbers
as:
1. Decimal integer constants
These consist of digits 0 through 9 and first digit should not be 0.

For example,
1 443 32767
are valid decimal integer constants.

2. Invalid Decimal integer Constants

12 ,45 , not allowed
1 010 Blankspace not allowed
10 – 10 – not allowed
0900 The first digit should not be a zero

3. Octal integer constants

These consist of digits 0 through 7. The first digit must be zero in order to
identify the constant as an octal number.

Valid octal integer constants are:

0 01 0743 0777

Invalid octal integer constants are:

743 does not begin with 0
0438 illegal character 8
0777.77 illegal char

4. Hexadecimal integer constants

To specify a hexadecimal integer constant, start the hexadecimal
sequence with a 0 followed by the character X (or x ). Follow
the X or x with one or more hexadecimal characters (the digits 0 to 9 and
the upper or lowercase letters A to F). The value of a hexadecimal
constant is computed in base 16 (the letters A to F have the values 10 to
15, respectively).
39
An Introduction to C Valid Hexadecimal integer constants are:
0X0 0X1 0XF77 0xABCD

Invalid Hexadecimal integer constants are:

0BEF x is not included
0x.4bff illegal char (.)
0XGBC illegal char G

Unsigned integer constants: Exceed the ordinary integer by magnitude of 2,

they are not negative. A character U or u is postfix to the number to make it
unsigned.
Long Integer constants: These are used to exceed the magnitude of ordinary
integers and are appended by L.
For example,
50000U decimal unsigned
1234567889L decimal long
0123456L octal long
0777777U octal unsigned

2.9.2 Floating Point Constants

A floating-point constant consists of:

 Decimal integer
 Decimal point
 Decimal fraction
 e or E and a signed integer exponent (optional)
 Type suffix: f or F or l or L (optional)

Either decimal integer or decimal fraction (but not both) can be omitted.
Either decimal point or letter e (or E) with a signed integer exponent (but not
both) can be omitted. These rules allow conventional and scientific
(exponent) notations.
Negative floating constants are taken as positive constants with an unary
operator minus (-) prefixed. If there is a need for a floating-point constant
that exceeds these limits, user should add l or L suffix, making the constant
a long double type.
Here are some examples:

0. // is equal to 0.0
-1.23 // is equal to -1.23
23.45e6 // is equal to 23.45 X 106
2e-5 //is equal to 2.0 X 10-5
3e+10 //is equal to 3.0 X 1010
.09E34 //is equal to 0.09 X 1034

2.9.3 Character Constants

This constant is a single character enclosed in apostrophes (‘ ’) .

40
For example, some of the character constants are shown below: Data Types,
Operators and
‘A’, ‘x’, ‘3’, ‘$’ Expressions

‘\0’ is a null character having value zero.

Character constants have integer values associated depending on the

character set adopted for the computer. ASCII character set is in use which
uses 7-bit code with 27 = 128 different characters. The digits 0-9 have ASCII
values of 48-57, upper case alphabets from ‘A’ to ‘Z’ have ASCII values
from 65 to 90 and lower case alphabets ‘a’ to ‘z’ have ASCII values from 97
to 122.

Escape Sequence
Many programming languages support a concept called Escape Sequence.
When a character is preceded by a backslash (\), it is called an escape
sequence and it has a special meaning to the compiler. For example, \n in the
following statement is a valid character and it is called a new line character in
C language.

2.9.4 String Constants

It consists of sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes. For
example,
“red” “Blue Sea” “41213*(I+3)”

2.10 SYMBOLIC CONSTANTS AND OTHERS

Symbolic Constant is a name that substitutes for a sequence of characters or a
numeric constant, a character constant or a string constant. When program is
compiled each occurrence of a symbolic constant is replaced by its
corresponding character sequence. The syntax is as follows:
#define name text

where name implies symbolic name in caps.

text implies value or the text.

Examples:

#define printf print

#define MAX 100
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define SIZE 10
#define PI 3.141592

The # character is used for preprocessor commands. A preprocessor is a

system program, which comes into action prior to Compiler, and it replaces
the replacement text by the actual text. This will allow correct use of the
statement printf.

41
An Introduction to C Advantages of using Symbolic Constants are:
 They can be used to assign names to values.
 Replacement of value has to be done at one place and wherever the name
appears in the text it gets the value by execution of the preprocessor.
This saves time. if the symbolic constant appears 20 times in the
program; it needs to be changed at one place only.

Enumerated Data Type

An enumerated type is used to specify the possible values of an object from a
predefined list. Elements of the list are called enumeration constants. The
main use of enumerated types is to explicitly show the symbolic names, and
therefore the intended purpose, of objects whose values can be represented
with integer values. Objects of enumerated type are interpreted as objects of
type signed int , and are compatible with objects of other integral types.

The compiler automatically assigns integer values to each of the enumeration

constants, beginning with 0. The following example declares an enumerated
object background_color with a list of enumeration constants:
enum colors {black,red,blue,green,white} background_color;

Later in the program, a value can be assigned to the object

background_color :
background_color = white;
In this example, the compiler automatically assigns the integer values as
follows: black = 0, red = 1, blue = 2, green = 3, and white = 4. Alternatively,
explicit values can be assigned during the enumerated type definition:
enum colors { black = 5, red = 10, blue, green = 7, white = green+2 };
Here, black equals the integer value 5, red = 10, blue = 11, green = 7,
and white = 9. Note that blue equals the value of the previous constant (red )
plus one, and green is allowed to be out of sequential order.
Because the ANSI C standard is not strict about assignment to enumerated
types, any assigned value not in the predefined list is accepted without
complaint.
Typedef in C Language
typedef keyword is used to assign a new name to a type. This is used just to
prevent us from writing more.
For example, if we want to declare some variables of type unsigned int, we
have to write unsigned int in a program and it can be quite hectic for some of
us. So, we can assign a new name of our choice for unsigned
int using typedef which can be used anytime we want to use unsigned int in a
program.
typedef current_name new_name;
typedef unsigned in uint;
uint j,k;
42
Now, we can write uint in the whole program instead of unsigned int. The Data Types,
Operators and
above code is the same as writing: Expressions
unsigned int j,k;
For example,

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
typedef unsigned in uint;
uint j=5, k=9;
printf(“j= %d\n”,j);
printf(“k= %d\n”,k);
return 0;
}
Check Your Progress 2
1) Write a preprocessor directive statement to define a constant PI having
the value 3.14.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2) Classify the examples into Integer, Character and String constants.
‘A’ 0147 0xEFH
077.7 “A” 26.4
“EFH” ‘\r’ abc
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
3) Name different categories of constants C programming language.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

43
An Introduction to C
2.11 EXPRESSIONS AND OPERATORS - AN
INTRODUCTION

In the previous sections’ we have learnt variables, constants, datatypes and

how to declare them in C programming. The next step is to use those
variables in expressions. For writing an expression we need operators along
with variables. An expression is a sequence of operators and operands that
does one or a combination of the following:
 specifies the computation of a value
 designates an object or function
 generates side effects.

An operator performs an operation (evaluation) on one or more operands. An

operand is a subexpression on which an operator acts.

This unit focuses on different types of operators available in C including the

syntax and use of each operator and how they are used in C.
A computer is different from calculator in a sense that it can solve logical
expressions also. Therefore, apart from arithmetic operators, C also contains
logical operators. Hence, logical expressions are also discussed in the
following sections.

2.12 ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT

In the previous unit, we have seen that variables are basically memory
locations and they can hold certain values. But, how to assign values to the
variables? C provides an assignment operator for this purpose. The function
of this operator is to assign the values or values in variables on right hand
side of an expression to variables on the left hand side.
The syntax of the assignment expression is as follows:
variable = constant / variable/ expression;

The data type of the variable on left hand side should match the data type of
constant/variable/expression on right hand side with a few exceptions where
automatic type conversions are possible. Some examples of assignment
statements are as follows:
b =a; /* b is assigned the value of a */
b=5; /* b is assigned the value 5*/
b = a+5; /* b is assigned the value of expr a+5 */
The expression on the right hand side of the assignment statement can be:
 an arithmetic expression;
 a relational expression;
 a logical expression;
 a mixed expression.

44
The above mentioned expressions are different in terms of the type of Data Types,
Operators and
operators connecting the variables and constants on the right hand side of the Expressions
variable. Arithmetic operators, relational operators and logical operators are
discussed in the following sections.
For example,

int a;
float b,c ,avg, t;
avg = (b+c) / 2; /*arithmetic expression */
a = b && c; /*logical expression*/
a = (b+c) && (b<c); /* mixed expression*/

2.13 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS

The basic arithmetic operators in C are the same as in most other computer
languages, and correspond to our usual mathematical/algebraic symbolism.
The following arithmetic operators are present in C:

Operator Meaning

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modular Division

Some of the examples of algebraic expressions and their C notation are given below:

Expression C notation
b* g (b *g) / d
d

a3+cd (a*a*a) + (c*d)

The arithmetic operators are all binary operators i.e. all the operators have
two operands. The integer division yields the integer result. For example, the
expression 10/3 evaluates to 3 and the expression 15/4 evaluates to 3. C
provides the modulus operator, %, which yields the reminder after integer
division. The modulus operator is an integer operator that can be used only
with integer operands. The expression x%y yields the reminder after x is
divided by y. Therefore, 10%3 yields 1 and 15%4 yields 3. An attempt to
divide by zero is undefined on computer system and generally results in a
run- time error. Normally, Arithmetic expressions in C are written in straight-
line form. Thus ‘a divided by b’ is written as a/b.
The operands in arithmetic expressions can be of integer, float, double type.
In order to effectively develop C programs, it will be necessary for you to
understand the rules that are used for implicit conversion of floating point
and integer values in C.

45
An Introduction to C They are mentioned below:
 An arithmetic operator between an integer and integer always yields an
integer result.
 Operator between float and float yields a float result.
 Operator between integer and float yields a float result.
If the data type is double instead of float, then we get a result of double data
type.
For example,

Operation Result

5/3 1

5.0/3 1.6666666667

5/3.0 1.6666666667

5.0/3.0 1.6666666667

Parentheses can be used in C expression in the same manner as algebraic

expression For example,
a*(b + c)

It may so happen that the type of the expression and the type of the variable
on the left hand side of the assignment operator may not be same. In such a
case the value for the expression is promoted or demoted depending on the
type of the variable on left hand side of = (assignment operator). For
example, consider the following assignment statements:
int i;
float b;
i = 4.6;
b = 20;

In the first assignment statement, float (4.6) is demoted to int. Hence i gets
the value 4. In the second assignment statement int (20) is promoted to float,
b gets 20.0. If we have a complex expression like:
float a, b, c;
int s;
s = a * b / 5.0 * c;

Where some operands are integers and some are float, then int will be promoted or
demoted depending on left hand side operator. In this case, demotion will take place
since s is an integer.

The rules of arithmetic precedence are as follows:

1. Parentheses are at the “highest level of precedence”. In case of nested
parenthesis, the innermost parentheses are evaluated first.

46
 For example, Data Types,
( ((3+4)*5)/6 ) Operators and
Expressions
The order of evaluation is given below:

( ( (3+4) * 5) / 6 )

1 2 3

2. Multiplication, Division and Modulus operators are evaluated next. If an

expression contains several multiplication, division and modulus
operators, evaluation proceeds from left to right. These three are at the
same level of precedence.

For example,
5*5+6*7
The order of evaluation is given below.

5*5+6*7

1 2
3

3. Addition, subtraction are evaluated last. If an expression contains several

addition and subtraction operators, evaluation proceeds from left to right.
Or the associativity is from left to right.

For example,

8/5-6+5/2
The order of evaluation is given below.

8/5-6+5/2

1 3 4 2

Apart from these binary arithmetic operators, C also contains two unary
operators referred to as increment (++) and decrement (--) operators, which
we are going to be discussed below:
The two-unary arithmetic operators provided by C are:
 Increment operator (++)
 Decrement operator (- -)

The increment operator increments the variable by one and decrement

operator decrements the variable by one. These operators can be written in
two forms i.e. before a variable or after a variable. If an increment /
decrement operator is written before a variable, it is referred to as
47
An Introduction to C preincrement / predecrement operators and if it is written after a variable, it
is referred to as post increment / postdecrement operator.
For example,
a++ or ++a is equivalent to a = a+1 and
a-- or - -a is equivalent to a = a -1

The importance of pre and post operator occurs while they are used in the
expressions. Preincrementing (Predecrementing) a variable causes the
variable to be incremented (decremented) by 1, then the new value of the
variable is used in the expression in which it appears. Postincrementing
(postdecrementing) the variable causes the current value of the variable is
used in the expression in which it appears, then the variable value is
incremented (decrement) by 1.
The explanation is given in the table below:
Expression Explanation
++a Increment a by 1, then use the new value of a
a++ Use value of a, then increment a by 1
--b Decrement b by 1, then use the new value of b
b-- Use the current value of b, then decrement by 1
The precedence of these operators is right to left. Let us consider the
following examples:

int a = 2, b=3;
int c;
c = ++a – b- -;
printf (“a=%d, b=%d,c=%d\n”,a,b,c);

OUTPUT

a = 3, b = 2, c = 0.

Since the precedence of the operators is right to left, first b is evaluated, since
it is a post decrement operator, current value of b will be used in the
expression i.e. 3 and then b will be decremented by 1.Then, a preincrement
operator is used with a, so first a is incremented to 3. Therefore, the value of
the expression is evaluated to 0.
Let us take another example,
int a = 1, b = 2, c = 3;
int k;
k = (a++)*(++b) + ++a - --c;
printf(“a=%d,b=%d, c=%d, k=%d”,a,b,c,k);
OUTPUT
a = 3, b = 3, c = 2, k = 6
The evaluation is explained below:
k = (a++) * (++b)+ ++a - --c
= (a++) * (3) + 2 - 2 step1
= (2) * (3) + 2 - 2 step2
= 6 final result

48
Check Your Progress 3 Data Types,
Operators and
Expressions
1. Give the C expressions for the following algebraic expressions:

i) a*4c2 - d
m+n

ii) ab - (e+f)4
c
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. Give the output of the following C code:
main()
{
int a=2,b=3,c=4;
k = ++b + --a*c + a;
printf(“a= %d b=%d c=%d k=%d\n”,a,b,c,k);
}
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
3. Point out the error:
exp = a**b;
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

2.14 RELATIONAL OPERATORS

Executable C statements either perform actions (such as calculations or input

or output of data) or make decision. Using relational operators we can
compare two variables in the program. The C relational operators are
summarized below, with their meanings. Pay particular attention to the
equality operator; it consists of two equal signs, not just one. This section
introduces a simple version of C’s if control structure that allows a program
to make a decision based on the result of some condition. If the condition is
true then the statement in the body of if statement is executed else if the
condition is false, the statement is not executed. Whether the body statement
49
An Introduction to C is executed or not, after the if structure completes, execution proceeds with
the next statement after the if structure. Conditions in the if structure are
formed with the relational operators which are summarized in the Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Relational Operators in C

Relational Operator Condition Meaning

== x==y x is equal to y

!= x!=y x is not equal to y

< x<y x is less than y

<= x<=y x is less than or equal to y

> x>y x is greater than y

>= x>=y x is greater or equal to y

Relational operators usually appear in statements which are inquiring about

the truth of some particular relationship between variables. Normally, the
relational operators in C are the operators in the expressions that appear
between the parentheses.
For example,
i) if (thisNum < minimumSoFar) minimumSoFar = thisNum
ii) if (job == Teacher) salary == minimumWage
iii) if (numberOfLegs != 8) thisBug = insect
iv) if (degreeOfPolynomial < 2) polynomial = linear
Let us see a simple C program given below containing the if statement (will
be introduced in detail in the next unit). It displays the relationship between
two numbers read from the keyboard.
/*Program to find relationship between two numbers*/
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a, b;
printf(“Please enter two integers: ”);
scanf (“%d%d”, &a, &b);
if (a <= b)
printf(“ %d <= %d\n”,a,b);
else
printf(“%d > %d\n”,a,b);
}
OUTPUT
Please enter two integers: 12 17
12 <= 17
We can change the values assigned to a and b and check the result.

50
 Data Types,
2.15 LOGICAL OPERATORS Operators and
Expressions

Logical operators in C, as with other computer languages, are used to

evaluate expressions which may be true or false. Expressions which involve
logical operations are evaluated and found to be one of two values: true or
false. So far we have studied simple conditions. If we want to test multiple
conditions in the process of making a decision, we have to perform simple
tests in separate IF statements (will be introduced in detail in the next unit). C
provides logical operators that may be used to form more complex conditions
by combining simple conditions.
The logical operators are listed below:
Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT

Thus logical operators (AND and OR) combine two conditions and logical
NOT is used to negate the condition i.e. if the condition is true, NOT negates
it to false and vice versa.Let us consider the following is:
i) Suppose the grade of the student is ‘B’ only if his marks lie within the
range 65 to 75,if the condition would be:
if((marks >=65) && (marks <= 75))
printf (“Grade is B\n”);

ii) Suppose we want to check that a student is eligible for admission if his
PCM is greater than 85% or his aggregate is greater than 90%, then,

if((PCM >=85) ||(aggregate >=90))

printf (“Eligible for admission\n”);

Logical negation (!) enables the programmer to reverse the meaning of the
condition. Unlike the && and || operators, which combines two conditions
(and are therefore Binary operators), the logical negation operator is a unary
operator and has one single condition as an operand. Let us consider an
example:
if!(grade==’A’)
printf (“the next grade is %c\n”, grade);
The parentheses around the condition grade==A are needed because the
logical operator has higher precedence than equality operator. The truth table
of the logical AND (&&), OR (||) and NOT (!) are given below.
These table show the possible combinations of zero (false) and nonzero (true)
values of x (expression1) and y (expression2) and only one expression in case
of NOT operator. The following table 2.3 is the truth table for && operator.

51
An Introduction to C Table 2.3: Truth table for && operator
x y x&&y
zero zero 0
Non zero zero 0
zero Non zero 0
Non zero Non zero 1

The following table 2.4 is the truth table for || operator.

Table 2.4: Truth table for || operator

x y x || y
zero zero 0

Non zero zero 1

zero Non zero 1

Non zero Non zero 1

The following table 2.5 is the truth table for ! operator.

Table 2.5: Truth table for ! operator

x !x
zero 1
Non zero 0

The following table 2.6 shows the operator precedence and associativity

Table 2.6: (Logical operators precedence and associativity)

Operator Associativity
! Right to left

&& Left to right

|| Left to right

2.16 COMMA AND CONDITIONAL OPERATORS

Conditional Operator
C provides an called as the conditional operator (?:) or else called as ternary
operator which is closely related to the if/else structure. The conditional
operator is C’s only ternary operator - it takes three operands. The operands
together with the conditional operator form a conditional expression. The first
operand is a condition, the second operand represents the value of the entire
conditional expression it is the condition is true and the third operand is the
value for the entire conditional expression if the condition is false.

52
The syntax is as follows: Data Types,
Operators and
(condition)? (expression1): (expression2); Expressions

If condition is true, expression1 is evaluated else expression2 is evaluated.

Expression1/Expression2 can also be further conditional expression i.e. the
case of nested if statement (will be discussed in the next unit).
Let us see the following examples:
i) x= (y<20) ? 9: 10;
This means, if (y<20), then x=9 else x=10;
ii) printf (“%s\n”, grade>=50? “Passed”: “failed”);
The above statement will print “passed” grade>=50 else it will print
“failed”
iii) (a>b) ? printf (“a is greater than b \n”): printf (“b is greater than a \n”);
If a is greater than b, then first printf statement is executed else second printf
statement is executed.
Comma Operator
A comma operator is used to separate a pair of expressions. A pair of
expressions separated by a comma is evaluated left to right, and the type and
value of the result are the value of the type and value of the right operand. All
side effects from the evaluation of the left operand are completed before
beginning evaluation of the right operand. The left side of comma operator is
always evaluated to void. This means that the expression on the right hand
side becomes the value of the total comma-separated expression. For
example,
x = (y=2, y - 1);
first assigns y the value 2 and then x the value 1. Parenthesis is necessary
since comma operator has lower precedence than assignment operator.
Generally, comma operator (,) is used in the for loop (will be introduced in
the next unit)
For example,
for(i= 0,j= n;i<j; i++,j--)
{
printf(“A”);
}
In this example for is the looping construct (discussed in the next unit). In
this loop, i = 0 and j = n are separated by comma (,) and i++ and j—are
separated by comma (,). The example will be clear to you once you have
learnt for loop (will be introduced in the next unit).
Essentially, the comma causes a sequence of operations to be performed.
When it is used on the right hand side of the assignment statement, the value
assigned is the value of the last expression in the comma-separated list.
53
An Introduction to C Check Your Progress 4
1. Given a=3, b=4, c=2, what is the result of following logical expressions:
(a < --b) && (a==c)
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
2. Give the output of the following code:
main()
{
int a=10, b=15,x;
x = (a<b)?++a:++b;
printf(“x=%d a=%d b=%d\n”,x,a,b);
}
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………….
3. What is the use of comma operator?
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………….

2.17 TYPE CAST OPERATOR

We have seen in the previous sections and last unit that when constants and
variables of different types are mixed in an expression, they are converted to
the same type. That is automatic type conversion takes place. The following
type conversion rules are followed:
1. All chars and short ints are converted to ints. All floats are converted to
doubles.
2. In case of binary operators, if one of the two operands is a long double,
the other operand is converted to long double,

54
 else if one operand is double, the other is converted to double, Data Types,
Operators and
else if one operand is long, the other is converted to long, Expressions

else if one operand is unsigned, the other is converted to

unsigned,
C converts all operands “up” to the type of largest operand (largest in terms
of memory requirement for e.g. float requires 4 bytes of storage and int
requires 2 bytes of storage so if one operand is int and the other is float, int
is converted to float).
All the above mentioned conversions are automatic conversions, but what if
int is to be converted to float. It is possible to force an expression to be of
specific type by using operator called a cast. The syntax is as follows:

(type) expression

where type is the standard C data type. For example, if you want to make sure
that the expression a/5 would evaluate to type float you would write it as

( float ) a/5

cast is an unary operator and has the same precedence as any other unary
operator. The use of cast operator is explained in the following example:

main()
{
int num;
printf(“%f %f %f\n”, (float)num/2, (float)num/3, float)num/3);
}

Tha cast operator in this example will ensure that fractional part is also
displayed on the screen.

2.18 SIZE OF OPERATOR

C provides a compile-time unary operator called sizeof that can be used to
compute the size of any object. The expressions such as:
sizeof object and sizeof(type name)
result in an unsigned integer value equal to the size of the specified object or
type in bytes. Actually the resultant integer is the number of bytes required to
store an object of the type of its operand. An object can be a variable or array
or structure. An array and structure are data structures provided in C,
introduced in latter units. A type name can be the name of any basic type like
int or double or a derived type like a structure or a pointer.
For example,
sizeof(char) = 1bytes
sizeof(int) = 2 bytes

55
An Introduction to C
2.19 C SHORTHAND
C has a special shorthand that simplifies coding of certain type of assignment
statements. For example: a = a+2;
can be written as: a += 2;
The operator +=tells the compiler that a is assigned the value of a + 2;
This shorthand works for all binary operators in C. The general form is:
variable operator = variable / constant / expression;
These operators are listed below:
Operators Examples Meaning
+= a+=2 a=a+2
-= a-=2 a=a-2
= a*=2 a = a*2
/= a/=2 a=a/2
%= a%=2 a=a%2
Operators Examples Meaning
&&= a&&=c a=a&&c
||= a||=c a=a||c

2.20 PRIORITY OF OPERATORS

Since all the operators we have studied in this unit can be used together in an
expression, C uses a certain hierarchy to solve such kind of mixed
expressions. The hierarchy and associatively of the operators discussed so far
is summarized in Table 2.7. The operators written in the same line have the
same priority. The higher precedence operators are written first.
Table 2.7: Precedence of the operators

Operators Associativity
() Left to right
! ++ -- (type) sizeof Right to left
/% Left to right
+- Left to right
< <= > >= Left to right
== != Left to right
&& Left to right
|| Left to right
?: Right to left
= += -= *= /= %= &&= ||= Right to left
, Left to right

56
Check Your Progress 5 Data Types,
Operators and
1. Give the output of the following C code: Expressions

main( )
{
int a,b=5;
float f;
a=5/2;
f=(float)b/2.0;
(a<f)? b=1:b=0;
printf(“b = %d\n”,b);
}
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. What is the difference between && and &. Explain with an example.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
3. Use of Bit Wise operators makes the execution of the program.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

2.21 SUMMARY
To summarize we have learnt certain basics, which are required to learn a
computer language and form a basis for all languages. Character set includes
alphabets, numeric characters, special characters and some graphical
characters. These are used to form words in C language or names or
identifiers. Variable are the identifiers, which change their values during
execution of the program. Keywords are names with specific meaning and
cannot be used otherwise.

57
An Introduction to C We had discussed four basic data types - int, char, float and double. Some
qualifiers are used as prefixes to data types like signed, unsigned, short, and
long.
The constants are the fixed values and may be either Integer or Floating point
or Character or String type. Symbolic Constants are used to define names
used for constant values. They help in using the name rather bothering with
remembering and writing the values.
In this unit, we discussed about the different types of operators, namely
arithmetic, relational, logical present in C and their use. In the following
units, you will study how these are used in C’s other constructs like control
statements, arrays etc. This unit also focused on type conversions. Type
conversions are very important to understand because sometimes a
programmer gets unexpected results (logical error) which are most often
caused by type conversions in case user has used improper types or if he has
not type cast to desired type.
C is referred to as a compact language which is because lengthy expressions
can be written in short form. Conditional operator is one of the examples,
which is the short form of writing the if/else construct (next unit). Also
increment/decrement operators reduce a bit of coding when used in
expressions.
Since logical operators are used further in all types of looping constructs and
if/else construct (in the next unit), they should be thoroughly understood.

2.22 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Keywords: int, union
Valid Identifiers: hello, student_1, max_value
2. int rollno;
float total_marks, percentage;
3. a) 1 byte b) 2 bytes c) 8 bytes
Check Your Progress 2
1. # define PI 3.14
2. Integer constant: 0147
Character constants: ’A’, ‘\r’
String constants: ”A”, “EFH”
Check Your Progress 3
1. C expression would be
i) ((a*4*c*c)-d)/(m+n)

58
ii) a*b-(e+f)*4/c
2. The output would be: Data Types,
Operators and
a=1 b=4 c=4 k=10 Expressions

3. There is no such operator as **.

Check Your Progress 4
1. The expression is evaluated as under:
(3 < - -4) && (3== 2)
(3 < 3) && (3==2)
0 && 0
0
Logical false evaluates to 0 and logical true evaluates to 1.
2. The output would be as follows:
x=11, a=11, b=16
3. Comma operator causes a sequence of operators to be performed.
Check Your Progress 5
1. Here a will evaluate to 2 and f will evaluate to 2.5 since type cast
operator is used in the latter so data type of b changes to float in an
expression. Therefore, output would be b=1.
2. && operator is a logical and operator and & is a bit wise and operator.
Therefore, && operator always evaluates to true or false i.e 1 or 0
respectively while & operator evaluates bit wise so the result can be any
value. For example:
2 && 5 => 1(true)
2 & 5 => 0(bit-wise anding)
3. Use of Bit Wise operators makes the execution of the program faster.

2.23 FURTHER READINGS

1. The C Programming Language, Kernighan & Ritchie, PHI Publication.
2. Computer Science A structured programming approach using C,
Behrouza A. Forouzan, Richard F. Gilberg, Second Edition,
Brooks/Cole, Thomson Learning, 2001.
3. Programming with C, Gottfried, Second Edition, Schaum Outlines,Tata
Mc Graw Hill, 2003.

59
An Introduction to C
UNIT 3 DECISION AND LOOP CONTROL
STATEMENTS

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Decision Control Statements
3.2.1 The if Statement
3.2.2 The switch Statement
3.3 Loop Control Statements
3.3.1 The while Loop
3.3.2 The do-while Statement
3.3.3 The for Loop
3.3.4 The Nested Loop
3.4 The Goto Statement
3.5 The Break Statement
3.6 The Continue Statement
3.7 Summary
3.8 Solutions / Answers
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION
A program consists of a number of statements to be executed by the
computer. Not many of the programs execute all their statements in
sequential order from beginning to end as they appear within the program. A
C program may require that a logical test be carried out at some particular
point within the program. One of the several possible actions will be carried
out, depending on the outcome of the logical test. This is called Branching.
In the Selection process, a set of statements will be selected for execution,
among the several sets available. Suppose, if there is a need of a group of
statements to be executed repeatedly until some logical condition is satisfied,
then looping is required in the program. These can be carried out using
various control statements.
These Control statements determine the “flow of control” in a program and
enable us to specify the order in which the various instructions in a program
are to be executed by the computer. Normally, high level procedural
programming languages require three basic control statements:
 Sequence instruction
 Selection/decision instruction
 Repetition or Loop instruction
60
 Decision and Loop
Sequence instruction means executing one instruction after another, in the Control Statements
order in which they occur in the source file. This is usually built into the
language as a default action, as it is with C. If an instruction is not a control
statement, then the next instruction to be executed will simply be the next one
in sequence.
Selection means executing different sections of code depending on a specific
condition or the value of a variable. This allows a program to take different
courses of action depending on different conditions. C provides three
selection structures.
 if
 if…else
 switch

Repetition/Looping means executing the same section of code more than once. A
section of code may either be executed a fixed number of times, or while some
condition is true. C provides three looping statements:
 while
 do…while
 for

This unit introduces you the decision and loop control statements that are
available in C programming language along with some of the example
programs.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
 work with different control statements;
 know the appropriate use of the various control statements in
programming;
 transfer the control from within the loops;
 use the goto, break and continue statements in the programs; and
 write programs using branching, looping statements.

3.2 DECISION CONTROL STATEMENTS

In a C program, a decision causes a one-time jump to a different part of the
program, depending on the value of an expression. Decisions in C can be
made in several ways. The most important is with the if...else statement,
which chooses between two alternatives. This statement can be used without
the else, as a simple if statement. Another decision control statement, switch,
creates branches for multiple alternative sections of code, depending on the
value of a single variable.

61
An Introduction to C
3.2.1 The if Statement
It is used to execute an instruction or sequence/block of instructions only if a
condition is fulfilled. In if statements, expression is evaluated first and then,
depending on whether the value of the expression (relation or condition) is
“true” or “false”, it transfers the control to a particular statement or a group
of statements.

Different forms of implementation if-statement are:

 Simple if statement
 If-else statement
 Nested if-else statement
 Else if statement

Simple if statement
It is used to execute an instruction or block of instructions only if a condition
is fulfilled.

The syntax is as follows:

if(condition)
statement;

where condition is the expression that is to be evaluated. If this condition is

true, statement is executed. If it is false, statement is ignored (not executed)
and the program continues on the next instruction after the conditional
statement.
This is shown in the Figure 3.1 given below:

Figure 3.1: Simple if statement

62
 Decision and Loop
If we want more than one statement to be executed, then we can specify a Control Statements
block of statements within the curly bracets { }. The syntax is as follows:
if(condition)
{
block of statements;
}

Example 3.1
Write a program to calculate the net salary of an employee, if a tax of 15% is
levied on his gross-salary if it exceeds Rs. 10,000/- per month.

/*Program to calculate the net salary of an employee */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
float gross_salary, net_salary;

printf(“Enter gross salary of an employee\n”);

scanf(“%f ”,&gross_salary );

if(gross_salary <10000)
net_salary= gross_salary;
if(gross_salary >= 10000)
net_salary = gross_salary- 0.15*gross_salary;

printf(“\nNet salary is Rs.%.2f\n”, net_salary);

}

OUTPUT

Enter gross salary of an employee

9000
Net salary is Rs.9000.00

Enter gross salary of any employee

10000
Net salary is Rs. 8500.00

If … else statement
If…else statement is used when a different sequence of instructions is to be
executed depending on the logical value (True / False) of the condition
evaluated.
Its form used in conjunction with if and the syntax is as follows:
if(condition)
Statement _1;
else
Statement_ 2;
statement_3;
63
An Introduction to C Or

if(condition)
{
Statements_1_Block;
}
else
{
Statements_2_Block;
}
Statements _3_Block;

If the condition is true, then the sequence of statements

(Statements_1_Block) executes; otherwise the Statements_2_Block following
the else part of if-else statement will get executed. In both the cases, the
control is then transferred to Statements_3 to follow sequential execution of
the program.
This is shown in figure 5.2 given below:

Figure 3.2: If…else statement

64 Let us consider a program to illustrate if…else statement,

 Decision and Loop
Example 3.2 Control Statements

Write a program to print whether the given number is even or odd.

/* Program to print whether the given number is even or odd*/

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x;
printf(“Enter a number:\n”);
scanf("%d",&x);
if(x % 2 == 0)
printf(“\nGiven number is even\n”);
else
printf(“\nGiven number is odd\n”);
}
OUTPUT
Enter a number: 6
Given number is even
Enter a number 7
Given number is odd
Conditional expression using Ternary Operator (?:)
There is another way to express an if-else statement is by introducing the ?:
(ternary operator). In a conditional expression the ?: operator has only one
statement associated with the if and the else. The syntax is

variable = expresssion1 ? expression2: expression3;

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x=2;
int y;
y = (x >= 6) ? 6 : x;
printf(“y = %d”,y);
return 0;
}

OUTPUT : y = 2

Nested if…else statement

In nested if… else statement, an entire if…else construct is written within
either the body of the if statement or the body of an else statement. The
syntax is as follows:
if(condition_1)
{
65
An Introduction to C if(condition_2)
{
Statements_1_Block;
}

else
{
Statements_2_Block;
}
}

else
{
Statements_3_Block;
}
Statement_4_Block;

Here, condition_1 is evaluated. If it is false then Statements_3_Block is

executed and is followed by the execution of Statements_4_Block, otherwise
if condition_1 is true, then condition_2 is evaluated. Statements_1_Block is
executed when condition_2 is true otherwise Statements_2_Block is executed
and then the control is transferred to Statements_4_Block.

This is shown in the figure 3.3 given in the next page:

Figure 3.3: Nested if…else statement

66
 Decision and Loop
Let us consider a program to illustrate Nested if…else statement, Control Statements

Example 3.3

Write a program to calculate an Air ticket fare after discount, given the
following conditions:
 If passenger is below 14 years then there is 50% discount on fare
 If passenger is above 50 years then there is 20% discount on fare
 If passenger is above 14 and below 50 then there is 10% discount on
fare.

/* Program to calculate an Air ticket fare after discount */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int age;
float fare;
printf("\n Enter the age of passenger:\n");
scanf("%d",&age);
printf("\n Enter the Air ticket fare\n");
scanf("%f",&fare);
if(age<14)
fare=fare-0.5*fare;
else
if(age<=50)
{
fare=fare-0.1*fare;
}
else
{
fare=fare-0.2*fare;
}
printf("\n Air ticket fare to be charged after discount is %.2f",fare);
return 0;
}
OUTPUT
Enter the age of passenger 12
Enter the Air ticket fare 2000.00
Air ticket fare to be charged after discount is 1000.00
Else if statement
To show a multi-way decision based on several conditions, we use the else if
statement. This works by cascading of several comparisons. As soon as one
of the conditions is true, the statement or block of statements following them
is executed and no further comparisons are performed.
The syntax is as follows:
if(condition_1)
{
Statements_1_Block;
67
An
n Introduction to C }
else if(ccondition_2))
{
S
Statements_2 2_Block;
}
------------
elsee if(condition_n)
{
Statements_ _n_Block;
}
else
Statemeents_x;

Here, the coonditions aree evaluated ini order fromm top to botttom. As soonn as
any conditiion evaluatess to true, theen the statem
ment associatted with the given
g
condition iss executed aand control iss transferredd to Statemen
nts_x skippinng the
rest of the conditions
c foollowing it.

But if all coonditions evaluate false, then the staatement follo

owing final else
e is
executed foollowed by thhe executionn of Statements_x.
This is show
wn in the figgure 5.4 giveen below:

Figure 3..4: Else if staatement

Let us conssider a progrram to illustrrate Else if sttatement,

68
 Decision and Loop
Example 3.4 Control Statements

Write a program to award grades to students depending upon the criteria

mentioned below:
 Marks less than or equal to 50 are given “D” grade
 Marks above 50 but below 60 are given “C” grade
 Marks between 60 to 75 are given “B” grade
 Marks greater than 75 are given “A” grade.
/* Program to award grades */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int result;
printf("Enter the total marks of a student:\n");
scanf("%d",&result);
if(result <= 50)
printf("Grade D\n");
else if(result <= 60)
printf("Grade C\n");
else if(result <= 75)
printf("Grade B\n");
else
printf("Grade A\n");
}

OUTPUT
Enter the total marks of a student:
80
Grade A

Check Your Progress 1

1. Find the output for the following program:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a=1, b=1;
if(a==1)
if(b==0)
printf(“Hi”);
else
printf(“Bye”);
}

…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
69
An Introduction to C 2. Find the output for the following program:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a,b=0;
if(a=b=1)
printf("hello");
else
printf("world");
return 0;
}
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
3.2.2 The Switch Statement
Its objective is to check several possible constant values for an expression,
something similar to what we had studied in the earlier sections, with the
linking of several if and else if statements. When the actions to be taken
depending on the value of control variable, are large in number, then the use
of control structure Nested if…else makes the program complex. There
switch statement can be used. Its form is the following:
switch(expression){
case expression 1:
block of instructions1
break;
case expression 2:
block of instructions2
break;
.
.
default:
default block of instructions
}
It works in the following way: switch evaluates expression and checks if it is
equivalent to expression1. If it is, it executes block of instructions 1 until it
finds the break keyword, moment at finds the control will go to the end of
the switch. If expression was not equal to expression 1 it will check whether
expression is equivalent to expression 2. If it is, it will execute block of
instructions 2 until it finds the break keyword.

Finally, if the value of expression has not matched any of the previously
specified constants (you may specify as many case statements as values you
want to check), the program will execute the instructions included in the
default: section, if it exists, as it is an optional statement.

70
 Decision and Loop
Let us consider a program to illustrate Switch statement, Control Statements

Example 3.5
Write a program that performs the following, depending upon the choice
selected by the user.
i). calculate the square of number if choice is 1
ii). calculate the square-root of number if choice is 2 and 4
iii). calculate the cube of the given number if choice is 3
iv). otherwise print the number as it is

main()
{
int choice,n;
printf(“\n Enter any number:\n “);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
printf(“Choice is as follows:\n\n”);
printf(“1. To find square of the number\n”);
printf(“2. To find square-root of the number\n”);
printf(“3. To find cube of a number\n”);
printf(“4. To find the square-root of the number\n\n”);
printf(“Enter your choice:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1: printf(“The square of the number is %d\n”,n*n);
break;
case 2:
case 4: printf(“The square-root of the given number is %f”,sqrt(n));
break;
case 3: printf(“ The cube of the given number is %d”,n*n*n);
default: printf(“The number you had given is %d”,n);
break;
}
}

OUTPUT
Enter any number: 4

Choice is as follows:
1. To find square of the number
2. To find square-root of the number
3. To find cube of a number
4. To find the square-root of the number

Enter your choice: 2

The square-root of the given number is 2
In this section we had discussed and understood various decision control
statements. Next section explains you the various loop control statements in
C.
71
An Introduction to C
3.3 LOOP CONTROL STATEMENTS
Loop control statements are used when a section of code may either be
executed a fixed number of times, or while some condition is true. C gives
you a choice of three types of loop statements, while, do- while and for.
 The while loop keeps repeating an action until an associated condition
returns false. This is useful where the programmer does not know in
advance how many times the loop will be traversed.
 The do while loop is similar, but the condition is checked after the loop
body is executed. This ensures that the loop body is run at least once.
 The for loop is frequently used, usually where the loop will be traversed
a fixed number of times.

3.3.1 The While Loop

When in a program a single statement or a certain group of statements are to
be executed repeatedly depending upon certain test condition, then while
statement is used. The syntax is as follows:
while(test condition)
{
body_of_the_loop;
}

Here, test condition is an expression that controls how long the loop keeps
running. Body of the loop is a statement or group of statements enclosed in
braces and are repeatedly executed till the value of test condition evaluates to
true. As soon as the condition evaluates to false, the control jumps to the first
statement following the while statement. If condition initially itself is false,
the body of the loop will never be executed. While loop is sometimes called
as entry-control loop, as it controls the execution of the body of the loop
depending upon the value of the test condition. This is shown in the figure
5.5 given below:

Figure 3.5: The while loop statement

72
 Decision and Loop
Let us consider a program to illustrate while loop, Control Statements

Example 3.6
Write a program to calculate the factorial of a given input natural number.

/* Program to calculate factorial of given number */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
main()
{
int x;
long int fact = 1;
printf(“Enter any number to find factorial:\n”); /*read the number*/
scanf(“%d”,&x);
while(x > 0)
{
fact = fact*x; /* factorial calculation*/
x=x-1;
}
printf(“Factorial is %ld”,fact);
}

OUTPUT

Enter any number to find factorial: 4

Factorial is 24

Here, condition in while loop is evaluated and body of loop is repeated until
condition evaluates to false i.e., when x becomes zero. Then the control is
jumped to first statement following while loop and print the value of factorial.

3.3.2 The do...while Loop

There is another loop control structure which is very similar to the while
statement – called as the do.. while statement. The only difference is that the
expression which determines whether to carry on looping is evaluated at the
end of each loop. The syntax is as follows:
do
{
statement(s);
} while(test condition);

In do-while loop, the body of loop is executed at least once before the
condition is evaluated. Then the loop repeats body as long as condition is
true. However, in while loop, the statement doesn’t execute the body of the
loop even once, if condition is false. That is why do-while loop is also called
exit-control loop. This is shown in the figure 3.6 given below.

73
An Introduction to C

Figure 3.6: The do…while statement

Let us consider a program to illustrate do..while loop,

Example 3.7
Write a program to print first ten even natural numbers.

/* Program to print first ten even natural numbers */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i=0;
int j=2;
do {
printf(“%d”,j);
j =j+2;
i=i+1; } while(i<10); }

OUTPUT
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

3.3.3 The for Loop

for statement makes it more convenient to count iterations of a loop and
works well where the number of iterations of the loop is known before the
loop is entered. The syntax is as follows:
for(initialization; test condition; increment or decrement)
{
Statement(s);
}
74
 Decision and Loop
The main purpose is to repeat statement while condition remains true, like the Control Statements
while loop. But in addition, for provides places to specify an initialization
instruction and an increment or decrement of the control variable instruction. So
this loop is specially designed to perform a repetitive action with a counter.
The for loop as shown in figure 5.7, works in the following manner:

1. Initialization is executed. Generally it is an initial value setting for a

counter variable. This is executed only once.
2. Condition is checked, if it is true the loop continues, otherwise the loop
finishes and statement is skipped.
3. Statement(s) is/are executed. As usual, it can be either a single
instruction or a block of instructions enclosed within curly brackets { }.
4. Finally, whatever is specified in the increment or decrement of the
control variable field is executed and the loop gets back to step 2.

Figure 3.7: The for statement

Let us consider a program to illustrate for loop,

Example 3.8
Write a program to print first n natural numbers.

75
An Introduction to C /* Program to print first n natural numbers */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,n;
printf(“Enter value of n \n”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
printf(“\nThe first %d natural numbers are :\n”, n);
for(i=1;i<=n;++i)
{
printf(“%d”,i);
}
}
OUTPUT

Enter value of n
6
The first 6 natural numbers are:
123456

The three statements inside the braces of a for loop usually meant for one
activity each, however any of them can be left blank also. More than one
control variables can be initialized but should be separated by comma.

Various forms of loop statements can be:

a) for(;condition;increment/decrement)
body;
A blank first statement will mean no initialization.
b) for(initialization;condition;)
body;
A blank last statement will mean no running increment/decrement.
c) for(initialization;;increment/decrement)
body;
A blank second conditional statement means no test condition to control
the exit from the loop. So, in the absence of second statement, it is
required to test the condition inside the loop otherwise it results in an
infinite loop where the control never exits from the loop.

d) for(;;increment/decrement)
body;
Initialization is required to be done before the loop and test condition is
checked inside the loop.
e) for(initialization;;)
body;
Test condition and control variable increment/decrement is to be done
inside the body of the loop.

76
 Decision and Loop
(f) for(;condition;) Control Statements
body;
Initialization is required to be done before the loop and control variable
increment/decrement is to be done inside the body of the loop.
g) for(;;;)
body;
Initialization is required to be done before the loop, test condition and
control variable increment/decrement is to be done inside the body of the
loop.
3.3.4 The Nested Loops
C allows loops to be nested, that is, one loop may be inside another. The
program given below illustrates the nesting of loops.
Let us consider a program to illustrate nested loops,
Example 3.9
Write a program to generate the following pattern given below:
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4

/* Program to print the pattern */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j;
for(i=1;i<=4;++i)
{
printf("%d\n",i);
for(j=1;j<=i;++j)
printf("%d\t",j);
}
}

Here, an inner for loop is written inside the outer for loop. For every value of
i, j takes the value from 1 to i and then value of i is incremented and next
iteration of outer loop starts ranging j value from 1 to i.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Predict the output :
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
printf("%d",i);
return 0;
}
77
An Introduction to C …………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
2. What is the output?

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
printf("%d ",i);
}
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
3. What is the output for the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i=1;
do
{
printf(“%d”,i);
}while(i=i-1);
}
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. Give the output of the following:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i=3;
while(i)
{
int x=100;
printf(“\n%d..%d”,i,x);
x=x+1;
i=i+1;
}
}
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
78
 Decision and Loop
3.4 THE goto STATEMENT Control Statements

The goto statement is used to alter the normal sequence of program

instructions by transferring the control to some other portion of the program.
The syntax is as follows:
goto label;

Here, label is an identifier that is used to label the statement to which control
will be transferred. The targeted statement must be preceded by the unique
label followed by colon.

label: statement;

Although goto statement is used to alter the normal sequence of program

execution but its usage in the program should be avoided. The most common
applications are:
i). To branch around statements under certain conditions in place of use
of if- else statement,
ii). To jump to the end of the loop under certain conditions bypassing the
rest of statements inside the loop in place of continue statement,
iii). To jump out of the loop avoiding the use of break statement.

goto can never be used to jump into the loop from outside and it should be
preferably used for forward jump.

Situations may arise, however, in which the goto statement can be useful. To
the possible extent, the use of the goto statement should generally be avoided.

Let us consider a program to illustrate goto and label statements.

Example 3.10
Write a program to print first 10 even numbers

/* Program to print 10 even numbers */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i=2;
while(1)
{
printf(“%d ”,i);
i=i+2;
if(i>=20)
goto outside;
}
outside : printf(“over”);
}

OUTPUT
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 over
79
An Introduction to C
3.5 THE break STATEMENT
Sometimes, it is required to jump out of a loop irrespective of the conditional
test value. Break statement is used inside any loop to allow the control jump
to the immediate statement following the loop. The syntax is as follows:
break;

When nested loops are used, then break jumps the control from the loop
where it has been used. Break statement can be used inside any loop i.e.,
while, do-while, for and also in switch statement.

Let us consider a program to illustrate break statement.

Example 3.11
Write a program to calculate the first smallest divisor of a number.

/*Program to calculate smallest divisor of a number */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int div,num,i;
printf(“Enter any number:\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&num);
for(i=2;i<=num;++i)
{
if((num % i) == 0)
{
printf(“Smallest divisor for number %d is %d”,num,i);
break;
}
}
}
OUTPUT
Enter any number:
9
Smallest divisor for number 9 is 3

In the above program, we divide the input number with the integer starting
from 2 onwards, and print the smallest divisor as soon as remainder comes
out to be zero. Since we are only interested in first smallest divisor and not all
divisors of a given number, so jump out of the for loop using break statement
without further going for the next iteration of for loop.
Break is different from exit. Former jumps the control out of the loop while
exit stops the execution of the entire program.

3.6 THE continue STATEMENT

Unlike break statement, which is used to jump the control out of the loop, it
is sometimes required to skip some part of the loop and to continue the
execution with next loop iteration. Continue statement used inside the loop
80 helps to bypass the section of a loop and passes the control to the beginning
 Decision and Loop
of the loop to continue the execution with the next loop iteration. The syntax Control Statements
is as follows:
continue;

Let us see the program given below to know the working of the continue
statement.

Example 3.12
Write a program to print first 20 natural numbers skipping the numbers
divisible by 5.

/* Program to print first 20 natural numbers skipping the numbers divisible by 5 */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=20;++i)
{
if((i % 5) == 0)
continue;
printf(“%d ”,i);
}
}

OUTPUT

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 16 17 18 19

Here, the printf statement is bypassed each time when value stored in i is divisible
by 5.

Check Your Progress 3

1. How many times will hello be printed by the following program?
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i = 5;
while(i)
{
i=i-1;
if(i==3)
continue;
printf(“\nhello”);
}
}
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. Give the output of the following program segment:
#include<stdio.h>
main() 81
An Introduction to C {
int num,sum;
for(num=2,sum=0;;)
{
sum = sum + num;
if(num > 10)
break;
num=num+1;
}
printf("%d",sum);
}
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is the output for the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i, n = 3;
for(i=3;n<=20;++n)
{
if(n%i == 0)
break;
if(i == n)
printf(“%d\n”,i);
}
}
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

3.7 SUMMARY
A program is usually not limited to a linear sequence of instructions. During
its process it may require to repeat execution of a part of code more than once
depending upon the requirements or take decisions. For that purpose, C
provides control and looping statements. In this unit, we had seen the
different looping statements provided by C language namely while,
do…while and for.
Using break statement, we can leave a loop even if the condition for its end is
not fulfilled. It can be used to end an infinite loop, or to force it to end before
its natural end. The continue statement causes the program to skip the rest of
the loop in the present iteration as if the end of the statement block would
have reached, causing it to jump to the following iteration.

Using the goto statement, we can make an absolute jump to another point in
the program. You should use this feature carefully since its execution ignores
any type of nesting limitation. The destination point is identified by a label,
82
 Decision and Loop
which is then used as argument for the goto instruction. A label is made of a Control Statements
valid identifier followed by a colon (:).

3.8 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1 Bye

2 hello

Check Your Progress 2

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2 012

3 1

4 3..100
2..100
1..100
…..
…..
…...
till infinity

Check Your Progress 3

1 4 times

2 65

3 3

3.9 FURTHER READINGS

1. The C programming language, Brain W. Kernighan, Dennis M. Ritchie,
PHI.
2. Programming with C, Second Edition, Byron Gottfried, Tata McGraw
Hill, 2003.
3. C,The Complete Reference, Fourth Edition, Herbert Schildt, Tata
McGraw Hill,
4. 2002.
5. Computer Science: A Structured Programming Approach Using C,
Second Edition, Behrouz A. Forouzan, Richard F. Gilberg,
Brooks/Cole Thomas Learning, 2001.
6. The C Primer, Leslie Hancock, Morris Krieger, Mc Graw Hill, 1983.

83
An Introduction to C
UNIT 4 ARRAYS AND STRINGS

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Array Declaration
4.2.1 Syntax of Array Declaration
4.2.2 Size Specification
4.3 Array Initialization
4.3.1 Initialization of Array Elements in the Declaration
4.3.2 Character Array Initialization
4.4 Subscript
4.5 Processing the Arrays
4.6 Multi-Dimensional Arrays
4.6.1 Multi-Dimensional Array Declaration
4.6.2 Initialization of Two-Dimensional Arrays
4.7 Introduction to Strings
4.8 Declaration and Initialization of Strings
4.9 Display of Strings Using Different Formatting Techniques
4.10 Array of Strings
4.11 String Functions and Applications
4.12 Summary
4.13 Solutions / Answers
4.14 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION
C language provides four basic data types - int, char, float and double. We
have learnt about them in Unit 2. These basic data types are very useful; but
they can handle only a limited amount of data. As programs become larger and
more complicated, it becomes increasingly difficult to manage the data.
Variable names typically become longer to ensure their uniqueness. And, the
number of variable names makes it difficult for the programmer to concentrate
on the more important task of correct coding. Arrays provide a mechanism for
declaring and accessing several data items with only one identifier, thereby
simplifying the task of data management.
Many programs require the processing of multiple, related data items that have
common characteristics like list of numbers, marks in a course, or enrolment
numbers. This could be done by creating several individual variables. But this
is a hard and tedious process. For example, suppose you want to read in five
numbers and print them out in reverse order. You could do it the hard way as:
84
main n() Arrays and Strings
{
int al,a2,a3,a4,a5
a ;
scannf(“%d %d %d% %d %d”,&a1,&a2,&a3,& &a4,&a5);
printtf(“%d %d %d% %d %d”',a5,a4,a3,a2,a1);
}

Doess it look goood if the probblem is to read in 100 orr more relateed data itemss
and print
p them inn reverse ordder? Of courrse, the soluttion is the usse of the reguular
variaable names a1,
a a2 and so o on. But to remember eeach and every variable aand
perfoorm the operrations on thhe variables is
i not only teedious a job and
disaddvantageouss too. One coommon orgaanizing technnique is to usse arrays in
suchh situations. An
A array is a collectionn of similar kkind of data elements
e stoored
in addjacent memmory locationns and are referred to by a single arraay-name. In the
case of C, you have to declarre and define array befoore it can be used.
Decllaration and definition teell the compiiler the namee of the array, the type oof
eachh element, annd the size orr number off elements. To
T explain it, let us consiider
to store marks off five studennts. They cann be stored using
u five vaariables as
folloows:
int ar1,
a ar2, ar3, ar4, ar5;

Noww, if we wantt to do the saame thing foor 100 studennts in a classs then one wiill
find it difficult too handle 1000 variables. This
T can be obtained by using an arrray.
An array
a declaraation uses itss size in [] brrackets. For above exam
mple, we can
definne an array as:
a
int ar[100];
a

wherre ar is definned as an arrray of size 1000 to store m

marks of inteeger data-typpe.
Each h element off this collectiion is called an array-eleement and ann integer vallue
calleed the subscrript is used to
t denote inddividual elemments of the array. An arr
arrayy is the colleection of 2000 consecutive memory loocations refeerred as below:

2001 2003 22000

Figurre 4.1: Repreesentation of an Array

In th
he above figuure, as each integer value occupies 2 bytes, 200 bytes
b were
alloccated in the memory.
m
Thiss unit explainns the use off arrays, typees of arrays, declaration and
initiaalization witth the help of examples ini the first feew sections and
a later on
focuuses on stringg handling inn C program mming languaage.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
S
Afteer going through this unitt you will bee able to:
 declare and use arrays of
o one dimennsion;
 initialize arrrays; 85
An Introduction to C
 use subscripts to access individual array elements;
 write programs involving arrays;
 do searching and sorting;
 handle multi-dimensional arrays;
 define, declare and initialize a string;
 discuss various formatting techniques to display the strings; and
 discuss various built-in string functions and their use in manipulation of
strings.

4.2 ARRAY DECLARATION

Before discussing how to declare an array, first of all let us look at the
characteristic features of an array.

 Array is a data structure storing a group of elements, all of which are of

the same data type.
 All the elements of an array share the same name, and they are
distinguished from one another with the help of an index.
 Random access to every element using a numeric index(subscript).
 A simple data structure, used for decades, which is extremely useful.
 Abstract Data type(ADT) list is frequently associated with the array data
structure.

The declaration of an array is just like any variable declaration with additional
size part, indicating the number of elements of the array. Like other variables,
arrays must be declared at the beginning of a function.

The declaration specifies the base type of the array, its name, and its size or
dimension. In the following section we will see how an array is declared:

4.2.1 Syntax of Array Declaration

Syntax of array declaration is as follows:

data-type array_name[constant-size];
Data-type refers to the type of elements you want to store
Constant-size is the number of elements

The following are some of declarations for arrays:

int char[80];
float farr[500];
static int iarr[80];
char charray[40];

There are two restrictions for using arrays in C:

 The amount of storage for a declared array has to be specified at compile
time before execution. This means that an array has a fixed size.
86
 Arrays and Strings
 The data type of an array applies uniformly to all the elements; for this
reason, an array is called a homogeneous data structure.

4.2.2 Size Specification

The size of an array should be declared using symbolic constant rather a fixed
integer quantity(The subscript used for the individual element is of are integer
quantity). The use of a symbolic constant makes it easier to modify a program
that uses an array. All reference to maximize the array size can be altered
simply by changing the value of the symbolic constant.(Please refer to Unit – 2
for details regarding symbolic constants).
To declare size as 50 use the following symbolic constant, SIZE, defined:
#define SIZE 50
The following example shows how to declare and read values in an array to
store marks of the students of a class.
Example 4.1

Write a program to declare and read values in an array and display them.

/* Program to read values in an array*/

# include<stdio.h>
# define SIZE 5 /* SIZE is a symbolic constant */

main()
{
int i=0; /* Loop variable */
int stud_marks[SIZE]; /* array declaration */

/* enter the values of the elements */

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
printf(“Element no. =%d”,i+1);
printf(“Enter the value of the element:”);
scanf(“%d”,&stud_marks[i]);
}
printf(“\nFollowing are the values stored in the corresponding array elements: \n\n”);
for( i=0; i<SIZE;i++)
{
printf(“Value stored in a[%d] is %d\n”i,stud_marks[i]);
}
}

OUTPUT:

Element no. =1 Enter the value of the element = 11

Element no. =2 Enter the value of the element = 12
Element no. =3 Enter the value of the element = 13
Element no. =4 Enter the value of the element = 14
Element no. =5 Enter the value of the element = 15

Following are the values stored in the corresponding array elements:

87
An Introduction to C Value stored in a[0] is 11
Value stored in a[1] is 12
Value stored in a[2] is 13
Value stored in a[3] is 14
Value stored in a[4] is 15

4.3 ARRAY INITIALIZATION

Arrays can be initialized at the time of declaration. The initial values must
appear in the order in which they will be assigned to the individual array
elements,enclosed within the braces and separated by commas. In the
following section,we see how this can be done.

4.3.1 Initialization of Array Elements in the Declaration

The values are assigned to individual array elements enclosed within the braces
and separated by comma. Syntax of array initialization is as follows:
data type array-name [size] = {val 1,val 2,.......val n};

val 1 is the value for the first array element,val 2 is the value for the second
element,and val n is the value for the n array element. Note that when you are
initializing the values at the time of declaration, then there is no need to specify
the size. Let us see some of the examples given below:
int digits [10]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10};

int digits[]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10};

int vector[5]={12,-2,33,21,13};

float temperature[10]={31.2,22.3,41.4,33.2,23.3,32.3,41.1,10.8,11.3,42.3};

double width[]={17.33333456,-1.212121213,222.191345 };

int height[10]={60,70,68,72,68 };

4.3.2 Character Array Initialisation

The array of characters is implemented as strings in C. Strings are handled
differently as far as initialization is concerned. A special character called null
character ‘ \0 ’,implicitly suffixes every string. When the external or static
string character array is assigned a string constant, the size specification is
usually omitted and is automatically assigned; it will include the ‘\0’character,
added at end. For example, consider the following two assignment statements:
char thing[3]= “TIN”;
char thing[]= “TIN”;

In the above two statements the assignments are done differently. The first
statement is not a string but simply an array storing three characters ‘T’,‘I’ and
‘N’ and is same as writing:
char thing[3]={‘T’,‘I’,‘N’};

88
 Arrays and Strings
whereas,the second one is a four character string TIN\0. The change in the
first assignment, as given below, can make it a string.
char thing [4]=“TIN”;

Check Your Progress 1

1. What happens if I use a subscript on an array that is larger than the number
of elements in the array?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………
2. Give sizes of following arrays.
a. char carray []=“HELLO”;
b. char carray [5]=“HELLO”;
c. char carray []={‘H’,‘E’,‘L’,‘L’,‘O’};
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. What happens if an array is used without initializing it?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
4. Is there an easy way to initialize an entire array at once?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
5. Use a for loop to total the contents of an integer array called numbers with
five elements. Store the result in an integer called TOTAL.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
89
An Introduction to C
4.4 SUBSCRIPT
To refer to the individual element in an array,a subscript is used. Refer to the
statement we used in the Example 4.1,
scanf(“ %d”,&stud_marks[i]);

Subscript is an integer type constant or variable name whose value ranges from
0 to SIZE - 1 where SIZE is the total number of elements in the array. Let us now see
how we can refer to individual elements of an array of size 5:

Consider the following declarations:

char country[] =“India”;

int stud[]={1,2,3,4,5};

Here both arrays are of size 5. This is because the country is a char array and
initialized by a string constant “India” and every string constant is terminated
by a null character ‘\0’. And stud is an integer array. country array occupies 5
bytes of memory space whereas stud occupies size of 10 bytes of memory
space. The following table: 4.1 shows how individual array elements of
country and stud arrays can be referred:
Table 4.1: Reference of individual elements
Element Subscript country array stud array
no.
Reference Value Reference Value
1 0 country [0] ‘I’ stud [0] 1
2 1 country [1] ‘n’ stud [1] 2
3 2 country [2] ‘d’ stud [2] 3
4 3 country [3] ‘i’ stud [3] 4
5 4 country [4] ‘a’ stud [4] 5

Example 4.2

Write a program to illustrate how the marks of 10 students are read in an array
and then used to find the maximum marks obtained by a student in the class.

/* Program to find the maximum marks among the marks of 10 students*/

#include< stdio.h>
#define SIZE 10 /* SIZE is a symbolic constant */

main()
{

int i=0;
int max=0;
int stud_marks[SIZE]; /* array declaration */

/* enter the values of the elements */

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
printf(“Student no. =%d”,i+1);
90 printf(“ Enter the marks out of 50:”);
 scanf(“%d”,&stud_marks[i]); Arrays and Strings
}

/* find maximum */
for(i=0;i<SIZE;i ++)
{
if(stud_marks[i]>max)
max= stud_marks[i];
}
printf(“\n\nThe maximum of the marks obtained among all the 10 students is: %d
”,max);
}

OUTPUT

Student no. = 1 Enter the marks out of 50: 10

Student no. = 2 Enter the marks out of 50: 17
Student no. = 3 Enter the marks out of 50: 23
Student no. = 4 Enter the marks out of 50: 40
Student no. = 5 Enter the marks out of 50: 49
Student no. = 6 Enter the marks out of 50: 34
Student no. = 7 Enter the marks out of 50: 37
Student no. = 8 Enter the marks out of 50: 16
Student no. = 9 Enter the marks out of 50: 08
Student no. = 10 Enter the marks out of 50: 37

The maximum of the marks obtained among all the 10 students is: 49

4.5 PROCESSING THE ARRAYS

For certain applications the assignment of initial values to elements of an array
is required. This means that the array be defined globally(extern) or locally as
a static array.
Let us now see in the following example how the marks in two subjects, stored
in two different arrays, can be added to give another array and display the
average marks in the below example.
Example 4.3

Write a program to display the average marks of each student, given the marks
in 2 subjects for 3 students.

/* Program to display the average marks of 3 students */

# include < stdio.h >

# define SIZE 3
main()
{
int i =0;
float stud_marks1[SIZE]; /* subject 1array declaration */
float stud_marks2[SIZE]; /*subject 2 array declaration */
float total_marks[SIZE];
float avg[SIZE];

printf(“\n Enter the marks in subject-1 out of 50 marks: \n”);

91
An Introduction to C for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
printf(“Student no. =%d”,i+1);
printf(“Enter the marks= “);
scanf(“%f”,&stud_marks1[i]);
}
printf(“\nEnter the marks in subject-2 out of 50 marks \n”);
for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
printf(“Student no. =%d”,i+1);
printf(“Please enter the marks= ”);
scanf(“%f”,&stud_marks2[i]);
}

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
total_marks[i]=stud_marks1[i]+ stud_marks2[i];
avg[i]=total_marks[i]/2;
printf(“Student no.=%d,Average= %f\n”,i+1,avg[i]);
}
}

OUTPUT

Enter the marks in subject-1out of 50 marks:

Student no. = 1 Enter the marks= 23
Student no. = 2 Enter the marks= 35
Student no. = 3 Enter the marks= 42

Enter the marks in subject-2 out of 50 marks:

Student no. = 1 Enter the marks= 31
Student no. = 2 Enter the marks= 35
Student no. = 3 Enter the marks= 40

Student no. = 1 Average= 27.000000

Student no. = 2 Average= 35.000000
Student no. = 3 Average= 41.000000

Let us now write another program to search an element using the linear search.

Example 4.4

Write a program to search an element in a given list of elements using Linear Search.

/* Linear Search*/

# include<stdio.h>
# define SIZE 05
main()
{
int i =0;
int j;
int num_list[SIZE]; /* array declaration */

/* enter elements in the following loop */

printf(“Enter any 5 numbers: \n”);

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i ++)
92
 { Arrays and Strings
printf(“Element no.=%d Value of the element=”,i+1);
scanf(“%d”,&num_list[i]);
}
printf(“Enter the element to be searched:”);
scanf(“%d”,&j);

/* search using linear search */

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
if(j == num_list[i])
{
printf(“The number exists in the list at position: %d\n”,i+1);
break;
}
}
}

OUTPUT

Enter any 5 numbers:

Element no.=1 Value of the element=23
Element no.=2 Value of the element=43
Element no.=3 Value of the element=12
Element no.=4 Value of the element=8
Element no.=5 Value of the element=5
Enter the element to be searched: 8
The number exists in the list at position: 4

Example 4.5

Write a program to sort a list of elements using the selection sort method

/* Sorting list of numbers using selection sort method*/

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 5

main()
{

int j,min_pos,tmp;
int i; /* Loop variable */
int a[SIZE]; /* array declaration */

/* enter the elements */

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
printf(“Element no.=%d”,i+1);
printf(“Value of the element: “);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}

/* Sorting by descending order*/

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
{
93
An Introduction to C min_pos=i;
for(j=i+1;j<SIZE;j++)
if(a[j] < a[min_pos])
min_pos= j;
tmp=a[i];
a[i]=a[min_pos];
a[min_pos]=tmp;
}

/* print the result */

printf(“The array after sorting:\n”);

for(i=0;i<SIZE;i++)
printf("% d\n",a[i]);
}

OUTPUT

Element no. = 1 Value of the element: 23

Element no. =2 Value of the element: 11
Element no. =3 Value of the element: 100
Element no. =4 Value of the element: 42
Element no. =5 Value of the element: 50

The array after sorting:

11
23
42
50
100

Check Your Progress 2

1. Name the technique used to pass an array to a function.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
2. Is it possible to pass the whole array to a function?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. List any two applications of arrays.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

94 ………………………………………………………………………………
 Arrays and Strings
4.6 MULT
TI-DIME
ENSIONA
AL ARR
RAYS
Supppose that youu are writingg a chess-plaaying prograam. A chessbboard is an 8- 8
by-88 grid. What data structure would you use to reprresent it? Yoou could use an
arrayy that has a chessboard-l
c like structuree, i.e. a two-ddimensional array
a , to storre
the positions
p of the
t chess pieeces. Two-diimensional aarrays use tw wo indices too
pinp
point an indivvidual elemeent of the arrray. This is vvery similar to what is
calleed "algebraicc notation", commonly
c u
used in chesss circles to reecord gamess
and chess probleems.
In prrinciple, therre is no limitt to the numbber of subscripts(or dim
mensions) an
arrayy can have. Arrays
A with more than oneo dimensioon are calledd multi-
dimeensional arrayys. While hu umans cannot easily visuualize objectss with more
than three dimennsions, repreesenting multi-dimensionnal arrays prresents no
probblem to compputers. In praactice, howeever, the amoount of mem mory in a
comp
mputer tends to t place limiits on the sizze of an arrayy . A simple four-
dimeensional arraay of double-precision nuumbers, merrely twenty elements
e widde
in eaach dimensioon, takes up 20^4 * 8, orr 1,280,000 bbytes of mem mory - aboutt a
megabyte.
For example,
e 1 elementss.
yoou have ten rows and ten columns, foor a total of 100
It’s really
r no bigg deal. The first
fi number in brackets iis the numbeer of rows, thhe
secoond number in i brackets is the numbeer of columnss. So, the uppper left cornner
of anny grid woulld be elemennt [0][0]. Thee element too its right woould be [0][1],
and so on. Here is a little illuustration to help.
h

Threee-dimensionnal arrays(an nd higher) arre stored in tthe same way as the twoo-
dimeensional onees. They are kept in comp puter memorry as a lineaar sequence oof
variaables, and th
he last index is always thhe one that varies fastest((then the nexxt-
to-laast, and so onn).

4.6.1 Multi - Dimensiional Arraay Declaraation

You can declare an array of two dimensiions as folloows:
data
atype array__name[size1]][size2];

In th
he above exaample, variabble_type is thet name of ssome type of variable, suuch
as in
nt. Also, sizee1 and size2 are the sizess of the arrayy’s first and second
dimeensions, resppectively. Heere is an exaample of defi fining an 8-by y-8 array off
integ
gers, similar to a chessbooard. Remem mber, becausse C arrays are a zero-baseed,
95
An Introduction to C
the indices on each side of the chessboard array run 0 through 7, rather than 1
through 8. The effect is the same: a two-dimensional array of 64 elements.
int chessboard [8][8];

To pinpoint an element in this grid, simply supply the indices in both

dimensions.

4.6.2 Initialisation of Two - Dimensional Arrays

If you have an m x n array, it will have m * n elements and will require
m*n*element-size bytes of storage. To allocate storage for an array you must
reserve this amount of memory. The elements of a two-dimensional array are
stored row wise. If table is declared as:
int table [2] [3]={1,2,3,4,5,6 };

It means that element

table [0][0]=1;
table [0][1]=2;
table [0][2]=3;
table [1][0]=4;
table [1][1]=5;
table [1][2]=6;

The neutral order in which the initial values are assigned can be altered by
including the groups in {} inside main enclosing brackets, like the following
initialization as above:
int table [2][3]={{1,2,3},{4,5,6} };

The value within innermost braces will be assigned to those array elements
whose last subscript changes most rapidly. If there are few remaining values
in the row, they will be assigned zeros. The number of values cannot exceed
the defined row size.
int table [2] [3]={{1, 2, 3},{4}};

It assigns values as:

table[0][0]=1;
table[0][1]=2;
table[0][2]=3;
table[1][0]=4;
table[1][1]=0;
table[1][2]=0;

Remember that, C language performs no error checking on array bounds. If

you define an array with 50 elements and you attempt to access element 50(the
51st element), or any out of bounds index, the compiler issues no warnings. It
is the programmer’s task to check that all attempts to access or write to arrays
are done only at valid array indexes. Writing or reading past the end of arrays
is a common programming bug and is hard to isolate.

96
 Arrays and Strings
Check Your Progress 3
1. Declare a multi-dimensioned array of floats called balances having three
rows and five columns.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
2. Write a for loop to total the contents of the multi-dimensioned float array
balances.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. Write a for loop which will read five characters(use scanf) and deposit
them into the character based array words, beginning at element 0.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

4.7 INTRODUCTION TO STRINGS

In the previous unit, we have discussed numeric arrays, a powerful data storage
method that lets you group a number of same-type data items under the same
group name. Individual items, or elements, in an array are identified using a
subscript after the array name. Computer programming tasks that involve
repetitive data processing lend themselves to array storage. Like non-array
variables, arrays must be declared before they can be used. Optionally, array
elements can be initialized when the array is declared. In the earlier unit, we
had just known the concept of character arrays which are also called strings.
String can be represented as a single-dimensional character type array. C
language does not provide the intrinsic string types. Some problems require
that the characters within a string be processed individually. However, there
are many problems which require that strings be processed as complete
entities. Such problems can be manipulated considerably through the use of
special string oriented library functions. Most of the C compilers include string
library functions that allow string comparison, string copy, concatenation of
strings etc. The string functions operate on null-terminated arrays of characters
97
An Introduction to C and require the header <string.h>.The use of the some of the string library
functions are given as examples in this unit.

4.8 DECLARATION AND INITIALIZATION OF

STRINGS
Strings in C are group of characters, digits, and symbols enclosed in quotation
marks or simply we can say the string is declared as a “character array”. The
end of the string is marked with a special character, the ‘\0’ (Null character),
which has the decimal value 0. There is a difference between a character
stored in memory and a single character string stored in a memory. The
character requires only one byte whereas the single character string requires
two bytes (one byte for the character and other byte for the delimiter).
Declaration of Strings
A string in C is simply a sequence of characters. To declare a string, specify
the data type as char and place the number of characters in the array in square
brackets after the string name. The syntax is shown as below:
char string-name[size];

For example,
char name[20];
char address[25];
char city[15];

Initialization of Strings
The string can be initialized as follows:
char name[8]={‘P’,‘R’,‘O’,‘G’,‘R’,‘A’,‘M’,‘\0’};

Each character of string occupies 1 byte of memory (on 16 bit computing). The
size of character is machine dependent, and varies from 16 bit computers to 64
bit computers. The characters of strings are stored in the contiguous (adjacent)
memory locations.

1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 1 byte

P R O G R A M \0
1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008

The C compiler inserts the NULL (\0) character automatically at the end of the
string. So initialization of the NULL character is not essential.
You can set the initial value of a character array when you declare it by
specifying a string literal. If the array is too small for the literal, the literal will
be truncated. If the literal (including its null terminator) is smaller than the
array, then the final characters in the array will be undefined. If you don’t
specify the size of the array, but do specify a literal, then C will set the array to
the size of the literal, including the null terminator.

98
 char str[4]={‘u’, ‘n’, ‘i’, ‘x’}; Arrays and Strings
char str[5]={‘u’, ‘n’, ‘i’, ‘x’, ‘\0’};
char str[3];
char str[]=“UNIX”;
char str[4]=“unix”;
char str[9]=“unix”;

All of the above declarations are legal. But which ones don’t work? The first
one is a valid declaration, but will cause major problems because it is not null-
terminated. The second example shows a correct null-terminated string. The
special escape character \0 denotes string termination. The fifth example
suffers the size problem, the character array ‘str’ is of size 4 bytes, but it
requires an additional space to store ‘\0’. The fourth example however does
not. This is because the compiler will determine the length of the string and
automatically initialize the last character to a null-terminator. The strings not
terminated by a ‘\0’ are merely a collection of characters and are called as
character arrays.
String Constants
String constants have double quote marks around them, and can be assigned to
char pointers. Alternatively, you can assign a string constant to a char array -
either with no size specified, or you can specify a size, but don’t forget to leave
a space for the null character! Suppose you create the following two code
fragments and run them:
/* Fragment 1 */
{
char *s;
s=hello”;
printf(“%s\n”,s);
}

/* Fragment 2 */
{
char s[100];
strcpy(s,“ hello”);
printf(“%s\n”,s);
}

These two fragments produce the same output, but their internal behaviour is
quite different. In fragment 2, you cannot say s="hello";. To understand the
differences, you have to understand how the string constant table works in C.
When your program is compiled, the compiler forms the object code file,
which contains your machine code and a table of all the string constants
declared in the program. In fragment 1, the statement s="hello"; causes s to
point to the address of the string hello in the string constant table. Since this
string is in the string constant table, and therefore technically a part of the
executable code, you cannot modify it. You can only point to it and use it in a
read-only manner. In fragment 2, the string hello also exists in the constant
table, so you can copy it into the array of characters named s. Since s is not an
address, the statement s="hello"; will not work in fragment 2. It will not even
compile.

99
An Introduction to C Example 4.6
Write a program to read a name from the keyboard and display message Hello onto
the monitor”.
/*Program that reads the name and display the hello along with your name*/
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char name[10];
printf(“\nEnter Your Name :);
scanf(“%s”, name);
printf(“Hello %s\n”,name);
}

OUTPUT

Enter Your Name: Alex

Hello Alex

In the above example declaration char name [10] allocates 10 bytes of memory
space(on 16 bit computing) to array name []. We are passing the base address
to scanf function and scanf() function fills the characters typed at the keyboard
into array until enter is pressed. The scanf() places ‘\0’ into array at the end of
the input. The printf() function prints the characters from the array on to
monitor, leaving the end of the string ‘\0’. The %s used in the scanf() and
printf() functions is a format specification for strings.

4.9 DISPLAY OF STRINGS USING DIFFERENT

FORMATTING TECHNIQUES
The printf function with %s format is used to display the strings on the screen.
For example, the below statement displays entire string:
printf(“%s”, name);

We can also specify the accuracy with which character array (string) is
displayed. For example, if you want to display first 5 characters from a field
width of 15 characters, you have to write as:
printf(“%15.5s”, name);
If you include minus sign in the format (e.g. % –10.5s), the string will be
printed left justified.
printf(“% -10.5s”, name);
Example 4.7
Write a program to display the string “UNIX” in the following format.
U
UN
UNI
UNIX
UNIX
UNI
100
 UN Arrays and Strings
U
/* Program to display the string in the above shown format*/

# include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y;
static char string[]=“UNIX”;
printf(“\n”);
for( x=0; x<4; x++)
{
y=x + 1;
/* reserves 4 character of space on to the monitor and minus sign is for left
justified*/
printf(“%-4.*s \n”, y, string);

/* and for every loop the * is replaced by value of y */

/* y value starts with 1 and for every time it is incremented by 1 until it reaches to 4*/
}

for( x=3; x>=0; x- -)

{
y=x +1;
printf(“%-4.*s \n”, y, string);
/* y value starts with 4 and for every time it is decrements by 1 until it reaches to 1*/
}
}
OUTPUT

U
UN
UNI
UNIX
UNIX
UNI
UN
U

4.10 ARRAY OF STRINGS

Array of strings are multiple strings, stored in the form of table. Declaring
array of strings is same as strings, except it will have additional dimension to
store the number of strings. Syntax is as follows:
char array-name[size][size];
For example,
char names[5][10];
where names is the name of the character array and the constant in first square
brackets will gives number of string we are going to store, and the value in
second square bracket will gives the maximum length of the string.
Example 4.8
char names [3][10]={“martin”,“phil”,“collins”};
101
An Introduction to C
It can be represented by a two-dimensional array of size[3][10] as shown
below:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
m a r t i n \0
p h i l \0
c o l l i n s \0

Example 4.9

Write a program to initializes 3 names in an array of strings and display them

on to monitor
/* Program that initializes 3 names in an array of strings and display them on to
monitor.*/

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int n;
char names[3][10]={“Alex”, “Phillip”, “Collins” };
for(n=0; n<3; n++)
printf(“%s \n”,names[n] ); }

OUTPUT

Alex
Phillip
Collins
Check Your Progress 4
1. Which of the following is a static string?
A. Static String;
B. “Static String”;
C. ‘Static String’;
D. char string[100];
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
2. Which character ends all strings?
A. ‘.’
B. ‘ ‘
C. ‘0’
D. ‘n’
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

102 ………………………………………………………………………………
 Arrays and Strings
3. What is the Output of the following programs?
(a) main()
{
char name[10]=“IGNOU”;
printf(“\n %c”, name[0]);
printf(“\n %s”, name);
}

(b) main()
{
char s[]=“hello”;
int j=0;
while( s[j] !=‘\0’ )
printf(“ %c”,s[j++]);
}

(c) main()
{
char str[]=“hello”;
printf(“%10.2s”, str);
printf(“%-10.2s”, str);
}
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
4 Write a program to read 'n' number of lines from the keyboard using a
two-dimensional character array (ie., strings).
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

4.11 BUILT IN STRING FUNCTIONS AND

APPLICATIONS

The header file <string.h> contains some string manipulation functions. The
following is a list of the common string managing functions in C.

4.11.1 Strlen Function

The strlen function returns the length of a string. It takes the string name as
argument. The syntax is as follows:
n=strlen(str);

where str is name of the string and n is the length of the string, returned by
strlen function.

Example 4.10
Write a program to read a string from the keyboard and to display the length of
the string on to the monitor by using strlen( ) function.
103
An Introduction to C /* Program to illustrate the strlen function to determine the length of a string */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char name[80];
int length;
printf(“Enter your name: ”);
gets(name);
length=strlen(name);
printf(“Your name has %d characters\n”, length);
}

OUTPUT

Enter your name: TYRAN

Your name has 5 characters

4.11.2 Strcpy Function

In C, you cannot simply assign one character array to another. You have to
copy element by element. The string library <string.h> contains a function
called strcpy for this purpose. The strcpy function is used to copy one string
to another. The syntax is as follows:
strcpy(str1, str2);
where str1, str2 are two strings. The content of string str2 is copied on to
string str1.

Example 4.11
Write a program to read a string from the keyboard and copy the string onto
the second string and display the strings on to the monitor by using strcpy( )
function.
/* Program to illustrate strcpy function*/

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char first[80], second[80];
printf(“Enter a string: ”);
gets(first);
strcpy(second, first);
printf(“\n First string is : %s, and second string is: %s\n”, first, second);
}

OUTPUT

Enter a string: ADAMS

First string is: ADAMS, and second string is: ADAMS

104
 Arrays and Strings
4.11.3 Strcmp Function
The strcmp function in the string library function which compares two strings,
character by character and stops comparison when there is a difference in the
ASCII value or the end of any one string and returns ASCII difference of the
characters that is integer. If the return value zero means the two strings are
equal, a negative value means that first is less than second, and a positive value
means first is greater than second. The syntax is as follows:
n=strcmp(str1, str2);
where str1 and str2 are two strings to be compared and n is returned value of
differed characters.
Example 4.12

Write a program to compare two strings using string compare function.

/* The following program uses the strcmp function to compare two strings. */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char first[80], second[80];
int value;
printf(“Enter a string: ”);
gets(first);
printf(“Enter another string: ”);
gets(second);
value=strcmp(first,second);
if(value ==0)
puts(“The two strings are equal”);
else if(value < 0)
puts(“The first string is smaller ”);
else if(value > 0)
puts(“the first string is bigger”);
}

OUTPUT

Enter a string: MOND

Enter another string: MOHANT
The first string is smaller

4.11.4 Strcat Function

The strcat function is used to join one string to another. It takes two strings as
arguments; the characters of the second string will be appended to the first
string. The syntax is as follows:
strcat(str1, str2);

where str1 and str2 are two string arguments, string str2 is appended to string
str1.

105
An Introduction to C Example 14.13

Write a program to read two strings and append the second string to the first
string.

/* Program for string concatenation*/

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char first[80], second[80];
printf(“Enter a string:”);
gets(first);
printf(“Enter another string: ”);
gets(second);
strcat(first, second);
printf(“\nThe two strings joined together: %s\n”, first);
}

OUTPUT

Enter a string: BOREX

Enter another string: BANKS
The two strings joined together: BOREX BANKS

4.11.5 Strlwr Function

The strlwr function converts upper case characters of string to lower case characters.
The syntax is as follows:
strlwr(str1);
where str1 is string to be converted into lower case characters.

Example 4.14
Write a program to convert the string into lower case characters using in-built
function.
/* Program that converts input string to lower case characters */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char first[80];
printf("Enter a string: ");
gets(first);
printf("Lower case of the string is %s”, strlwr(first));
}

OUTPUT

Enter a string: BROOKES

Lower case of the string is brookes

4.11.6 Strrev Function

The strrev funtion reverses the given string. The syntax is as follows:
106
strrev(str); Arrays and Strings
where string str will be reversed.

Example 4.15
Write a program to reverse a given string.
/* Program to reverse a given string */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char first[80];
printf(“Enter a string:”);
gets(first);
printf(“\n Reverse of the given string is : %s ”, strrev(first));
}

OUTPUT

Enter a string: ADANY

Reverse of the given string is: YNADA

4.11.7 Strspn Function

The strspn function returns the position of the string, where first string
mismatches with second string. The syntax is as follows:
n=strspn(first, second);

where first and second are two strings to be compared, n is the number of
character from which first string does not match with second string.
Example 4.16

Write a program, which returns the position of the string from where first
string does not match with second string.
/*Program which returns the position of the string from where first string does
not match with second string*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char first[80], second[80];
printf("Enter first string: “);
gets(first);
printf(“\n Enter second string: “);
gets(second);
printf(“\n After %d characters there is no match”,strspn(first, second));
}

OUTPUT

Enter first string: ALEXANDER

Enter second string: ALEXSMITH
After 4 characters there is no match
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4.11.8 Other String Functions
strncpy function
The strncpy function same as strcpy. It copies characters of one string to
another string up to the specified length. The syntax is as follows:

strncpy(str1, str2, 10);

where str1 and str2 are two strings. The 10 characters of string str2 are copied
onto string str1.

stricmp function
The stricmp function is same as strcmp, except it compares two strings
ignoring the case(lower and upper case). The syntax is as follows:

n=stricmp(str1, str2);

strncmp function
The strncmp function is same as strcmp, except it compares two strings up to
a specified length. The syntax is as follows:
n=strncmp(str1, str2, 10);
where 10 characters of str1 and str2 are compared and n is returned value of
differed characters.

strchr function
The strchr funtion takes two arguments(the string and the character whose
address is to be specified) and returns the address of first occurrence of the
character in the given string. The syntax is as follows:
cp=strchr(str, c);
where str is string and c is character and cp is character pointer.

strset function
The strset funtion replaces the string with the given character. It takes two
arguments the string and the character. The syntax is as follows:
strset(first, ch);
where string first will be replaced by character ch.

strchr function
The strchr function takes two arguments(the string and the character whose
address is to be specified) and returns the address of first occurrence of the
character in the given string. The syntax is as follows:
cp=strchr(str, c);
where str is string and c is character and cp is character pointer.

strncat function
The strncat function is the same as strcat, except that it appends upto specified
length. The syntax is as follows:
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 Arrays and Strings
strncat(str1, str2,10);
where 10 character of the str2 string is added into str1 string.

strupr function
The strupr function converts lower case characters of the string to upper case
characters. The syntax is as follows:
strupr(str1);
where str1 is string to be converted into upper case characters.

strstr function
The strstr function takes two arguments address of the string and second
string as inputs. And returns the address from where the second string starts in
the first string. The syntax is as follows:
cp=strstr(first, second);
where first and second are two strings, cp is character pointer.

Check Your Progress 5

1. Which of the following functions compares two strings?
A. compare();
B. stringcompare();
C. cmp();
D. strcmp();
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
2. Which of the following appends one string to the end of another?
A. append();
B. stringadd();
C. strcat();
D. stradd();
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
3. Write a program to concatenate two strings without using the strcat()
function.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
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An Introduction to C
4. Write a program to find string length without using the strlen() function.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
5. Write a program to convert lower case letters to upper case letters in a
given string without using strupp().
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

4.12 SUMMARY
Like other languages, C uses arrays as a way of describing a collection of
variables with identical properties. The group has a single name for all its
members, with the individual member being selected by an index. We have
learnt in this unit, the basic purpose of using an array in the program,
declaration of array and assigning values to the arrays and also the string
handling functions. All elements of the arrays are stored in the consecutive
memory locations. Without exception, all arrays in C are indexed from 0 up to
one less than the bound given in the declaration. This is very puzzling for a
beginner. Watch out for it in the examples provided in this unit. One important
point about array declarations is that they don't permit the use of varying
subscripts. The numbers given must be constant expressions which can be
evaluated at compile time, not run time. As with other variables, global and
static array elements are initialized to 0 by default, and automatic array
elements are filled with garbage values. In C, an array of type char is used to
represent a character string, the end of which is marked by a byte set to 0(also
known as a NULL character).
Whenever the arrays are passed to function their starting address is used to
access rest of the elements. This is called – Call by reference. Whatever
changes are made to the elements of an array in the function, they are also
made available in the calling part. The formal argument contains no size
specification except for the rightmost dimension. Arrays and pointers are
closely linked in C. Multi-dimensional arrays are simply arrays of arrays. To
use arrays effectively it is a good idea to know how to use pointers with them.
More about the pointers can be learnt from Unit -7 (Block -2).
Strings are sequence of characters. Strings are to be null-terminated if you
want to use them properly. Remember to take into account null-terminators
when using dynamic memory allocation. The string.h library has many useful
functions. Losing the ‘ \0’ character can lead to some very considerable bugs.
Make sure you copy \0 when you copy strings. If you create a new string, make
sure you put \0 in it. And if you copy one string to another, make sure the
receiving string is big enough to hold the source string, including \0. Finally, if
you point a character pointer to some characters, make sure they end with \0.
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 Arrays and Strings
String Functions Its Use
strlen Returns number of characters in string.
strlwr Converts all the characters in the string into lower case
strcat characters
strcpy Adds one string at the end of another string
strcmp Copies a string into another
strdup Compares two strings and returns zero if both are equal.
strchr Duplicates a string
strstr Finds the first occurrence of given character in a string
strset Finds the first occurrence of given string in another string
strrev Sets all the characters of string to given character or symbol
Reverse a string

4.13 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1. If you use a subscript that is out of bounds of the array declaration, the
program will probably compile and even run. However, the results of such
a mistake can be unpredictable. This can be a difficult error to find once it
starts causing problems. So, make sure you’re careful when initializing
and accessing the array elements.
2. a) 6
b) 5
c) 5
3. This mistake doesn’t produce a compiler error. If you don’t initialize an
array, there can be any value in the array elements. You might get
unpredictable results. You should always initialize the variables and the
arrays so that you know their content.
4. Each element of an array must be initialized. The safest way for a beginner
is to initialize an array, either with a declaration, as shown in this chapter,
or with a for statement. There are other ways to initialize an array, but
they are beyond the scope of this Unit.
5. Use a for loop to total the contents of an integer array which has five
elements. Store the result in an integer called total.
for(loop=0,total=0; loop<5; loop++)
total=total+numbers[loop];
Check Your Progress 2
1. Call by reference.
2. It is possible to pass the whole array to a function. In this case, only the
address of the array will be passed. When this happens, the function can
change the value of the elements in the array.
3. Two common statistical applications that use arrays are:
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An Introduction to C
 Frequency distributions: A frequency array show the number of
elements with an identical value found in a series of numbers. For
example, suppose we have taken a sample of 50 values ranging from 0
to 10. We want to know how many of the values are 0, how many are
1, how many are 2 and so forth up to 10. Using the arrays we can
solve the problem easily . Histogram is a pictorial representation of
the frequency array. Instead of printing the values of the elements to
show the frequency of each number, we print a histogram in the form
of a bar chart.
 Random Number Permutations: It is a set of random numbers in
which no numbers are repeated. For example, given a random number
permutation of 5 numbers, the values of 0 to 5 would all be included
with no duplicates.
Check Your Progress 3
1. float balances[3][5];

2. for(row=0, total=0; row < 3; row++)

for(column=0; column < 5; column++)
total=total + balances[row][column];

3. for(loop=0; loop < 5; loop++)

scanf("%c",&words[loop] );

Check Your Progress 4

1. B

2. C

3. (a) I
IGNOU

(b) hello

(c) hehe

Check Your Progress 5

1. D
2. C
3. /*Program to concatenate two strings without using the strcat() function*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char str1[10];
char str2[10];
char output_str[20];
int i,j,k;
i=0;
j=0;
k=0;
printf("Input the first string: ");
gets(str1);
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 printf("\nInput the second string: "); Arrays and Strings
gets(str2);
while(str1[i]!='\0'
output_str[k++]=str1[i++];
while(str2[j]!='\0')
output_str[k++]=str2[j++];
output_str[k]='\0';
puts(output_str);
}
4. /* Program to find the string length without using the strlen() funtion */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char string[60];
int len,i;
len=0;
i=0;
printf("Input the string : ");
gets(string);
while(string[i++]!='\0')
len++;
printf("Length of Input String=%d",len);
getchar();
}

5. /* Program to convert the lower case letters to upper case in a given string
without using strupp() function*/

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i=0;
char source[10],destination[10];
printf(“Input the string in lower-case”);
gets(source);
while(source[i]!=‘\0’)
{
if((source[i]>=97)&&(source[i]<=122))
destination[i]=source[i]-32;
else
destination[i]=source[i];
i++;
}
destination[i]=‘ \0 ’;
puts(destination);
}

4.14 FURTHER READINGS

1. The C Programming Language, Brain W. Kernighan, Dennis M. Ritchie,
PHI.
2. C, The Complete Reference, Fourth Edition, Herbert Schildt, TMGH,
2002.
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An Introduction to C
3. Computer Science – A Structured Programming Approach Using C,
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Richard F. Gilberg, Thomas Learning, Second
edition, 2001.
4. Programming with ANSI and TURBO C, Ashok N. Kamthane, Pearson
Education, 2002.
5. Computer Programming in C, Raja Raman. V, PHI, 2002.

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