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MSCPH508

Board of Studies
Prof. P. D. Pant Prof. S.R. Jha,
Director School of Sciences School of Sciences, I.G.N.O.U., Maidan
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Garhi, New Delhi
Prof. P. S. Bisht, Prof. R. C. Shrivastva,
SSJ Campus, KumaunUniversity, Almora. Professor and Head, Department of Physics,
Dr. Kamal Devlal CBSH, G.B.P.U.A.&T. Pantnagar, India
Department of Physics
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open University

Department of Physics (School of Sciences)

Dr. Kamal Devlal (Assistant Professor) Dr. Meenakshi Rana (Assistant Professor (AC))
Dr. Vishal Sharma (Assistant Professor) Dr. Rajesh Mathpal (Assistant Professor (AC))
Dr. Gauri Negi (Assistant Professor)

Unit writing and Editing

Editing Writing
Prof. Madan Singh 1. Dr. Subhra Kala
Department of Physics and Department of Physics
Electronics Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srīnagar,
National University of Lesotho, 2. Dr. Meenakshi Rana
Department of Physics
Southern Africa
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open University
3. Dr. Rajesh Mathpal
Department of Physics
School of Sciences, Uttarakhand Open University
4.Dr. S.K. Joshi
Department Physics
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Prem Nagar, Dehradun-248007 Uttarakhand
5. Dr. Archana Dhyani
Department of Applied Sciences
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun
Uttarakhand
6. Dr. B.S. Tiwari
Department of PhysicsG.B. Pant Institute of Engineering and
Technology,Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand
Course Title and Code : Electrodynamics (MSCPH508)

ISBN :

Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University

Edition : 2022

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MSCPH508

Electrodynamics

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123
Toll free No. 18001804025
Fax No. 05946-264232, E. mail [email protected]
htpp://uou.ac.in

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Contents
Course: Electrodynamics Course code: MSCPH508
Credit: 3

Unit Block and Unit title Page

number number
Block I
1 ELECTROSTATICS 1-23
2 ELECTROSTATICS FIELD IN MATTERS 24-42
3 MAGNETOSTATICS 43-70
4 ELECTRODYNAMICS 71-92
Block II
5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 93-121
6 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE WITH MATTER 122-143
7 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 144-163
8 FOUR VECTOR FORMALISM OF MAXWELL’S EQUATION 164-182
9 WAVE GUIDE 183-221

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UNIT 1: ELECTROSTATICS

Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objective
1.3 Coulomb’s Law
1.4 Electric field
1.5 Electric Potential
1.6 Electric Dipole, Electric quadrupole and multipoles
1.7 Gauss’s Law
1.7.1 Flux of an electric filed through a surface
1.7.2Applications of Gauss’s law
1.8 Laplace and Poisson Equations

1.9 Boundary Value Problems

1.10 Laplace’s Equation in One Dimension

1.11 Laplace’s Equation in Two Dimensions

1.12 Summary

1.13 Problems

1.14 References

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

The electrostatics laterally contains two terms electro and statics thereby meaning charge in stationary
state. Therefore, electrostatics deals with the attraction or repulsion between the source charges,
which creates electric field but stationary and test charges, which may be moving. The unit starts with
the revision of basic laws and definitions and then finally discusses the Gauss law and its application,
Laplace and Poisson’s equation and boundary value problems.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

• define Coulomb’s law

• define electric field, potential and dipoles
• application of gauss’s law
• how to solve the problems using gauss’s law
• Laplace’s equation in one and two dimensions

1.3 COULOMB’S LAW

If an isolated source charge (q) is placed in the space, then it induces an electric field around it. If a
test charge (Q) is placed in this induced field then it experiences a force, as shown in figure 1(a).
According to Coulomb’s law that the force exerted by source charge (q) on any other charge (say test
charge Q, except itself) placed in it given by;

1 q.Q
F= r̂ …………………….(1.1)
4πε0 r2

The constant is called the permittivity of free space. In SI units, where force is in Newton (N),
distance in meters (m), and charge in coulombs (C),

= 8.85 × 10−12 C2/N.m2

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In words, the force is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the separation distance. As always, ris the separation vector fromthe location of q ( ́ ) to the
location of Q ( );

r= − ́

r is its magnitude, and ̂ is its direction. The force points along the line from q to Q; it is repulsive if q
and Q have the same sign, and attractive if their signs are opposite. Coulomb’s law and the principle
of superposition constitute the physical input for electrostatic. If many source charges , , ……
are present in the space then the total force exerted on the test charge (Q) will be the vector sum of the
forces exerted by all the charges present in that space, as shown in Figure 1(b).

1.4 ELECTRIC FIELD

If we have several point charges q1,q2, q3 ................ at distances r1,r2,r3................ from Q then total
force on Q can be given by;

------------------ (1.2)

Or it can be written as;

------------------- (1.3)

Where E replaces the following expression,

---------------------- (1.4)

E is called electric field of source charges and physically defined as the force exerted on the unit test
charge. Electric field is the function of r and how the source charges are configured.

In explaining the electric field, we have assumed that the charges are discrete. If the charge is
distributed continuously over some region, then the electric field is given by,

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---------------- (1.5)

Figure 1.2 pictorial representations of charge densities

densitie

(i) If the charge is spread out along a line (Fig. 5b), with charge-per-unit-length ρl,

------------(1.6)
(1.6)
where dl is an element of length along the line. Also the total charge over the line is given by;

------------- (1.7)
(ii) If the charge is smeared out over a surface (Fig. 5c), with charge-per-unit-area ρs,

--------- (1.8)
where dsis
is an element of area on the surface. Then total charge can be written as;

-------------(1.9)
(iii) If the charge fills a volume (Fig. 5d), with charge-per-unit-volume ρv defined as;

------------------(1.10)
where dvis
is an element of volume, and total charge can be expressed as;

------------- (1.11)

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Consider again, a single point charge q, situated at the origin then the electric field,

------------------ (1.12)

which falls of as 1/r2, radially from the origin, can be represented by the electric lines, as shown by
figure 12. The direction of electric lines towards the origin if placed charge is positive and away from
the centre if negative. If two charged are placed at some distance, then depending upon the nature of
the charges the shape of the electric lines are shown in figure below.

The magnitude of the field is indicated by the density of the filed lines. It is strong near the centre and
weaker as we move radially outwards. Field lines begin with the positive charge and end on negative
charge. Moreover, the field lines never cross each other.

Figure 1.3 electric field lines for different charges

1.5 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Suppose a point charge q is placed at the origin, as shown in figure 1.4 below, then induced electric
field at a distance r is given by equation 1.12. The line integral of this field from point a to point b,
which are at distances ra and rb from the origin, can be written as;

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Figure 1.4

dl in spherical coordinates,

then,

-------------------- (1.13)

The integral around a closed path is evidently zero when ra= rb

-------------------- (1.14)

Now, according to Stake’s theorem,

------------------ (1.15)

Moreover, the origin is just a reference point, the equation of still valid for any position of charge. If
many charges are present then according to superposition theorem, the total electric field is the vector
sum of their individual fields;

----------------- (1.16)

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Therefore,

------------- (1.17)

These equations hold for any static charge. Now, any vector whose curl is zero is equal to a gradient
of some scalar, therefore,

------------ (1.18)

V is defined as an electric potential,

---------------- (1.19)

In general, the electric potential V of a point charge q at a distance r is given as,

--------------- (1.20)

Similarly, the electric potential due to collection of charges, by applying superposition principle,

---------------- (1.21)

And for continuous charge distribution,

------------------- (1.22)

1.6 ELECTRIC DIPOLE, ELECTRIC QUADRUPOLE AND

MULTIPOLES

If you are very far away from a localized charge distribution, it “looks” like a point charge, and the
potential is to good approximation is given by equation 1.20, where Q is the total charge. We have
often used this as a check on formulas for V. But what You might reply that the potential is then
approximately zero, and of course, you’re right, in a sense (indeed, the potential at large r is pretty
small even if Q is not zero). But we’re looking for something a bit more informative than that.
A (physical) electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges (±q) separated by a distance d.
Then electric potential can be written as, Figure 1.5 shows the schematic of this.
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--------------- (1.23)

Figure 1.5

Then we can write the following expressions;

------------------- (1.24)

The multipole expansion of electric potential (V) in the power of 1/r

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--------- (1.25)

1.7 GAUSS’S LAW

1.7.1 Flux of an Electric Filed through a Surface

θ E

ΔA
Figure 1.6

Consider a hypothetical surface of area ΔA and suppose a uniform electric field exists in the space.
A line perpendicular to surface as shown in figure 1.6, upward is considered as a positive normal.
Suppose, the electric field makes an angle θ with the positive normal to the surface. Then the
quantity, ∆∅ .∆ . or ∆∅ . , is called the flux of the electric field through the chosen
surface.

If surface is made up of many small surfaces, then the total flux can be written as;

∅ . ------------------- (1.26)

The surface under consideration may be closed one, enclosing a volume, such as a spherical surface.
When the flux through a closed surface is required then flux is written as;

∅ ∮ . -------------- (1.27)

This suggests that the flux through any close surface is a measure of total charge inside. For the field
lines that originate on a positive charge must either pass out through the surface or else terminate on a
negative charge inside (Figure 1.3). On the other hand, a charge outside the surface will contribute

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nothing to the total flux, since its field lines pass in one side and out the other (Figure). This is the
essence of Gauss’s law. The statement of the Gauss’s law, “The flux of the net electric field through
a closed surface equals to the net charge enclosed by the surface (qin) divided by ε0”. The expression
may be written as;

∮ . -------------- (1.28)
!

In the case of a point charge q at the origin, the flux of E through a spherical surface of radius r is,

∮ . =∮
"# ! $ %
̂. &' ( (∅( ̂ ------------ (1.29)
!

Now suppose that instead of a single charge at the origin, we have a bunch of charges scattered about.
According to the principle of superposition, the total field is the (vector) sum of all the individual
fields:

∮ . ∑+,- *
------------------- (1.30)
!

As it stands, Gauss’s law is an integral equation, but we can easily turn it into a differential one, by
applying the divergence theorem:

∮ . (∇ . ) (1-------------------- (1.31)

Rewriting Qenc in terms of the charge density ρ, we have,

2+3 4 (1----------------------------- (1.32)

Therefore, Gauss’s law becomes,

(∇ . ) (1 (1 ----------------------- (1.33)
5
!

And since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal,

∇.
5
------------------------------------ (1.34)
!

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1.7.2 Applications of Gauss’s Law

Example 1 A long cylinder (Figure below) carries a charge density that is proportional to the
distance from the axis: ρ = ks, for some constant k. Find the electric field inside this cylinder.

Solution Draw a Gaussian cylinder of length l and radius s. For this surface, Gauss’s law states:

The enclosed charge is,

Example 2 Find the field outside a uniformly charged solid sphere of radius Rand total charge q.

Solution Imagine a spherical surface at radius r > R, as shown below; this is called a Gaussian
surface in the trade. Gauss’s law says that

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and in this case Qenc = q. At first glance this doesn’t seem to get us very far, because the quantity we
want (E) is buried inside the surface integral. Luckily, symmetry allows us to extract E from under
the integral sign: E certainly points radially outward,5 as does da, so we can drop the dot product,

and the magnitude of E is constant over the Gaussian surface, so it comes outside the integral:

The field outside the sphere is exactly the same as it would have been if all the charge had been
concentrated at the centre.

Example 3 Two infinite parallel planes carry equal but opposite uniform charge densities ±σ (Fig.
23). Find the field in each of the three regions: (i) to the left of both, (ii) between them, (iii) to the
right of both.

Solution The left plate produces a field (1/2ε0) σ, which points away from it (as shown in figure
below) to the left in region (i) and to the right in regions (ii) and (iii). The right plate, being negatively
charged, produces a field (1/2ε0) σ, which points toward it to the right in regions (i) and (ii) and to the
left in region (iii). The two fields cancel in regions (i) and (iii); they conspire in region (ii).
Conclusion: The field between the plates is σ /ε0, and points to the right; elsewhere it is zero.

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1.8 LAPLACE AND POISSON EQUATIONS

Electrostatics primarily deals with the electric field of a given stationary charge distribution. In
principle, this purpose is accomplished by Coulomb’s law, in the form of the following equation;

--------------------- (1.35)

Integrals of this type can be difficult to calculate for any but the simplest charge configurations.
Occasionally we can get around this by exploiting symmetry and using Gauss’s law. However, best
strategy is first to calculate the potential, V, by using the following equation:

------------------------ (1.36)

Still, it is often too tough to handle analytically. Moreover, if charge is free to move inside the
conductors then ρ itself may not be known in advance. In such cases, it is useful to recast the
problem in differential form, using Poisson’s equation,

--------------------------------------- (1.37)

which, together with appropriate boundary conditions. Very often, in fact, we are interested in
finding the potential in a region where ρ = 0. (If ρ = 0 everywhere,of course, then V = 0, but still there
may be plenty of charge elsewhere,but we’re considering places where there is no charge.) In this
case, Poisson’s equation reduces to Laplace’s equation:

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---------------------------------------- (1.38)

or, written out in Cartesian coordinates,

-------------------- (1.39)

This formula is so fundamental to the subject that one might almost say electrostatics is the study of
Laplace’s equation. At the same time, it, appears in such diverse branches of physics as gravitation
and magnetism, the theory of heat, and the study of soap bubbles. In mathematics, it plays a major
role in analytic function theory. The general solutions of Laplace’s equations are called harmonic
functions. The one- and two dimensional solutions will be described later. Before that the boundary
value problems will be discussed

1.9 BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS

The solutions of Laplace’s equations do not depend on time, initial conditions are irreverent and only
boundary conditions are specified. There are three basic types of boundary conditions that are usually
associated Laplace’s equation. They are as follows;

(a) If the solution u (x, y) to Laplace equation in a domain Ω is specified on the boundary ∂Ω i.e., u
(x, y) = f (x, y) on ∂Ω, then it is known as Dirichlet boundary conditions. Then the Dirichlet boundary
value problems for Laplace equation is of the form;

∇2u (x, y) = 0 in Ω;

and u (x, y) = f (x, y) on ∂Ω.

(b) If the directional derivative along the outward normal to the boundary is specified on ∂Ω that is

then it is called as Neumann boundary value problem. In physical terms, the normal component of the
solution gradient is known on the boundary. Laplace’s equations together with Neumann boundary
conditions are known as Neumann boundary value problem and defined as below.

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(c) If Dirichlet BC are specified on part of the boundary ∂Ω and Neumann type BC are specified on
the remaining part of the boundary ∂Ω, then it is defined as Robin’s or mixed type boundary
conditions.

Now, regarding the solution of the Laplace’s equations we have two uniqueness theorem, which are
stated as follows;

First Uniqueness theorem: The solutions to the Laplace’s equation in some volume V (as shown in
figure below) is uniquely determined if V is specified on the boundary surface S.

Second Uniqueness theorem: In a volume V surrounded by conductors and containing a specified

charge density ρ, the electric field is uniquely determined if the total charge on each conductor is
given,

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1.10 LAPLACE’S EQUATION in One DIMENSION

Suppose V depends on only one variable, x. Then Laplace’s equation becomes;

The general solution is the equation for a straight line.

It contains two undetermined constants (m and b), as is appropriate for a second-order (ordinary)
differential equation. They are fixed, in any particular case, by the boundary conditions of that
problem. For instance, it might be specified that V = 4 at x = 1, and V = 0 at x = 5. In that case, m =
−1 and b = 5, so V = −x + 5 (figure 1.7 below).

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Figure 1.7

1. V(x) is the average of V (x + a) and V (x − a), for any a:

Laplace’s equation is a kind of averaging instruction; it tells you to assign to the point x the average
of the values to the left and to the right of x. Solutions to Laplace’s equation are, yet fit the end points
properly.

2. Laplace’s equation tolerates no local maxima or minima; extreme values of V must occur at the
end points. Since Laplace’s equation requires, on the contrary, that the second derivative is zero, it
seems reasonable that solutions should exhibit no extrema.

1.8 Laplace’s Equation in Two Dimensions

If V depends on two variables, Laplace’s equation becomes

This is no longer an ordinary differential equation (that is, one involving ordinary derivatives only); it
is a partial differential equation.

Now consider the simple surface, a circle in x-y plane and we know the value at the boundary V= V0
then what is about the inside the surface. Now the imagine all possible solutions, which this equation
can satisfied as mentioned below,

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V =1 or x or y or xy or x2-y2 or x3-3xy2

If you put any of these values of combinations, then it will satisfy the Laplace’s equation. The we can
n
imagine that a simple complex function (x+iy) can be a solution

V(x,y) = Real/Imaginary (x+iy)n is the general solution inside the surface.

If you put n=1 then solution will be either V(x,y) = x or V(x,y) = y

If you put n=2 then solution will be either V(x,y) =x2-y2 or V(x,y) = 2xy

And so on.......

Now in terms of polar coordinates we can write,

x= rcosθ and y= rsinθ

then V(x,y)→V(r,θ) = Real/Imaginary [rn(cosθ + isinθ)n]

= Real/Imaginary rneinθ

So the general solution of Laplace’ s equation in 2-dimensional can be written as;

V(r,θ)= ∑7
+- 6+
+
+ ∑7
+- 9+
+
&'

Where anand bn are coefficients depending upon boundary conditions.

Now consider another example, how we solve Laplace’s equation will depend upon the geometry of
the 2-D object Let’s start out by solving it on the rectangle given by 0 ≤X ≥ L, and 0 ≤Y ≥ H. For this
geometry Laplace’s equation along with the four boundary conditions will be,

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. Both variables are spatial variables and each variable occurs in a 2nd order derivative and so we’ll
need two boundary conditions for each variable. Next, let’s notice that while the partial differential
equation is both linear and homogeneous the boundary conditions are only linear and are not
homogeneous. This creates a problem because separation of variables requires homogeneous
boundary conditions. To completely solve Laplace’s equation, we’re in fact going to have to solve it
four times. Each time we solve it only one of the four boundary conditions can be nonhomogeneous
while the remaining three will be homogeneous. The four problems are probably best shown with a
quick sketch so let’s consider the following sketch.

Because we know that Laplace’s equation is linear and homogeneous and each of the pieces is a
solution to Laplace’s equation then the sum will also be a solution.

Also, this will satisfy each of the four original boundary conditions.

In each of these cases the lone nonhomogeneous boundary condition will take the place of the initial
condition in the heat equation problems that we solved a couple of sections ago. We will apply
separation of variables to each problem and find a product solution that will satisfy the differential

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equation and the three homogeneous boundary conditions. Using the Principle of Superposition, we’ll
find a solution to the problem and then apply the final boundary condition to determine the value of
the constant(s) that are left in the problem. The process is nearly identical in many ways to what we
did when we were solving the heat equation.

Example: Find a solution to the following partial differential equation.

Solution: We’ll start by assuming that our solution will be in the form,

and then recall that we performed separation of variables. So from that problem we know that
separation of variables yields the following two ordinary differential equations that we’ll need to
solve.

Note that in this case, unlike the heat equation we must solve the boundary value problem first.
Without knowing what is there is no way that we can solve the first differential equation here with
only one boundary condition since the sign of will affect the solution. Let’s also notice that we solved
the boundary value problem in Example 1 of Solving the Heat Equation and so there is no reason to
resolve it here. Taking a change of letters into account the eigenvalues and Eigen functions for the
boundary value problem here are,

Now that we know what the eigenvalues are let’s write down the first differential equation with λ
plugged in.

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Because the coefficient of h(x) in the differential equation above is positive we know that a solution
to this is,

However, this is not really suited for dealing with the boundary condition. So, let’s also notice that
the following is also a solution.

You should verify this by plugging this into the differential equation and checking that it is in fact a
solution. Applying the lone boundary condition to this “shifted” solution gives,

The solution to the first differential equation is now,

and this is all the farther we can go with this because we only had a single boundary condition. That is
not really a problem however because we now have enough information to form the product solution
for this partial differential equation. A product solution for this partial differential equation is,

The Principle of Superposition then tells us that a solution to the partial differential equation is,

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and this solution will satisfy the three homogeneous boundary conditions. To determine the constants
all we need to do is apply the final boundary condition.

Now, in the previous problems we’ve done this has clearly been a Fourier series of some kind and in
fact it still is. The difference here is that the coefficients of the Fourier sine series are now,

instead of just. We might be a little more tempted to use the orthogonality of the sines to derive
formulas for the, however we can still reuse the work that we’ve done previously to get formulas for
the coefficients here.

Remember that a Fourier sine series is just a series of coefficients (depending on n) times a sine. We
still have that here, except the “coefficients” are a little messier this time that what we saw when we
first dealt with Fourier series. So, the coefficients can be found using exactly the same formula from
the Fourier sine series section of a function on we just need to be careful with the coefficients.

The formulas are a little disordered this time in comparison to the previous.

1.12 SUMMARY

1. Coulomb’s Law

1 q.Q
F= r̂
4πε0 r2

2. Electric field

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3. Electric potential

4. The multipole expansion of electric potential (V) in the power of 1/r

For monopole V (r) ~ 1/r

For dipole V (r) ~ 1/r2

For Quadrupole V (r) ~ 1/r3

For octopole V (r) ~ 1/r4

5. Gauss’s Law

: .
2+3

Or ∇.
5
!

6. Poisson equation

7. Laplace equation

1.13 PROBLEMS

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1. A uniform electric field of magnitude E= 100Newton/Coulomb exists in the space in x-direction.
Calculate the flux of this field through a plane square area of edge 10 cm placed in the y-z plane.
Take the normal along the positive x-axis to be positive.

2. The electric field in a region is radially outwards with magnitude E=Ar. Find the charge contained
in a sphere of radius a centred at the origin. Take A= 100 V/m3 and a= 20.0 cm.

3. Find a solution to the following partial differential equation.

1.14 REFERENCES

1. J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.

2. D.J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentice - Hall of India, New Delhi.

3. J.R. Reitz, F.J. Milford and R.W. Christy, Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory, 3rd
Edition, Narosa Publication, New Delhi.

4. H.C. Verma, Concept of Physics, Bharti Bhawan Publisher, ISBN 9788177709878, India.

5. MIT open courseware

UNIT 2: ELECTROSTATICS FIELD IN MATTERS

Structure

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Objectives

2.3 Induced Dipoles

2.4 Alignment of Polar Molecules

2.5 Polarization

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2.6 The Field of a Polarized Object

2.61Bound Charges

2.7 The Field inside a Dielectric

2.8 The Electrostatic Displacement

2.81 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

2.9 Linear Dielectrics

2.91Susceptibility, Permittivity, Dielectric Constant

2.10 Summary

2.11 Problems

2.12 References

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we shall study electric fields in matter, with reference to two large classes as conductors
and dielectrics. Conductors are substances that contain an “unlimited” supply of charges that are free
to move about through the material. On the other hand, in dielectrics, all charges are attached to
specific atoms or molecules—they are on a tight bound state, and all they can move a bit within the
atom or molecule. Such microscopic displacements are not as dramatic as the wholesale
rearrangement of charge in a conductor, but their cumulative effects account for the characteristic

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behaviour of dielectric materials. There are actually two principal mechanisms by which electric
fields can distort the charge distribution of a dielectric atom or molecule: stretching and rotating.

Below, few simple points regarding the conductors and insulators are mentioned for revision;

1. A perfect dielectric to have σ = 0 (for good insulators 10-17 ≤ σ ≥ 10-10 S/m)

2. A perfect conductor to have σ= ∞ (for good conductors 106 ≤ σ ≥ 107 S/m)

3. When an electric field is applied to a conductor, conduction current flow in the same direction
as the electric field.
4. When a dielectric material is subject to an electric field, the atoms or molecules of the material
become polarized. When
hen a dielectric material is subject to an electric field, the atoms or
molecules of the material become polarized.
When no field is present, the electron cloud is symmetrical about the nucleus (a) in Figure 2.1. In a
dielectric, when the field is applied, as shown in Figure 2.1(b), a shift occurs and E is said to polarize
the atoms and create a dipole. The dipole creates its own electric field known as the polarization field,
P. Molecules such as water have a permanent dipole moment, but the dipoles are randomly
ra aligned
until an applied field is applied.

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Figure 2.1. Effect on nucleus when (a) no electric field and (b) external field is applied

2.2 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to-

to

• explain Polarization
• define dielectrics constant, permittivity
• how to solve the dielectric problems
• apply Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

2.3 INDUCED DIPOLES

The atom as a whole is electrically neutral; there is a positively charged core (the nucleus) and a
negatively charged electron cloud surrounding it. Now, when a neutral atom it is placed in an electric
field E,, the two regions of charge (nucleus and orbiting electrons) within the atom are influenced by
the field:
ield: the nucleus is pushed in the direction of the field, and the electrons the opposite way. In
principle, if the field is large enough, it can pull the atom apart completely causing ionization of it and
the substance then becomes a conductor. With less strong fields, however, equilibrium is soon
established, for if the center of the electron cloud does not coincide with the nucleus, these positive
and negative charges attract one another, and that holds the atom together. The two opposing
forcespulling the
he electrons and nucleus apart, their mutual attraction drawing them back together
reach a balance, leaving the atom polarized, with plus charge shifted slightly one way, and minus the
other. The atom now has a tiny dipole moment p, which points in the samee direction as E.

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Typically, this induced dipole moment is approximately proportional to the field if the field is not too
strong:

---------------------------- (2.1)

The constant of proportionality α is called atomic polarizability.Its value depends on the detailed
structure of the atom of consideration and direction as well.

For molecules, the situation is not quite different and complex, because frequently molecules can
polarize more readily in some directions than in others. When the field is applied at some angle to the
axis, then it must be resolved into parallel and perpendicular components, and then each component
will be multiply by the related polarizability. So the total dipole moment can be written as;

---------------- (2.2)

In this case, the induced dipole moment may not even be in the same direction as E. However, the
most general linear relation between E and p is given by equation 2.3 along x-, y- and z-directions.

---------------- (2.3)

The set of nine constants αij (i= x,y,z and j= x,y,z) constitute the polarizability tensor for the molecule.
Their values depend on the orientation of the axes we use, though it is always possible to choose
“principal” axes such that all the off-diagonal terms (αxy, αzx, etc.) vanish, leaving just three non-zero
polarizabilities: αxx, αyy, and αzz.

Now consider a primitive model for an atom consists of a point nucleus (+q) surrounded by a
uniformly charged spherical cloud (−q) of radius a (Figure 2.2). Then the atomic polarizability of
such an atom can be calculated as follows,

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in the presence of an external field E, the nucleus will be shifted slightly to the right and the electron
cloud to the left, as shown in Figure 2.2. Because the actual displacements involved are extremely
small then it is reasonable to assume that the electron cloud retains its spherical shape. Equilibrium
occurs when the nucleus is displaced a distance d from the center of the sphere. At that point, the
external field pushing the nucleus to the right, exactly balances the internal field pulling it to the left:
E = Ee, where Eeis the field produced by the electron cloud. Now the field at a distance d from the
center of a uniformly charged sphere is,

-------------------- (2.4)

At equilibrium, then,

------------------------- (2.5)

The atomic polarizability is therefore

-------------------------------- (2.6)

where v (4πa3/3)is the volume of the atom. Although this atomic model is extremely crude, but the
result (Equation 2.6) is quite reasonable, it is accurate to within a factor of four or so for many simple
atoms.

2.4 ALIGNMENT OF POLAR MOLECULES

The neutral atom discussed in figure 2.2 had no dipole moment to start with p. Only applied electric
field has induceddipole moment. Some molecules have built-in, permanent dipole moments. In the
water molecule, for example, the electrons tend to cluster around the oxygen atom (Figure 2.3), and
since the molecule is bent at 105°, this leaves a negative charge at the vertex and a net positive charge
on the opposite side. The dipole moment of water is unusually large and approximately equals to 6.1
× 10−30 C
m. Due to this dipole moment it is consider as an effective solvent. When such molecules,
called polar molecules, are placed in a uniform electric field, then the force on the positive end, F+ =
qE, exactly cancels the force on the negative end, F− = −qE(Figure 2.3). However, there will be a
torque which tries to rotate the molecule along the direction of applied field. The magnitude of the
torque (N) can be given as;

------ (2.7)

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Figure 2.3. Configuration of water molecule and formation of dipole, when it is placed in an external
electric field

Thus a dipole p = qdin a uniform field E experiences a torque;

--------------------- (2.8)

Notice that, N is in such a direction as to line p up parallel to E; a polar molecule that is free to rotate
will swing around until it points in the direction of the applied field.

If the field is non-uniform, so that F+ does not exactly balance F , there will be a net force on the
dipole, in addition to the torque. Of course, Emust change rather abruptly for there to be significant
variation in the space of one molecule, so this is not ordinarily a major consideration in discussing the
behavior of dielectrics. Nevertheless, the formula for the force on a dipole in a non-uniform field is of
some interest:

------------------ (2.9)

where ΔErepresents the difference between the field at the plus end and the field at the minus end.
Assuming the dipole is very short, we can approximate the small change in Ex:

----------------------- (2.10)

with corresponding formulas for Eyand Ez. More compactly,

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------------------- (2.11)

Therefore,

------------------------------------------ (2.11)

For a dipole of infinitesimal length, called as a perfect dipole, equation 2.8 gives the torque about the
center of the dipole even in a non-uniform field. At any other point torque is given by N = (p × E) + (r
× F).

2.5 POLARIZATION

When a piece of dielectric material is placed in an electric field and if the substance consists of
neutral atoms (or non-polar molecules), the field will induce in each a tiny dipole moment, pointing in
the same direction as the field. If the material is made up of polar molecules, in which each possess a
permanent dipole, it will experience a torque, tending to rotate along the field direction. Although
random thermal motions compete with this process of alignment of molecule, so the alignment is
never complete, especially at higher temperatures, and disappears as soon as field is removed. These
two mechanisms produce the same basic result which infers the creation of a lot of little dipoles
pointing along the direction of the field anf then polarization of the material.

A convenient measure of this effect is P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume, which is called the
polarization. Even in polar molecules there will be some polarization by displacement although,
generally it is easier to rotate a molecule than to stretch it, so the second mechanism, which tries to
rotate the polar molecule dominates. However, even in some materials it is possible to “freeze in”
polarization. “Freeze in” indicates that the polarization persists even after the field is removed.

2.6 THE FIELD OF A POLARIZED OBJECT

2.6.1 Bound Charges

Suppose, we have a piece of polarized material—that is, an object containing a lot of microscopic
dipoles lined up. The dipole moment per unit volume Pis given. Then to calculate the field produced
by polarized object (not the field that may have caused the polarization), we can imagine that the
material is made up of infinitesimal dipoles. We know that, the field produced by an individual
dipole, and then we can integrate it to get the total. However, it is easier to work with the potential.
For a single dipole p, the electric potential at some distance r can be written as;

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------------------- (2.12)

Figure 2.4 Field produced by an individual dipole at a distance r

where ris the vector from the dipole to the point at which we are evaluating the potential, as shown in
Figure 2.4. In the present context, we have a dipole moment p = P dτˊ in each volume element dτˊ, so
the total potential is

----------------------------- (2.13)

Now, we can write,

------------------- (2.14)

where the differentiation is with respect to the source coordinates (rˊ), we have

------------------------------- (2.15)

------------------------ (2.16)

------------------ (2.17)

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The first term in the equation (2.17) resembles with the potential of a surface charge as;

------------------------------------ (2.18)

where ';is the normal unit vector, while the second term looks like the potential of a volume charge
as;

---------------------------- (2.19)

Therefore, we can write electric potential at a distance r as,

--------------------- (2.20)

It indicates that the potential and hence also the field of a polarized object is the same as that
produced by a volume charge density ρb= −∇
Pplus a surface charge density σb= P
';. Instead of
integrating the contributions of all the infinitesimal dipoles, we could first find those bound charges,
and then calculate the fields they produce, in the same way we calculate the field of any other volume
and surface charges (for example, using Gauss’s law). It is found that the field of a polarized object is
identical to the field that would be produced by a certain distribution of “bound charges,” σb and ρb.
Bound charges are in some sense “fictitious” and only accounting to facilitate the calculation of
fields.

Now, suppose we have a long string of dipoles, as shown in Figure 2.5 below. Along the line, the
head of one effectively cancels the tail of its neighbour, but at the ends there are two charges left over
plus at the right end and minus at the left. It is like a movement of an electron from one end to the
other end, though in fact single electron has not made the complete movement. In fact, a lot of tiny
displacements add up to one large one. So we call the net charge at the ends a bound charge to remind
ourselves that it cannot be removed.

Figure 2.5 Simplification of bound charge as a string

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Figure 2.6 bound charge across a cross sectional area (a) perpendicular and (b) inclined with some
angle to the direction of polarization.

in a dielectric every electron is attached to a specific atom or molecule. But apart from that, bound
charge is no different from any other kind. To calculate the actual amount of bound charge resulting
from a given polarization, examine a “tube” of dielectric parallel to P. The dipole moment of the tiny
chunk shown in figure 2.6(a) is P(Ad), where Ais the cross-sectional area of the tube and d is the
length of the chunk. In terms of the charge (q) at the end, this same dipole moment can be written qd.
The bound charge that piles up at the right end of the tube is therefore, if the ends have been sliced off
perpendicularly, the surface charge density is

------ ---------------------------(2.21)

------------------------------- (2.22)

For an oblique cut (as shown in figure 2.6(b)), the charge is still the same, but A = Aend cos θ, so

--- ------ (2.23)

The effect of the polarization, then, is to distribute a bound charge σb= P
'; over the surface of the
material. If the polarization is non-uniform, we get accumulations of bound charge within the
material, as well as on the surface. Figure 2.7 indicates that a diverging Presults in a pileup of
negative charge at the centre. Indeed, the net bound charge ρb dτ in a given volume is equal and
opposite to the amount that has been pushed out through the surface. The latter is P
';per unit area,
so

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Figure 2.7 Polarization direction is diverged from the centre

-------------------------- (2.24)

------------------------------ (2.25)

There is another way of analyzing the uniformly polarized sphere, which nicely illustrates the idea of
a bound charge. What we have, really, is two spheres of charge: a positive sphere and a negative
sphere. Without polarization the two are superimposed and cancel completely. But when the material
is uniformly polarized, all the plus charges move slightly upward (the z direction), and all the minus
charges move slightly downward (Figure 2.8). The two spheres no longer overlap perfectly: at the top
there’s a “cap” of leftover positive charge and at the bottom a cap of negative charge. This “leftover”
charge is precisely the bound surface charge σb.

Figure 2.8

The field in the region of overlap between two uniformly charged spheres is calculated as,

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---------------------------------- (2.26)

where q is the total charge of the positive sphere, d is the vector from the negative center to the
positive center, and R is the radius of the sphere. We can express this in terms of the polarization of
the sphere, p = qd = (4/3) π R3P, as

------------------------------------- (2.27)

Meanwhile, for points outside,it is as though all the charge on each sphere were concentrated at the
respective center. We have, then, a dipole, with potential

--------------- (2.28)

2.7 THE FIELD INSIDE A DIELECTRIC

Suppose I want to calculate the macroscopic field at some point r within a dielectric (Figure 16). I
know I must average the true (microscopic) field over an appropriate volume, so let me draw a small
sphere about r, of radius R, say, a thousand times the size of a molecule. The macroscopic field at r,
then, consists of two parts: the average field over the sphere due to all charges outside, plus the
average due to all charges inside:

--------------------------- (2.29)

--------------- (2.30)

------------------------------ (2.31)

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------------------------------ (2.32)

Figure 2.9 Microscopic field inside the dielectric at point r by drawing a sphere of radius R centred
about r and then taking contributions of dipoles lying inside and outside the spheres.

---------------------- (2.33)

The average field (over a sphere), produced by charges outside, is equal to the field they produce at
the center, so Eout is the field at r due to the dipoles exterior to the sphere. The dipoles inside the
sphere are too close to treat in this fashion. But fortunately all we need is their average field, and that
is regardless of the details of the charge distribution within the sphere. The only relevant quantity is
the total dipole moment, p= (4/3) π R3P

Now, by assumption, the sphere is small enough that Pdoes not vary significantly over its volume, so
the term left out of the integral in equation 2.30 corresponds to the field at the center of a uniformly
polarized sphere, to wit: (1/3ε0)P. But this is precisely what Ein in equation 2.32. The macroscopic
field, then, is given by the potential where the integral runs over the entire volume of the dielectric.
Notice that the average field over any sphere (due to the charge inside) is the same as the field at the
center of a uniformly polarizedsphere with the same total dipole moment. This means that no matter
how crazy the actual microscopic charge configuration, we can replace it by a nice smooth
distribution of perfect dipoles, if all we want is the macroscopic (average) field. Incidentally, while
the argument ostensibly relies on the spherical shape I chose to average over, the macroscopic field is
certainly independent of the geometry of the averaging region, and this is reflected in the final
answer, equation 2.33. Presumably one could reproduce the same argument for a cube or an ellipsoid
or whatever—the calculation might be more difficult, but the conclusion would be the same.
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2.8 THE ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT

2.8.1 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

Previously we found that the effect of polarization is to produce accumulations of bound charge, ρb=
−∇
Pwithin the dielectric and σb= P
ˆnon the surface. The field due to polarization of the medium
is just the field of this bound charge. We are now ready to put it all together: the field attributable to
bound charge plus the field due to everything else which is called as a free charge density, ρf. The free
charge might consist of electrons on a conductor or ions embedded in the dielectric material or
whatever; precisely any charge that is nota result of polarization is included in free charge density.
Within the dielectric, the total charge density can be written:

-- --------------------------------- (2.34)

and then Gauss’s law takes the form as below,

------------------- (2.35)

------------------------------------------- (2.36)

where E is now the total field including to cause polarization. It is convenient to combine the two
divergence terms:

------------------------------ (2.37)

The expression in parentheses, designated by the letter D, is known as the electric displacement. In
terms of D, Gauss’s law can be written as;

----------------------------- (2.38)

or, in integral form,

----------------------------- (2.39)

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where Qfenc denotes the total free charge enclosed in the volume. This is a particularly useful way to
express Gauss’s law, in the context of dielectrics, because it makes reference only to free charges, and
free charge is the things we can control. Bound charge comes along for the ride: when we put the free
charge in place, a certain polarization automatically ensues and this polarization produces the bound
charge. In any typical problem, we know ρf, but we do not initially know ρb. Therefore, we can
calculate D using equation 2.39. If the symmetry of the system is known then, we can immediately
calculate D by the standard Gauss’s law methods.

Now, consider a long straight wire, carrying uniform line charge  , is surrounded by rubber
insulation out to a radius a, as shown in figure below. Find the electric displacement.

On applying equation 2.39, we find

Therefore,

Notice that this formula holds both within the insulation and outside it. In the latter region, P = 0, so

Inside the rubber, the electric field cannot be determined, since we do not know P.

We cannot apply Gauss’s law precisely at the surface of a dielectric, for here ρbblows up, taking the
divergence of Ewith it. But everywhere elsethe logic is sound, and in fact if we picture the edge of the
dielectric as having some finite thickness, within which the polarization tapers off to zero (probably a
more realistic model than an abrupt cut-off anyway), then there is no surface bound charge; ρbvaries
rapidly but smoothly within this “skin,” and Gauss’s law can be safely applied everywhere. At any
rate, the integral form (Equation. 2.39) is free from this “defect.

2.9 LINEAR DIELECTRICS

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2.9.1 Susceptibility, Permittivity, Dielectric Constant

We know that the polarization of a dielectric ordinarily results from an electric field, which lines up
the atomic or molecular dipoles. For many substances, in fact, the polarization is proportional to the
field, provided E is not too strong:

----------------------- (2.40)

The constant of proportionality, χe, is called the electric susceptibility of the medium (a factor of ε0
has been extracted to make χedimensionless). The value of χedepends on the microscopic structure of
the substance in question and also on external conditions such as temperature). Therefore, the
materials that obey equation 2.40 are called as linear dielectrics.The constant ε0is called the
permittivity of the material.

----------------------------------- (2.41)

In vacuum, where there is no matter to polarize, the susceptibility is zero, and the permittivity is ε0.
That’s why ε0 is called the permittivity of free space. In another words, we can say that the vacuum is
just a special kind of linear dielectric, in which the permittivity happens to have the value 8.85 × 10−12
C2/N
m2.) If you remove a factor of ε0, the remaining dimensionless quantity is called the relative
permittivity εr, or dielectric constant, of the material.

Note that Ein equation 2.40 is the totalfield; it may be due in part to free charges and in part to the
polarization itself. If, for instance, we put a piece of dielectric into an external field E0, we cannot
compute Pdirectly from equation 2.40; the external field will polarize the material, and this
polarization will produce its own field, which then contributes to the total field, and this in turn
modifies the polarization. The simplest approach is to begin with the displacement,at least in those
cases where Dcan be deduced directly from the free charge distribution.

In linear media we have,

----------------- (2.42)

so D is also proportional to E:

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----------------------------------------------------- (2.43)

where

----------------------------------------- (2.44)

Since P and D are now proportional to E, but still their curls, like E’s, will not vanish. The line
integral of Paround a closed path that spans the boundary between one type of material and another
need not be zero, even though the integral of Earound the same loop must be. The reason is that the
proportionality factor ε0χeis different on the two sides. For instance, at the interface between a
polarized dielectric and the vacuum, as shown in figure 2.10), Pis zero on one side but not on the
other. Around this loop

-------------------- (2.45)

Figure 2.10

Loop of polarization in dielectric and vacuum media

and hence, by Stokes’ theorem, the curl of P cannot vanish everywhere within the loop, in fact, it is
infinite at the boundary. Of course, if the space is entirelyfilled with a homogeneous10 linear
dielectric, then this objection is void; in this rather special circumstance.

------------------ (2.46)

so D can be found from the free charge just as though the dielectric were not there

------------------------------------- (2.47)

where Evac is the field the same free charge distribution would produce in the absence of any
dielectric. Therefore,

--------------------------------- (2.48)

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When all space is filled with a homogeneous linear dielectric, the field everywhere is simply reduced
by a factor of one over the dielectric constant. Actually, it is not necessary for the dielectric to fill all
space: in regions where the field is zero anyway, it can hardly matter whether the dielectric is present
or not, since there’s no polarization in any event.

This unit described polar and non-polar molecules and then conductors and dielectrics in
terms of dipoles. Many terms are defined like, induced dipoles, polarization, bound and free charges
etc. The expression of electric field inside the dielectric materials is also included. In the presence of
free charges and bound charges, Gauss’ law modifies. In the linear medium, it gives expression
between the displacement vector, dielectric constant and applied electric field. Important expressions
are mentioned below to summarize the unit.

2.10 SUMMARY

Dipole moment

Atomic polarizability

P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume

Field inside the dielectric

Surface charge density

Volume charge density

Displacement vector

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Gauss’s law in terms of displacement vector

2.11 PROBLEMS

1. A parallel-plate capacitor is filled with insulating material of dielectric constant εr. What effect
does this have on its capacitance?

2. A metal sphere of radius a carries a charge Q. It is surrounded, out to radius b, by linear dielectric
material of permittivity ε. Find the potential at the center (relative to infinity).

Hint: To compute V, we need to know E; to find E, we might first try to locate the bound charge; we
could get the bound charge from P, but we can’t calculate P unless we already know E (Eq. 30). We
seem to be in a bind. What we do know is the free charge Q, and fortunately the arrangement is
spherically symmetric, so begin by calculating D

3. A sphere of radius R carries a polarization P(r) = kr, where k is a constant and r is the vector from
the center.

(a) Calculate the bound charges σband ρb.

(b) Find the field inside and outside the sphere.

4. Find the electric field produced by a uniformly polarized sphere of radius R.

2.12 REFERENCES
1. J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
2. D.J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentice - Hall of India, New Delhi.
3. J.R. Reitz, F.J. Milford and R.W. Christy, Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory, 3rd
Edition, Narosa Publication, New Delhi.
4. H.C. Verma, Concept of Physics, Bharti Bhawan Publisher, ISBN 9788177709878, India.
5. MIT open courseware and other open coursewares

UNIT 3 MAGNETOSTATICS

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
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3.3 Magnetic Induction
3.4 Lorentz Force
3.5 Biot- Savart Law
3.5.1 Definition of Ampere
3.6 Ampere’s Circuital Law
3.6.1 Differential Form of Ampere’s law
3.7 Curl of Magnetic Field
3.8 Divergence of Magnetic Field
3.9 Vector Potential
3.10 Magnetic Flux
3.11 Magnetic Susceptibility
3.12 Relation between Relative Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility
3.13 Magnetic Substances
3.13.1 Diamagnetic Substances
3.13.2 Paramagnetic Substances
3.13.3 Ferromagnetic Substances
3.14 Curie’s Law
3.15 Hysteresis
3.15.1 Importance of Hysteresis Curve
3.15.2 Energy Loss due to Hysteresis
3.16 Summary
3.17 Glossary
3.18 References
3.19 Suggested Reading
3.20 Terminal Questions

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Magneto statics is the branch of electromagnetic studies involving magnetic fields produced by steady
non-time varying currents. Evidently, currents are produced by moving charges undergoing
translational motion. An effective current (called magnetization current) is also produced if magnetic
dipoles are non-uniformly distributed. The magnetic effects can be produced by a magnet or by a
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current carrying conductor. In the Magneto statics, we mainly study the magnetic fields in systems
where the currents are steady. It is the magnetic analogue of electrostatics, where the charges are
stationary. The magnetization need not be static; the equations of magneto statics can be used to
predict fast magnetic switching events that occur on time scales of nanoseconds or less. Magneto
statics is even a good approximation when the currents are not static — as long as the currents do not
alternate rapidly.
In the present unit, you will study the force on a moving charge in simultaneous electric and magnetic
fields, Biot-Savart law, magnetic force between current elements, Ampere’s circuital law and its
applications. Along this you will also study the different types of magnetic substances, Hysteresis
curve and its importance.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to-
• Understand magnetic induction
• Understand Lorentz force
• Apply Biot-Savart law
• Apply Ampere’s circuital law
• Solve problems using Biot-Savart law and Ampere’s circuital law
• Understand curl, divergence of B, understand vector potential and magnetic flux
• Understand Intensity of magnetization
• Calculate the magnetic intensity
• Understand magnetic susceptibility
• Understand Curie’s law
• Understand the magnetic substances
• Understand hysteresis and calculate the energy loss due to hysteresis
3.3 MAGNETIC INDUCTION
The region around a magnet or current carrying conductor, where a magnetic needle experiences a
deflection in a definite direction, is known ‘magnetic field’. A magnetic field is said to existed when a
point charge moving through a deflecting force. This field is represented by a vector quantity ¯B˙,
called magnetic field or magnetic induction. The magnetic induction can be defined in terms of lines
of induction as the number of lines of induction passing through a unit area placed normal to the lines
measures the magnitude of magnetic induction or magnetic flux density ¯B˙. The unit of magnetic
induction is the tesla (T). Obviously, in a region smaller is the relative spacing of the lines of

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induction, the greater is the magnetic induction. The tangent to the line of induction at any point
gives the direction of magnetic induction¯B˙at that point.
Just as the electric field vector E is the basic quantity in electrostatics, the magnetic-flux density or
magnetic induction B plays a fundamental role in magneto statics. Another fundamental quantity is
the magnetic dipole µ, which plays a role not unlike the electric charge in electrostatics. It is, however
important to realize that, as far as we know, there does not exist any magnetic monopoles (or
charges). The two quantities, B and µ, were early on linked through simple relations. For example,
the torque N exerted by a magnetic-flux density on a test dipole (i.e., small enough not to alter the
magnetic-flux) is given by
< =×?
It was also established that there is a connection between electrical currents and magnetic fields. As
will soon be shown, a current density J (or simply a current I) is a source of magnetic-flux density.
Since the current density is defined as the amount of charge that flows through a cross-section per
unit of time (units of Coulombs per square meter second), the conservation of charge requires that the
so-called continuity equation be satisfied

@4
+ ∇. B 0
@A

The above equation implies that any decrease (increase) in charge density within a small volume must
be accompanied by a corresponding flow of charges out of (in) the surface delimiting the volume.
Because magneto statics is concerned with steady-state currents, we will limit ourselves (at least in
this chapter) to the following equation
∇. B 0

3.4 LORENTZ FORCE

Letusconsiderachargedparticleofchargeqwhichismovingwithvelocityv¯˙inamagnetic field ¯B˙, then
the magnetic force acting on that charged particle is given by-
¯F˙=q(v¯˙×B¯˙) (3.1)
The direction of ¯F˙ will be perpendicular to both the direction of velocity v¯˙ and the direction of
magnetic field ¯B˙. Its exact direction is given by the law of vector product of two vectors.
The magnitude of magnetic force is given as-

F =qvBsin θ (3.2)
Where θ is the angle between velocity v¯˙ and magnetic field ¯B˙.
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Figure 3.1

Case 1: If velocity v and magnetic field B are at right angle. The angle between velocity v¯˙and
magnetic field ¯ B˙ is 900
Fmax = qvB sin 900 = qvB
The magnetic force acting on the charged particle is maximum that is equal to qvB.

Case 2: If the charged particle is moving parallel to the magnetic field. The angle between velocity
v¯˙and magnetic field¯B˙is00or1800
F = qvB sin 00 = 0
The magnetic force acting on the charged particle is maximum that is equal to 0.
If v = 0, then F = 0. This means that if the charged particle is at rest in the magnetic field, then it does
not experience any force.
If a charged particle is moving in space where both an electric field ¯E˙and a magnetic field ¯B˙are
present, then the total force acting on the charged particle is called the Lorentz force.

The electric force acting on charged particle, Fe =qE (3.3)

The magnetic force acting on the charged particle,

Fm= q(v. ×B) (3.4)

Total force acting on the charged particle,
F = Fe + Fm
So by using equation 3.3 and 3.4 the total force acting on the charge particle can be given as

F = q¯E˙+q(v¯˙×B¯˙)
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F˙=q[¯E˙+(v¯˙×B¯˙)] (3.5)

The force given by equation (3.5) is called the Lorentz force and the equation is known as Lorentz
force equation.
If a charged particle enters perpendicular to both the electric and magnetic fields, then it may cancel
each other and therefore, the charged particle will pass undeflected. In this situation,

¯ q[¯E˙+(v¯˙×B¯˙)] =0
D −(1̅ × ?D )

In magnitude, D (1̅ × ?D )
1 D /?D (3.6)

Thus a charged particle entering in simultaneous electric and magnetic field may pass undeflected.
Such an arrangement of simultaneous electric and magnetic fields is called velocity- selector. Because
the charged particle of only specified velocity given by v = E/B can pass undeflected. The particle of
velocity v < E/B will be deflected towards electric force and those with velocity v > E/B will be
deflected towards magnetic force.

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3.5 BIOT-SAVARTLAW

Biot-Savart law is used to calculate the magnetic field produced by a current carrying
conductor.
According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field dB produced due to this current element at
point Pat a distance r from the element is-
(i) directly proportional to the current flowing in the element i.e. dB ∝ i
(ii) directly proportional to the length of element i.e. dB ∝ dl
(iii) directly proportional to sin of angle between current element and the line joining
current element to point P i.e. dB ∝ sin θ
(iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the element from point P i.e.
dB ∝
H%

Combining these, we get-

IJKLIMN
H%
dB∝
O IJKLIMN
or dB ="P H%
(3.7)
O
"P
where, is a dimensional constant of proportionality whose value depends upon the units

used for the various quantities. It depends on the medium between the current element and
point of observation (P). Here, μ is called the permeability of medium. Equation (3.7) is
called Biot-Savart law. The product of current i and the length of element dl i.e. idl is called
the current element. Current element is a vector quantity; its direction is along the direction of
current.
If you place the conductor in vacuum or air, then μ is replaced by μ0and thus Biot-Savart law
can be written as-
O! IJKLIMN
"P H%
dB = (3.8)

μ0 is called the permeability of free space or air. Its value in the SI system is assigned as-
μ0 = 4π × 10-7 weber/ampere-meter (WbA-1m-1)
O
Thus, ! = 10-7 WbA-1m-1
"P
O
μ0 or "P! may also be expressed in Newton/Ampere2 (N/A2).

The direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing current element and
the line joining point of observation to current element. Therefore, in vector form, Biot-

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(?
O! IJ K×H
"P HQ
Savart law can be expressed as- =

(3.9)
The resultant magnetic field at P due to the whole conductor can be found by integrating
equation (3.9) over the entire length of the conductor. Thus
B = (B
Direction of magnetic field dB: The direction of magnetic field (? is perpendicular to both

the current element idl and the position vector r of point P relative to current element and
r

may be found by the law of vector cross product or by Maxwell’s right hand screw rule. Thus
in figure 2 the direction of magnetic field at point P is shown by × (cross) i.e. vertically
inward (downward perpendicular to the plane of the paper) and at point P’, the direction of
magnetic field is shown by •(dot) i.e. vertically outward (upward perpendicular to the plane
of the paper).
3.5.1 Definition of Ampere:
The force of attraction or repulsion between two long, parallel and straight conductors in
vacuum has been used to define ampere.
O IT I%
F/l = "P!
H
(3.10)

Let i1= i2 = 1 Amp. and r = 1 meter, then

O! I% ×( )%
"P H
F/l = = 1 ×10-7×

(3.11)
= 2 × 10-7 N/meter
Thus, 1 ampere is the current which when flowing in each of two infinitely long parallel
conductors 1 meter apart in vacuum produces between them a force of exactly 2 × 10-7
N/meter of length.

3.6 AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

According to Ampere’s circuital law, “The line integral of magnetic induction around a
closed path is equal to μ0 times the net current enclosed by the path” i.e.∮ B. dl = μ0i
(3.12)
Where i is the current enclosed by the path.
Let us suppose that the magnetic field induction B arises due to a long wire carrying a current
of i ampere. Now let us consider a circular path of radius r centered on this current carrying
wire.

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Figure 3.2

The magnitude of magnetic induction at any point P on the circular path is given by-
O I
B = "P!
H
(3.13)

For all points on the circular path, the magnetic induction B has the same magnitude given by
equation (3.13) and it is parallel to the tangent to the circular path. Therefore, the line integral
of the magnetic induction B around the circular path centered on the current carrying wire is
given by-

∮ Bdl = ∮ Bdl = ∮ "P! H rdθ

O I

= "P! 2i ∮ δθ
O

2i (2π) = μ0i
O!
"P
=

Thus we have- ∮ B. dl = μ0i

The sign of integral depends upon the direction in which the current is enriched. The sign is
positive if the path followed for line integral is parallel to B and negative if the path followed
is anti-parallel.
If the path enclosing the current is not circular but is irregular of any shape, then we divide
the path into large number of small elements. Ampere’s law holds for closed path of any
shape.

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3.6.1 Differential form of Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s circuital law can be expressed in terms of magnetic field intensity (H). We know
that-
B = μ0H
Therefore, from equation (3.12) we have-

∮ μ H. dl = μ0i
Or ∮ H. dl = i
(3.14)
But current i = ∬ J. dS
(3.15)
Where J is the current density and dS is small element of area at the point of current density J
inside the closed path.
Therefore, equation takes the form as-∮ H. dl = ∬ J. dS
(3.16)

Using Stoke’s theorem, we have-

∮ H. dl = ∬ curl H. dS

Therefore, equation (3.16) becomes-

∬ curl H. dS =∬ J. dS
i.e. ∬(curlH - J).dS = 0 (3.17)
As the surface is arbitrary, therefore integrand must vanish i.e.
curlH - J = 0
or curl H=J (3.18)
Multiplying both sides by μ0 in equation (9.18), we get-
μ0curl H=μ0J
or curl μ0H = μ0J
or curl B = μ0J (3.19)
Equation (3.18) or (3.19) is the differential form of Ampere’s circuital law. The above
relation (3.19) indicates that the magnetic induction at a point is derived from the given value
of J at that point by integration. However this equation is not enough to derive B at a point

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because for the same value of J at the point another term may be added to B. We, therefore,
need another condition.
3.7 CURL OF b
The curl of a vector field at any point is defined as a vector quantity whose magnitude is
equal to the maximum line integral per unit area along the boundary of an infinitesimal test
area at that point and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of the test area. The curl
of vector field is sometimes called circulation or rotation.
According to Ampere’s circuital law, “The line integral of magnetic induction around a
closed path is equal to μ0 times the net current enclosed by the path” i.e.

∮ B. dl = μ0i (3.20)
Where i is the current enclosed by the path.
Let us consider a region in which there is a steady flow of charge. The current density in this
region remains constant i.e. it does not change with time however its value may vary from
place to place. Now let us consider a closed path. The total current enclosed by this path is
the flux of current density through the surface bounded by closed path i.e. the total current
enclosed by the path given as-
i = ∬ J. dS (3.21)

whereJ is the current density and dS is small element of area at the point of current density J
inside the closed path.
Putting the value of i from equation (3.21) in equation (3.20), you get-
∮ B. dl = μ0 [∬ J. dS ]
Using Stoke’s theorem, you can convert line integral into surface integral as-
∬ curl B. dS = μ0 [∬ J. dS ]
∬[curl B–μ0J]. dS = 0
As the surface is arbitrary, therefore you have-
curl? - μ0J = 0
curl? = μ0J (3.22)
Thus the curl of ? is equal toμ0 times current density. The above equation (3.22) is the
differential form of Ampere’s circuital law. The above relation indicates that the magnetic
induction at a point is derived from the given value of J at that point by integration. However

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this equation is not enough to derive B at a point because for the same value of J at the point
another term may be added to B. We, therefore, need another condition.

3.8 DIVERGENCE OF b
The divergence of a vector function at certain point is defined as the outward flux of the
vector field per unit volume enclosed through an infinitesimal closed surface surrounding the
point. The divergence of a vector function is scalar quantity. It should be noted that the
divergence itself is simply an operator and has no physical meaning in itself. After operating
on suitable physical vector functions, it represents various significant physical scalar
quantities. If the divergence of any vector function in a region is zero, it means that the flux
of the vector function entering any element of this region is equal to that leaving it.
According to Biot-Savart law the magnetic field at a point due to a current element idl at a
point having position vector r relative to current element is given by-

dB = "P!
O I JK×H
HQ
(3.23)

The magnetic field due to complete circuit current is given as-

B = "P! ∮
O I JK×H
HQ
(3.24)

Taking divergence on both sides, you get-

divB = ∇. B = ∇. d"P! ∮ e
O I JK×H
HQ
(3.25)

or div B = "P! ∮ ∇. d e
O I JK×H
HQ

But∇ f g = -
H
H HQ

Hence the above relation can be written as-

∮ ∇. hidl × ∇ f Hgi
O!
"P
divB = -

Using vector identity ∇. jA × Bl= B.j∇ × Al- A.j∇ × Bl, the above expression becomes-

divB = - ! ∮ ∇ f g . j∇ × idll- jidll. h∇ × ∇ f gi

O
"P H H
(3.26)

Now let us interpret the result. You that the magnetic field is specified at field point and the
current element idl is due to source point. The field point depends on variables (x,y,z) but on
the other hand the field source idl does not depend on variables (x,y,z), therefore it is obvious
that

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∇ × jidll = 0 (3.27)
Also you know that the curl of gradient of a scalar function is always zero i.e.

curl grad f H g = 0 or ∇ × ∇ f H g = 0 (3.28)

Now using relation (3.27) and (3.28) in equation (3.26), you get-

divB = - "P! ∮ ∇ f Hg . 0- jidll. m0n = 0

O

i.e. divB = 0 (3.29)

The above condition holds for all superposition of such fields or for the field of any
distribution of currents. The equation (3.29) implies that the magnetic field is solenoidal.

3.9 VECTOR POTENTIAL

The vector identity div curl A ≡ 0 shows that the solution of the equation div B = 0 can be
r

represented in the form as-

B = curl A (3.30)
The vector field A, the curl of which is equal to the magnetic field B is known as vector
potential of a magnetic field B.
Awill be specified uniquely only if its divergence as well as its curl is given. We choose
divA = 0 (3.31)
This choice is called Lorentz gauge- the gauging condition for the potential. The arbitrariness
in the choice of the vector potential indicates that the vector potential plays only an auxiliary
role and cannot be measured experimentally.
Let us derive equation for vector potential. We know that ∇ × B = μ0J
Putting the value of B from equation (3.30), the above equation becomes-
∇ × j∇ × Al = μ0J

Using vector identity ∇ × j∇ × Al= ∇j∇. Al- (∇. ∇)A, the above equation becomes-

∇j∇. Al- (∇. ∇)A = μ0J

Or grad div A - ∇ A= μ0J

Using Lorentz gauge given by equation (3.31), the above relation becomes-
0 - ∇ A = μ0J
Or∇ A = - μ0J (3.32)

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In terms of Cartesian components of A, we can write-

∇2Ax = - μ0Jx
∇2Ay = - μ0Jy (3.33)
∇2Az = - μ0Jz
Each component of the vector potential thus satisfies Poisson’s equation (∇ φ −
p
q!
)

which has the solution as-

φ(r) = "Pq ∭ dV w
pjHs l
tHuHst
(3.34)
!

If all currents are concentrated in a finite region of space, then by analogy with equation
(3.34), the solution of equations (3.33) can be written as-

Ai( ) = "P! ∭ dV w
O xy jHs l
tHuHs t
(3.35)

Where i stands for x, y and z. In vector form, we have-

A(r) = "P! ∭ dV w
O xjHsl
tHuHs t
(3.36)

In a case of a filamentary current i through a differential length dl’ along the wire, we have-
J dV' = (i/S)(Sdl’) = i dl’
Now the above equation becomes-
O IfH gJK
s
dA(r) = "P!
s

tHuHst
(3.37)

Summing up overall volume elements of the filament, we get-

A(r) = ∭ dV w
O! IjHsl
"P tHuHs t
(3.38)

The components of A vary as 1/r, like electric potential, which does not diverge with in a
charge distribution. As divergence of a curl of a vector is always zero and div B = 0 can be
written as a curl of a vector and thus A is a vector. Due to these reasons A is called by the
name of vector potential.
Gauge invariance:
We can write electric field in terms of a scalar potential as given below:
−∇z Provided that ∇ × 0
However, we have just found that in the presence of a changing magnetic field the curl of the
electric field is non-zero. In other words, is not, in general, a conservative field. Does this

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mean that we have to abandon the concept of electric scalar potential? Fortunately, no. It is
still possible to define a scalar potential which is physically meaningful.
As we know that: ∇. B 0, which is valid for both time-varying and non-time-varying
magnetic fields. Since the magnetic field is solenoidal, we can write it as the curl of a vector
potential:
B ∇×A
By substituting this equation in the above equation, we will obtain:
@∇ ×
∇× − ,
@A
By arranging the terms, we can get:
@
∇×( + ) 0
@A
We know that a curl-free vector field can always be expressed as the gradient of a scalar
potential, so we can write it as:
@
+ −∇z
@A
Or
@
−∇z −
@A
This equation tells us that scalar potential φ only describes the conservative electric field
generated by electric charges. The electric field induced by time-varying magnetic fields is
non-conservative, and is described by the magnetic vector potentialA.
The electric and magnetic fields are obtained from the vector and scalar potentials are
important, because they determine the electromagnetic forces exerted on charged particles.
Note that the above prescription does not uniquely determine the two potentials. It is possible
to make the following transformation, known as a gauge transformation, which leaves the
fields unaltered.
@}
z→z+
@A
→ − ∇}
Where } ( , A) is the general scalar field. It is necessary to adopt some form of convention,
generally known as a gauge condition, to fully specify the two potentials. This is the Lorentz
gauge condition.
1 @z
+ ∇. A 0
@A

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We can also write this equation in the Lorentz invariant form as:
@• z• 0
This implies that if the Lorentz gauge holds in one particular inertial frame then it
automatically holds in all other inertial frames. A general gauge transformation can be written
z• → z• + @• }
Note that even after the Lorentz gauge has been adopted, the potentials are undetermined to a
gauge transformation using a scalar field, }, which satisfies the source less wave equation.
3.10 MAGNETIC FLUX
Let us consider a plane placed in a magnetic field. The magnetic flux linked with that plane is
defined as the dot(scalar) product of magnetic field (B) and the area of the plane (A) i.e.
The magnetic flux φ = B.A (3.39)
If the perpendicular to the plane makes an angle θ with the direction of magnetic field, then-
The magnetic flux φ = BA cosθ (3.40)

Figure 3.3

From equation (3.40), you can write-

φ = (B cosθ) A (3.41)
= component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the plane× area of the plane
Thus, you can define the magnetic flux as the product of the component of the magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane and the area of the plane.

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If you consider the plane perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field, then the product of the
magnitude of the field and the area of the plane is called the magnetic flux φ linked with the
plane i.e.
Φ = BA (since θ = 00) (3.42)
If infinitesimal small surface area (dS ) is considered, then magnetic flux linked with that
surface area is given as-
dφ = B.dS(3.43)
The total magnetic flux linked with the entire surface-
φ = ∬ B. dS
(3.44)
φ is positive if the outward normal to the plane is in the same direction as B and is negative if
the outward normal is opposite to B.
The SI unit of the magnetic flux φ is weber (Wb).
Since from equation (3.42), you have-
B = φ/A
Thus the unit of magnetic flux is also expressed in weber/meter2 (Wb/meter2). That is why
the magnetic field induction B is also called the magnetic flux density.
The CGS unit of magnetic flux is Maxwell.
1 weber = 108 maxwell
The magnetic flux is a scalar quantity while magnetic flux density is a vector quantity.
You may also express the magnetic flux in terms of the magnetic lines of force. We can
represent a magnetic field by magnetic lines of force. If you draw limited lines of force so
that in a magnetic field B = 1 Wb/meter2 only one line of force passes per meter2 through an
area perpendicular to Bin a magnetic field B = 2 Wb/meter2 only two lines of force pass per
meter2 perpendicular to B, and so on, then these lines are called the lines of flux. In a
magnetic field the number of lines of flux passing per meter2through an area perpendicular to
the magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux linked with that plane.
If θ = 900 i.e. the plane is parallel to the magnetic field, then no flux-line will pass through it
and the magnetic flux linked with that plane will be zero.

3.11 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY

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Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of how easily a substance is magnetized in a

magnetizing field. Normally, for magnetic substances, the intensity of magnetization (M) is
directly proportional to the magnetic intensity (H) of the magnetizing field i.e.
MαH
Or M = χ mH
Where χm is a constant known as magnetic susceptibility of the substance. It is defined as the
ratio of the intensity of magnetization to the magnetic intensity of the magnetizing field.
•
χm = ‚

χm is unit less quantity. The value of χm is zero in vacuum, because there can be no
magnetization in vacuum. Normally the substances can be classified in terms of χm as
follows-
χm = + ve, substance is paramagnetic
χm = -ve, substance is diamagnetic
χm = +ve and very large, substance is ferromagnetic
However, for them, the magnetization M is not accurately proportional to H and therefore,
χm is not strictly constant.

3.12 RELATION BETWEEN RELATIVE PERMEABILITY AND MAGNETIC

SUSCEPTIBILITY

We have already read that when a substance is kept in a magnetizing field, it becomes
magnetized. The total magnetic flux density B within the substance is the flux density that
would have been produced by the magnetizing field in vacuum plus the flux density due to
the magnetization of the substance. If M be the intensity of magnetization of the substance,
then, we know the relation which make the relation between B, H, M is given as:
B = μ0 (H + M)
where H is the magnetic intensity, M is the intensity of magnetization and B is total magnetic
flux density. From the above equation:
•
χm = ‚

or M = χm H
Putting the value of M in the above expression, we get:

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B = μ0 (H +χm H)
Or B = μ0 H (1+χm)
The relation between B and H is given as: B = μH
By substituting the value of B in above equation, we get-
μH = μ0 H (1+χm)
or μ = μ0 (1+χm)
O
orO = 1 + χm
!
O
Since O = μr, is known as the relative permeability, therefore-
!

μr= 1 + χm
This is the relation between relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility.

3.13 MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

Normally the substances show magnetic properties are known as magnetic substances.
Magnetic substances may be solids, liquids and gases. We can classify these substances on
the basis of their magnetic behaviour.
• Diamagnetic Substances
• Paramagnetic Substances
• Ferromagnetic Substances

3.13.1 Diamagnetic Substances

The substances, when placed in an external magnetic field, are softly magnetized opposite to
the direction of the magnetizing field are called diamagnetic substances and their magnetism
is called the diamagnetism. Some examples of diamagnetic substances are Bismuth, zinc,
copper, lead, gold, silver, water, hydrogen, sodium chloride, nitrogen, mercury etc.

Diamagnetic substances have the following properties

1. These substances have negative magnetic susceptibility and independent of temperature.

2. The flux density in a diamagnetic substance placed in a magnetizing field is slightly less
than that in the free space.
3. The relative permeability of these substances is less than 1 i.e. μr< 1 for diamagnetic
substances.

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4. A diamagnetic gas, when allowed to ascend in between the poles of a magnet, spreads
across the magnetic field.
5. In a non-uniform magnetic field, a diamagnetic substance tends to move from the stronger
to the weaker part of the magnetic field. If we take a diamagnetic liquid in a watch glass
placed on two magnetic poles very near to each other, then the liquid is depressed in the
middle, where the magnetic field is strongest. Now, if the distance between the poles is
increased, the liquid rises in the middle, because now the magnetic field is strongest near the
poles (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4

3.13.2 Paramagnetic Substances

The substances, when placed in a magnetic field, are softly magnetized in the direction of the
magnetizing field are called paramagnetic substances and their magnetism is called
paramagnetism. These substances, when brought close to a pole of a powerful magnet, are
attracted towards the magnet. The examples of paramagnetic substances are aluminum,
antimony, copper chloride, sodium, platinum, manganese, liquid oxygen, solutions of salts of
iron and nickel etc.

Paramagnetic substances have the following properties:

1. These substances have positive magnetic susceptibility and susceptibility of paramagnetic

substances varies inversely as the kelvin temperature of the substance i.e.

ƒ
χ mα

This is known as Curie’s law.

2. The flux density in a paramagnetic substance placed in a magnetizing field is slightly
greater than that in the free space.

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3. The relative permeability of these substances is greater than 1 i.e. μr ˃ 1 for paramagnetic
substances.
4. A paramagnetic gas, when allowed to ascend in between the poles of a magnet, spreads
along the magnetic field.
5. In a non-uniform magnetic field, a paramagnetic substance tends to move from the weaker
to the stronger part of the magnetic field. If we take a paramagnetic liquid in a watch glass
placed on two magnetic poles very near to each other, then the liquid rises in the middle,
where the magnetic field is strongest. Now, if the distance between the poles is increased, the
liquid depresses in the middle and rises near the edges, because now the magnetic field is
strongest near the poles (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5
8. When a rod of paramagnetic material is suspended freely between two magnetic poles,
then its axis becomes parallel to the magnetic field. The poles produced at the ends of the rod
are opposite to the nearer magnetic poles (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6
3.13.3 Ferromagnetic Substances
Some substances, when placed in a magnetic field, are strongly magnetized in the direction of
the magnetizing field. These materials are attracted fast towards a magnet when brought close
to either of the poles of the magnet. These are called ferromagnetic substances and their
magnetism is called ferromagnetism. Iron, cobalt, nickel, magnetite etc. are some
ferromagnetic substances

Ferromagnetic substances have the following properties:

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1. These substances have positive and very large magnetic susceptibility.

2. The relative permeability of for ferromagnetic substances is very-very greater than 1 i.e. μr
˃ ˃1.
3. These substances show all the properties of paramagnetic substances to a much high
degree.
4. Ferromagnetism decreases with increase in temperature. If you heat a ferromagnetic
substance, then at a definite temperature the ferromagnetic property of the substance
suddenly disappears and the substance becomes paramagnetic. The temperature above which
a ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic is known as Curie temperature of the
substance. The Curie temperature of iron is 7700 C and that of nickel is 3580 C.
Note: It is to be noted that, every substance is diamagnetic in nature. In paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic property is masked by the stronger paramagnetic
or ferromagnetic properties
3.14 CURIE’S LAW
In 1895, Curie discovered experimentally that the magnetization or intensity of magnetization
of a paramagnetic substance is directly proportional to the magnetic intensity H of the
magnetizing field and inversely proportional to the Kelvin temperature T i.e.
‚
Mαƒ
‚
ƒ
Or M=C

where C is a constant. This equation is known as Curie’s law and the constant C is called the
‚
Curie constant. The law, however, holds so long the ratio ƒ does not become too large.

M cannot increase without limit. It approaches a maximum value corresponding to the

complete alignment of all the atomic magnets contained in the substance.
You can express Curie’s law in an alternative form. You know that the magnetic
susceptibility χm is defined as-
•
‚
χm =

Putting the value of M from above equation in the above equation, we get-
…
„ „
†
‚
χm = =ƒ

orχm α ƒ

i.e. the magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to Kelvin temperature. This is known
as the Curie’s law.

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3.15 HYSTERESIS
As we have already read that for a ferromagnetic substance the magnetic flux density (B) is
not a linear function of magnetic intensity H. For this case, the relative magnetic permeability
is not constant however, it is a function of H. Additionally, we can say that there is no unique
value of relative magnetic permeability for a particular ferromagnetic substance. The
relationship between magnetic flux density B and corresponding magnetic intensity H for
such a material initially unmagnetised is represented by a typical curve as shown in figure
(3.7), known as the magnetization curve or B-H curve.

Figure 3.7
The variation of B with variation in H is represented in Figure 3.7. It is also known as
hysteresis curve. The point O represents in the initial unmagnetised state of the substance (B
=0) and a zero magnetic intensity (H =0) (Figure 3.7). As H is increased, B increases non-
uniformly along curved path oa. At a, the substance acquires a state of magnetic saturation.
Any further increase in H does not produce any increase in B. Now the value of B becomes
practically constant.
If now the magnetizing magnetic field H is decreased, the magnetic flux density B of the
substance also decreases following a new path ab, not the original path ao. Thus B lags

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behind H. When H becomes zero, B still has a value equal to ob. The magnetic flux density in
the substance is seen to depend upon not on the magnetic intensity alone but on the magnetic
history of the substance as well. At point b, the specimen has become a permanent magnet
since magnetization is still present even though the magnetizing field H has been cut off. The
magnetization remaining in the substance when the magnetizing field is reduced to zero is
called the ‘residual magnetism’. The power of retaining this magnetization is called the
‘retentivity’ or the ‘remanence’ of the substance. In this way, the retentivity of a substance is
a measure of the magnetization remaining in the substance when the magnetizing field is
removed. In the above figure, ob represents the retentivity of the substance.
If now the magnetizing field H is increased in the reverse direction, the magnetic flux density
B decreases along path bc, still lagging behind H, until it becomes zero at point c where H
equals oc. This value of His denoted by Hc. This value oc of the magnetizing field is called
the ‘coercive force’ or ‘coercivity’ of the substance. Thus, the coercivity of a substance is a
measure of the reverse magnetizing field required to destroy the residual magnetism of the
substance. When we increase H beyond oc, the substance is increasingly magnetized in the
opposite direction along cd and a reverse induction is set up in the substance which quickly
attains the saturation value. At point d, the substance is again magnetically saturated.
By taking H back from its maximum negative value, through zero, to its original maximum
positive value, a symmetrical curve defa is obtained. At point e where the substance is
magnetized in the absence of any external magnetizing field, it is said to be a permanent
magnet.
In this way, we found that the magnetization and also the magnetic flux density B always lags
behind the magnetizing field H. The lagging of B behind H is called ‘Hysteresis’. The closed
curve or loop, abcdefa which represents a cycle of magnetization of the substance is known
as the ‘hysteresis curve or loop’ of the substance. On repeating the process, the same closed
curve is traced again but the portion oa is never obtained.
3.15.1 Importance of Hysteresis curve
By using the hysteresis curve of various ferromagnetic materials, we can select the material
which gives minimum hysteresis curve when placed to the cycle of magnetization. From
hysteresis curve, an idea of the magnetic properties like susceptibility, permeability,
retentivity, coercivity of a ferromagnetic material can be made.The choices of a magnetic
material for the construction of a permanent magnets, electromagnets, cores of transformer
and magnetic shielding can be decided from the hysteresis curve of the sample.
3.15.2 Energy Loss due to Hysteresis
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According to molecular theory of magnetization, the molecules of magnetized or

unmagnetised magnetic substance are themselves complete magnets. When we apply a
magnetized field, the molecular magnets align themselves in the direction of the field. During
this process, work is done by the magnetizing field in turning the molecular magnets against
the mutual attractive forces. This energy required to magnetize a substance is not completely
recovered when the magnetizing field is turned off, since the magnetization does not become
zero. The specimen retains some magnetization because some of the molecular magnets
remain aligned in the new formation due to the group forces. To destroy them out completely,
a coercive force in the reverse direction has to be applied. In this way, there is a loss of
energy in taking a magnet through a cycle of magnetization. This loss of energy or heat is
called ‘hysteresis loop’. Now let us calculate this loss of energy.
Let us consider a magnetic material having n molecular magnets per unit volume. Let m be
the magnetic moment of each elementary magnet and θ the angle which its axis makes with
the direction of magnetizing field H, then magnetic moment per unit volume parallel to the
magnetic field is-
μM = Σ m cosθ (3.45)
The magnetic moment per unit volume perpendicular to the magnetizing field is Σ m sinθ and
this is equal to zero since there can be no magnetization perpendicular to H.
Now, the torque due to the magnetizing field acting on the dipole of moment m when it is
inclined at an angle θ to the field is-
τ = μ0 m H sinθ(3.46)
and the work done when it moves through a small angle from θ to θ + dθ = - τ dθ
= - μ0 m H sinθdθ
Here minus sign comes in because the work has to be done against the magnetic field in
increasing θ by dθ.
Hence, the work done per unit volume of the material
dW = - μ0 m H sinθdθ (3.47)
As θ increases by dθ, the intensity of magnetization M also increases by dM obtained from
equation (3.45) as-
dM = d (Σ m cosθ)
= - Σ m sinθdθ (3.48)
From equations (3.47) and (3.48), we get-
dW = μ0H dM
(3.49)

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Thus, the work done by the magnetizing field per unit volume of the material for completing
a cycle is-
W = ∮ dW
= ∮ μ H dM = μ0∮ H dM
= μ0 ×Area of M-H loop
(3.50)
Since we know that-
B = μ0 (H + M)
Or dB = μ0 (dH + dM)
Jˆ
O!
Or dM = – dH

(3.51)
Putting for dM in equation (3.50), we get-

W = μ0∮ H( O – dH)
Jˆ
!

= μ0∮ H O - μ0∮ H dH
Jˆ
!

= ∮ H dB - μ0∮ H dH(3.52)
But ∮ H dH = 0, because the plot of H against H is a straight line and the area enclosed by it
is zero. Thus equation (3.52) gives-
W = ∮ H dB
= Area of B-H loop (3.53)
Thus, the work done per unit volume of the material per cycle is equal to the area of μ0 times
the area of M-H loop or the area of B-H loop. The unit of this work is Joule/meter3 per cycle
and is dissipated in the form of heat.

3.16 SUMMARY
In the present unit, you have studied about Lorentz force and Biot-Savart law. Along this you
have also studied that a current carrying conductor produces magnetic field around it. You
have seen that the conductors attract each other if currents in them are in the same direction
and repel each other if currents are in opposite directions. You have analyzed that according
to Ampere’s circuital law, the line integral of magnetic induction around a closed path is
equal to µ0 times the net current enclosed by the path. You have also seen that Ampere’s law
holds for closed path of any shape. You have known about divergence and curl of magnetic
field, scalar and vector potential, magnetic susceptibility and hysteresis. To present the clear

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understanding and to make the concepts of the unit clear, many solved examples are given in
the unit. To check your progress, self-assessment questions (SAQs) are given place to place.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 1: A current of 2 Amp is passed through a winding of 20

turns per cm. If the magnetic induction is 1.2 Wb/meter2, calculate the intensity of magnetic
field and the intensity of magnetization.
Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 2: Choose the correct option- The unit of intensity of
magnetization is-
(a) Amp/meter2 (b) weber/meter2 (c) Amp/meter (d) Amp× meter

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 3: Choose the correct option- The magnetic permeability
of a substance is a measure of –

(a) its conduction of magnetic lines of force through it

(b) its conduction of electric lines of force through it

(c) its conduction of electricity through it

(d) none of these

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 4: Choose the correct option- The magnetic permeability
of vacuum, in SI units, is-
(a) 1 (b) infinite (c) zero (d) 4n×10-7

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 5: Choose the correct option- Magnetism in substances is

caused by-
(a) orbital motion of electrons only (b) spin motion of electrons only

(c) due to spin and orbital motion of electrons both (d) none of these
Example 1: A substance has magnetic susceptibility equal to 2. Calculate the relative
permeability.
Solution: Given, zm = 2 we know-
µr = 1 + zm = 1 + 2 = 3

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Example 2: The relative permeability for a material is 3. What will be its magnetic
susceptibility?
Solution: Given µr= 3 we know that-µr = 1 + zm
Orzm = µr – 1 = 3-1 =2

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 1: Choose the correct option- Diamagnetic substance

when placed in a magnetic field is-
(a)Weakly attracted (b)strongly attracted (c)repelled (d) none of these

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 2: Choose the correct option- The magnetic susceptibility
of a diamagnetic material is-
(a) Large and positive (b) large and negative (c) small and positive (d) small and negative

3.17 GLOSSARY
Magnetic field - The region surrounding a magnetic
Magnetic induction -Vector that specifies magnitude and direction of magnetic field
Simultaneous - Coincident
Electric force - Force experienced by a charge placed at a point in an electric field Magnetic
force - Force experienced by a charge in a magnetic field
Infinitesimal - Tiny
Vacuum - Empty
Characteristics - Features
Steady -Stable
Flow- Current
Divergence- Deviation
Magnetic flux – Surface integral of the magnetic field over that surface
Magnetic flux density – Vector that specifies the magnitude and direction of magnetic field
Aligned- Bring into line
Magnetic field- The region surrounding a magnet in which the force of the magnet can be
detected
Induction- Stimulation
Magnetization- The magnetic state of any substance is described by a quantity

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3.18 REFERENCES

1. Electricity and Magnetism, Sehgal, Chopra, Sehgal, Sultan Chand & Sons, New Delhi
2. Engineering Physics, Gupta and Kumar, Dhanpat Rai & Co.(P) Ltd, Delhi
3. Nootan Physics, Part-II, Kumar Mittal, Nageen Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., Meerut
4. Electricity and Magnetism, DC Tayal, Himalaya Publishing House,Mumbai
5. Electric and Magnetism, Satya Prakash, Pragati Prakashan,Meerut
6. Physics Glossary, Devendra Kumar, Arihant Prakashan, Meerut

3.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Modern Physics, Beiser, Tata McGraw Hill

2. Fundamentals of Physics, David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker, John Wiley
&Sons
3. Engineering Physics, S.K. Gupta, Krishna Prakashan Media (P) Ltd., Meerut
4. Electricity and magnetism with electronics, K.K. Tewari, S. Chand Publishing, New
Delhi
5. University Physics, Francis W. Sears, Mark W. Zemansky, Hugh D. Young, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi
6. Physics A Fundamental Glossary, Commission for Scientific and Technical
Terminology, Department of Higher Education, and Government of India.

3.20 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the magnitude and direction of the force acting on a charge moving in a
magnetic field. When is the force maximum and when minimum?
2. Explain Biot Savart law.
3. Establish the expression for magnetic force acting between two long, parallel and
straight current carrying conductors.
4. Both the electric and magnetic field can deflect an electron. What is the difference
between these deflections?
5. Explain Ampere’s circuital law. Give its significance. Derive its differential form.
6. Explain Maxwell’s correction in Ampere’s circuital law.
7. Explain the concept of Maxwell’s displacement current and show how it led to the
modification of the Ampere’s law.

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8. Obtain the generalized form of Ampere’s circuital law. Comment on the concept of the
displacement.
9. Throw the light on characteristics of displacement current.
10. Using Ampere’s circuital law, establish the expression of magnetic field due to a
long current carrying wire.
11. Give a comparison between Coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart law.
12. Prove that the curl of B¯˙is equal to µ0 times current density.
13. What is the difference between the torque acting on a magnetic dipole and an
electric dipole?

UNIT 4: ELECTRODYNAMICS
STRUCTURE

4.1 Introductions

4.2 Objectives

4.3 Equation of continuity

4.4Displacement current

4.5 Maxwell equations

4.5.1 Maxwell first equation
4.5.2 Maxwell second equation
4.5.3 Maxwell third equation
4.5.4 Maxwell fourth equation
4.6 Maxwell’s equation in various medium
4.6.1. Maxwell’s equation in free space
4.6.2. Maxwell equation in linear isotropic media
4.6.3. Maxwell equation for harmonically varying field
4.7 Summary

4.8 Glossary

4.9 References

4.10 Suggested Readings

4.11 Terminal Questions

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4.11.1 Short Answer Type

4.11.2 Long Answer Type

4.11.3 Numerical Answer Type

4.12 Objective Type Questions

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will discuss about Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell's equations are a set of
four differential equations that form the theoretical basis for describing classical
electromagnetism: Gauss's law: Electric charges produce an electric field. The electric flux
across a closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed.

4.2OBJECTIVES
To learn about Maxwell's Equations
To learn about equation of continuity
To learn about displacement current
To discuss Maxwell’s equation in free space
To discuss Maxwell equation for harmonically varying field

4.3 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of some quantity.
It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved quantity,
in electromagnetic theory, the continuity equation is an empirical law expressing (local)
charge conservation. Mathematically it is an automatic consequence of Maxwell equation,
although charge conservation is more fundamental than Maxwell's equations. It states that the
divergence of the current density J (in amperes per square metre) is equal to the negative rate
of change of the charge density ρ (in coulombs per cubic metre),

Jp
divJ = - J‰
Let S be the surface enclosing a volume V and let ds be a small element of this surface. The
direction of ds is taken to be taken to be that of outward normal.
Current is the movement of charge. The continuity equation says that if charge is moving out
of a differential volume (i.e. divergence of current density is positive) then the amount of
charge within that volume is going to decrease, so the rate of change of charge density is
negative. Therefore, the continuity equation amounts to a conservation of charge.

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If the net charge crossing a surface bounding a closed volume is not zero, then the
charge density within the volume must charge with time in a manner that the time rate of
decrease of charge within the volume equals the net rate of flow of charge out of the volume.
Volume charge density

ρ = JŒ
J‹

dq = ρdv
Integrating –
dq = ρdv
q= Œ
ρdv
By definition of current,

ρdv
J‹ J
J‰ J‰ Œ
I= -----1

As charge is decreasing –

ρdv
uJ‹ uJ
J‰ J‰ Œ
I= -----

If J is current density
JŽ
J = J•

dI = JdS J ∙ ds Jds (o)

dI = J ∙ ds J || dsθ = 0
Integrating

∮ dI = ∮L J ∙ ds

I = ∮L J ∙ ds -----3

Now equating equation &3

∮ J ∙ ds = − ρdv
J
J‰ Œ

Using Gauss Divergence theorem

∮ J ∙ ds = div J div

ρdv
J
J‰
div J dv = -

or

ρdv
J
J‰
div J dv = -

fdiv J + gdv = 0
Jp
J‰

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dv is arbitrary taken dv ≠ 0

div• +
–—
–˜
=0

J = Current density
ρ = Charge density
This is the continuity equation. H is the mathematical expression for the conservation of
change. It state that the total current flowing out of some volume must be equal to the rate of
decrease of charge within the volume, assuming that the change cannot be created or
destroyed, i.e. no source and sinks are present in that volume.

constantρ constant
In case of stationary current charges density at any point within the region remains

Jp
J‰
=0

So that div J = 0
or

∇.J=0
This expresses the fact that there is no net outward flux of current density.

4.4 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

In electromagnetism, displacement current density is the quantity ∂D/∂t appearing in
Maxwell equations that is defined in terms of the rate of change of D, the electric
displacement field. Displacement current density has the same units as electric current
density, and it is a source of the magnetic field just as actual current is. However, it is not an
electric current of moving charges, but a time-varying electric field. In physical materials (as
opposed to vacuum), there is also a contribution from the slight motion of charges bound in
atoms, called dielectric polarization.
Ampere's Circuital Law states the relationship between the current and the magnetic field
created by it. This law states that the integral of magnetic field density (B) along an
imaginary closed path is equal to the product of current enclosed by the path and permeability
of the medium.

B ∙ dl = μ I

I = J ∙ ds
Now,

B ∙ dl = μ J ∙ ds

∴B = μ H

μ H ∙ dl = μ J ∙ ds

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H ∙ dl = J ∙ ds
Using Stokes theorem to convert line integral into surface integral

H ∙ dl = curl H ∙ ds
Now,

curl H ∙ ds = J ∙ ds

•jcurl H − Jlds 0

ds ≠ 0 {ds is taken as arbitrary const}

So,

Curl H − J = 0
Curl H = J -----1
Now from equation of continuity
Jp
J‰
divJ + =0

Substituting value from equation 1

Jp
J‰
div (curlH) + =0

Since, div (curl H) = 0

Jp
J‰
=0

Equation 1 holds for steady condition only in which charge density is not changing,
i.e. not a function of time. Therefore, for time dependent electric fields (changing) equation
1 should be modified. Maxwell added an extra term J’.

curlH = J + J′
Taking divergence both side –

div (curlH) = divJ + divJ′

0 = divJ + divJ′

¤ divB + §
div J′ = - div J
¢ (4 ¢
′

= − f− J‰ g
Jp
− 0
(A
£ ¦
–—
¢ div J dρ¢
¡ dt ¥
divJ′ = –˜

From Maxwell first equation, we have –

∇ ∙ E=
p
!

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∇ ∙∈ E=ρ

∈ E=D

∇ ∙ D=ρ
Now,

divJ′ =
Jp
J‰

j∇ ∙ Dl
J
J‰
=

=∇ ∙
Jª
J‰

divJ′ = div
Jª
J‰

J′ =
Jª
J‰

Now,

curlH = J + J′

curl H = J +
Jª
J‰

This is modified form of Ampere Circuital Law.

J’ arises due to variation of electric displacement with time. H’s termed as
displacement current density.

4.5 MAXWELL EQUATIONS

Maxwell's Equations, formulated around 1861 by James Clerk Maxwell, describe the
interrelation between electric and magnetic fields. They were a synthesis of what was known
at the time about electricity and magnetism, particularly building on the work of Michael
Faraday, Charles-Augustin Coulomb, Andre-Marie Ampere, and others. These equations
predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, giving them properties that were
recognized to be properties of light, leading to the (correct) realization that light is an
electromagnetic wave. Other forms of electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, were not
known at the time, but were subsequently demonstrated by Heinrich Hertz in 1888. These
equations are considered to be among the most elegant edifices of mathematical physics.
They are usually formulated as four equations (but later we will see some particularly elegant
versions with only two), and the equations are usually expressed in differential form, that is,
as Partial differential equation involving the divergence and curl operators. They can also be
expressed with integrals. They are often expressed in terms of four vector fields: E, B, D, and
H, though the simpler forms use only E and B.

4.5.1 MAXWELL FIRST EQUATION

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The electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the electric charge enclosed by the
surface. Gauss’s law describes the relation between an electric charge and the electric field it
produces. This is often pictured in terms of electric field lines originating from positive
charges and terminating on negative charges, and indicating the direction of the electric field
at each point in space.

Maxwell first equation is the Gauss Law in electrostatic A/c to Gauss law electric flux

∈!
passing through any close surface is times the charge enclosed within it.
‹
φ=∈
!

φ= E ∙ ds

E ∙ ds =
‹
∈!

∴Volume charge density

ρ=
J‹
JŒ

dq = ρ dv
Now integrating
dq = ρ dv
q= ρ dv
—
div E = ∈ Gauss law of differential form
¬

E ∙ ds = ∈ = ∈ ρdv
‹
! !

E ∙ ds =
p
dv
!

Gauss divergence theorem –

E ∙ ds = divE dv
p
∈!
div Edv = dv

fdivE − g dv = 0
p
∈!

dv is an arbitrary taken dv ≠ 0
p
∈!
div E - =0
p
∈!
div E =

This is Maxwell first equation.

or

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∇ ∙ E=∈
p
!

∇ ∙∈ E=ρ
or

∇ ∙ -=—

This Gauss law in Magneto statics.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 1: Which theorem converts line integral into surface
integral?

4.5.2 MAXWELL SECOND EQUATION

The second of the equations is just like the first, but for the magnetic field. The divergence of
B must be the spatial density of magnetic monopoles. Since they have never been observed
(though various Grand Unified Theories might allow for them), the value is zero.
This wasn't formulated initially in terms of monopoles, but was actually a statement that
magnetic "lines of force" (the lines that intuitively describe the field) never end. They just
circulate around various conductors carrying electric current. In contrast to this, lines of the
electric field can be thought to "begin" and "end" on charged particles.
The magnetic field flux through any closed surface is zero. This is equivalent to the statement
that magnetic field lines are continuous, having no beginning or end. Any magnetic field line
entering the region enclosed by the surface must also leave it. No magnetic monopoles, where
magnetic field lines would terminate, are known to exist.

φˆ = 0

B ∙ ds = 0
div B dv = 0
dv≠ 0
div B = 0

® ∙ b=0

This is Maxwell II equation.

Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 2: Monopole in magnet does not exist. Explain why?
Self-Assessment Question (SAQ) 3: What is physical significance of magnetic Maxwell
second equation?

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4.5.3 MAXWELL THIRD EQUATION

The third equation contains the result of Faraday's experiments with "electromagnetic
induction"—a changing magnetic field creates an electric field, and that electric field
circulates around the area experiencing the change in total magnetic flux. (Remember that the
curl operator measures the extent to which a vector field runs in circles.) We won't go into the
details of his experiments, except to note that he discovered that moving a coil of wire (a loop
to pick up a circulating electric field) through a magnetic field (for example, by putting it on a
shaft and turning it) led to the invention of electric generators, and hence made a major
contribution to the industrialization of the world.
A changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) and, hence, an electric
field. The direction of the e.m.f. opposes the change. This third of Maxwell’s
equations, Equation, is Faraday’s law of induction and includes Lenz’s law. The electric field
from a changing magnetic field has field lines that form closed loops, without any beginning
or end. This is obtained from Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
A/c to Faraday’s law the change in magnetic flux induces an EMF.
Jφˆ
J‰
e=-

φˆ = B ∙ ds
Now,

B ∙ ds
J
J‰
e=-

ds
Jˆ
J‰
e=- -----1

By definition of potential gradient, we have –

JŒ
E=
JK ¤ || (¯ §
0
£ ∙ (¯ (¯ θ¦
θ
dv = Edl

dv = E ∙ dl ¡ (¯ ¥
Integrating, we get –

dv = E∙ dl

v= E ∙ dl
Potential v = emf e

e= E ∙ dl -----
Now equating 1 and

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E ∙ dl = - ds
Jˆ
J‰

Using Stoke’s theorem

E ∙ dl = curl E ∙ ds

curl E ∙ ds = - ds
Jˆ
J‰

fcurlE + g ds = 0
Jˆ
J‰

ds is arbitrary take
ds≠ 0

curlE +
Jˆ
J‰
=0

− J‰
Jˆ
curlE

–b
® × ° −
–˜

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 4: What is the difference between magnetic fields present
in Maxwell second and third equations?

4.5.4 MAXWELL FOURTH EQUATION

Magnetic fields are generated by moving charges or by changing electric fields. This fourth
of Maxwell’s equations, Equation, encompasses Ampere’s law and adds another source of
magnetic fields, namely changing electric fields.

Maxwell’s equations and the Lorentz force law together encompass all the laws of electricity
and magnetism. The symmetry that Maxwell introduced into his mathematical framework
may not be immediately apparent. Faraday’s law describes how changing magnetic fields
produce electric fields. The displacement current introduced by Maxwell results instead from
a changing electric field and accounts for a changing electric field producing a magnetic
field. The equations for the effects of both changing electric fields and changing magnetic
fields differ in form only where the absence of magnetic monopoles leads to missing terms.
This symmetry between the effects of changing magnetic and electric fields is essential in
explaining the nature of electromagnetic waves.

Later application of Einstein’s theory of relativity to Maxwell’s complete and symmetric

theory showed that electric and magnetic forces are not separate but are different
manifestations of the same thing—the electromagnetic force. The electromagnetic force and
weak nuclear force are similarly unified as the electroweak force. This unification of forces

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has been one motivation for attempts to unify all of the four basic forces in nature—the
gravitational, electrical, strong, and weak nuclear forces.

AmpereCircuital law

• B ∙ dl μ I

J = J ∙ ds
Now,

• B ∙ dl μ • J ∙ dl

∴B=μ H

μ H ∙ dl = μ J ∙ ds

H ∙ dl = J ∙ ds
Stokes theorem

H ∙ dl = curlH ∙ ds
Now,

curlH ∙ ds = J ∙ ds

jcurlH − Jl ds = 0

curlH − J = 0
curl H = J
From equation of continuity
Jp
div J + J‰ = 0

div(curlH) + J‰ 0
Jp

∴div(curlH) = 0 ...... 1
dρ
0
dt
Equation – (1) hold for steady condition only in which charge density is not changing, that is

should be modified. Maxwell added an extra term J′

not function of time. Therefore, for time dependent electric fields (changing) equation – 1

curlH J + J′
Taking divergence both side

div (curlH) divJ + divJ′

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0 = divJ + divJ′
divJ w −divJ

∴ divJ + J‰ 0
Jp

= − f− J‰ g ² ³
Jp

divJ − J‰
Jp

dρ
divJ w
dt

ρ
From Maxwell’s first equation, we have

∇∙E
∈

∇∙∈ E ρ

∈ E D

∇ ∙ D ρ
Now,
dρ
div J
dt
= J‰ j∇ ∙ Dl
J

dD
div J div
dt
Note:
q 0, ρ 0, I 0, J 0
dD
J′
dt
Now,

curl H J + J′
–-
´µ¶· ¸ •+
–˜

When the electric displacement D is changing with time and is, therefore, termed as
Displacement current density.
dB
∇ ×E −
dt

4.6MAXWELL’S EQUATION IN VARIOUS MEDIUM

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4.6.1. MAXWELL’S EQUATION IN FREE SPACE

In the special case of free space, where the current density J and volume charge density ρ are
zero, Maxwell equation reduces to

∇ ∙D 0

∇ ∙B 0
dB
∇ ×E −
dt
dD
∇ ×H −
dt

4.6.2. MAXWELL EQUATION IN LINEAR ISOTROPIC MEDIA

In linear isotropic media
D = εE
ˆ
O
H=

Where e is dielectric constant, μ is permeability of the medium.

The Maxwell’s equation becomes –
∇ ∙E
p
q

∇ ∙H 0
dH
∇ ×E+μ 0
dt
dE
∇ ×H−ε J
dt
4.6.3. MAXWELL EQUATION FOR HARMONICALLY VARYING
FIELD
If we assume that the field vary harmonically with the time, Maxwell equation can be written
expressed in another special form.
D D e»¼‰
dD
jwD¿ e»¼‰
dt
= jwD
Similarly, we can write
dD
jwB
dt
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The Maxwell’s equation becomes

∇∙D ρ

∇∙B 0

∇ × E + jwB 0

∇ ∙ H − jwD J

Using Maxwell equation curlE = −

–b
–˜
1.

´µ¶· ¸ •+
–-
–˜

Show that
–ÀÁb ¬ ÂÖ –ÀÁ- —
Or
Are Maxwell equations independent? If no, explain.
Solution: Maxwell equations are not independent because we can derive Maxwell
second equation from third and first equation from fourth equation.
dB
curlE −
dt
Taking diversion on both side,
dB
div ( curl E) −div Ä Å
dt
div curlE 0

0=−∇.
Jˆ
J‰

0 = − J‰ j∇ ∙ Bl
J

or

− J‰ jdivBl = 0
J

If for each point in space divergence divB becomes zero at any time in past or future,
then the above equation becomes

–ÀÁb ¬
dD
curlH J+
dt

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Taking div both side

dD
div(curlH) divJ + div
dt
div curlH 0

0 = J + ∇ f J‰ g
Jª

∙ (∇D)
J
J‰
-divJ

From continuity equation,

dρ
divJ + 0
dt
dρ
divJ −
dt
= − f− J‰ g j∇Dl
Jp J
J‰

ρ j∇ ∙ Dl
J J
J‰ J‰

⇒ ∇∙D ρ

Using Maxwell relation –ÀÁ- — and ´µ¶· ¸ •+

–-
–˜
2.

° Ê
Ç ÈȬ
∈¬ ¶ É
Prove that i)

Coulomb’s Law

–ÀÁ• + ¬Equation of continuity.

–—
–˜
ii)

Solution:
divD ρ
Integrating w.r to v

• divDdv • ρdv

Volume charge density

dq
ρ
dv
⇒ dq ρdv
Integrating

• dq • ρdq

q • ρdv

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Now,
div Ddv q- - - - - 1
Using Gauss divergence theorem

• div Ddv • D ∙ ds

= D ∙ ds q

D ∈ E

• ∈ E ∙ ds q

q
• E ∙ ds
ϵ

Edscos0 dE ∥ ds e
‹
∈! θ 0
q
E • ds
∈
q
E × 4πr
∈
ds = Area of sphere of radius
r 4πr
1 q
E
4π ∈ r

E mq test chargen
Ï
‹!

F q E

F
‹‹!
"P∈! H%

F Fr; (
r; rr;
E
q• r
r
r;
r
F ×
‹‹! H
"P∈! H% H

Ç ÈȬ
Ó ¶
ÔÕ ∈¬ ¶ É

curlH J+
Jª
J‰
ii.

takingdiv

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 MSCPH508

dD
div curlH divJ + div
dt

O = divJ + ∇ ∙
Jª
J‰

O = divJ + j∇ ∙ Dl
J
J‰

or
d
divJ + jdivDl 0
dt

–ÀÁ• + — ¬ mfrom using Maxwell Ùirst equation divD ρn

–
–˜

Example: 2

ohm's law J = ÚE and using Gauss law that

Starting from the equation of continuity show, for a conducting medium obeying

Jp Û
J‰
Solution: a. +
Equation of continuity
∇.J +
Jp
J‰
=0

J = σE
∇ . σE +
Jp
J‰
=0

σj∇ . El +
Jp
J‰
=0

∴ ∇ . E = ∈{ maxwell 1steqtn}
p

σ× +
p Jp
∈ J‰
=0

+ σ∈ = 0
Jp p
J‰
b.

= σ
Jp p
J‰ ∈
Jp Û
J‰
= ∈dt

Initially t=0 ρ=ρ

t=t ρ=ρ
Integrating,
p - p!
dρ σ ‰-‰
• − • dt
p - p! ρ ∈ ‰-

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σ w
[log ρÝpp! − t
∈
σ
log ρ − log ρ − t
∈
ρ σ
log Ä Å − t
ρ ∈
Taking antilog:

eu ∈
Þß
p
p!
Ú˜
—¬ —¬ àu ∈

4.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied introduction to electrodynamics. To present the clear
understanding of electrodynamics, Maxwell equations have been discussed in details. You
have studied how Maxwell equations are derived and basic understanding electrodynamics.
You have also studied interrelations of Maxwell equations, continuity equation and its
physical significance, Coulomb’s law from Maxwell equation, continuity equation from
Maxwell equation, independence of Maxwell equations, concept of displacement current,
Maxwell equations in free space.

Maxwell first equation is Gauss law in electrostatics, Maxwell second equation is Gauss law
in magneto statics, Maxwell third equation is Farade’s law of electromagnetic induction,
Maxwell fourth equation is Ampere – Maxwell law which is modification of ampere circuital
law. Many solved examples are given in the unit to make the concepts clear. To check your
progress, self-assessment questions (SAQs) are given place to place.

4.8 GLOSSARY
Divergence- a deviation from standards

Continuity-the fact of continuing without stopping or of staying the same

Permeability - is the quality or state of being permeable—able to be penetrated or passed

through

4.9 REFERENCES
1.Introduction to Electrodymics David J. Griffiths

2. Classical Electrodynamics John David Jackson

3. Principle of electrodynamics by Melvin Schwartz

4. Electrodynamics by Gupta Kumar

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4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. YOU TUBE

2. National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) Lectures

4.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

(Should be divided into Short Answer type, Long Answer type, Numerical, Objective type)
4.11.1 Short Answer type
1. Derive Gauss law in differential form?

2. What is physical significance of Maxwell first equation?

3. Derive coulomb’s law from Maxwell first equation.

4. Derive continuity equation from Maxwell fourth equation.

4.11.2 Long Answer type

1. Derive equation of continuity. What are physical significances of it?

2. What is meant by Displacement current? How Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law.

3. Derive Maxwell equations. Write physical significance of these equations.

4.11.3Numerical Answer type

with linear charge density á á (1 − ã) ä if the cylinder and the line charge extend from
1. Find the total electric flux through a closed cylinder containing a line charge along its axis
â 3

x=0 to x=h.

2. What is the flux through any closed surface surrounding a charged sphere of radius a0 with
volume charge density of 4 4 få gwhere r is the distance from center of the sphere?
$
!

3.Given the vector field

æ
cos(æç − )é̂ + sin(æê) ë̂
è

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 MSCPH508

Sketch the field lines and divergence of the field.

ð+ ∅ ñ.
4. Find the charge density in a region for which electric field in spherical coordinates is given
6 ̂+
ì3íîï
$
by

5. A square containing loop with sides of length L rotates so that the angle between the
(A) + fò g find
ò
normal to the plane of loop and a fixed magnetic field B varies as
!
the emf induced in the loop.

4.12 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Maxwell's equations, were arrived at mostly through various experiments carried out by
different investigators, but they were put in their final form by

A. James Clerk Maxwell

B. Thomas Clerk Maxwell
C. Charles Drawin
D. Stephen Hawking

2. Maxwell's equations can be written in

A. integral form
B. differential form
C. logical form
D. either in integral or differential form

3. Relationship of electric and magnetic field is governed by physical laws, which are known
as

A. Kirchhoff's Equations
B. Millman's Equations
C. Maxwell's Equations
D. Arithmetic Equations

4. In Maxwell's equation, ∇·B=0, which term is basically zero

A. ρev (electrical)
B. ρmv (magnetic)
C. σev (electrical)
D. σmv (magnetic)

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 MSCPH508

5. Dielectric constitutive relationship is

A. D=∊
B. D=∊HE
C. D=∊E
D. D=∊H

6. ∇·D=ρv, s termed as

A. Faraday's Law of Induction

B. Ampere's Law
C. Gauss's Law (electrical)
D. Gauss's Law for magnetism

7. In Maxwell's equation, ∇·D=ρev; D is

A. electric flux density

B. magnetic flux density
C. magnetic field intensity
D. electric field intensity

8. In harmonic plane general equation, A(x,t)=Aocos(kx-wt+φ), k is

A. magnitude of wave disturbance

B. amplitude
C. wave number
D. angular frequency

9. Law which governs interaction of electromagnetic field with charged matter.

A. Gauss's Law
B. Faraday's Law
C. Ampere's Law
D. Lorentz force Law

10. In harmonic plane general equation, A(x,t)=Aocos(kx-wt+φ), 'Ao' is

A. magnitude of wave disturbance

B. amplitude
C. wave number
D. angular frequency

11. ∇xH=J+∂D/∂t is modification of

A. Faraday's Law of Induction

92
 MSCPH508

B. Ampere's Law
C. Gauss's Law (electrical)
D. Gauss's Law for magnetism

12. In harmonic plane general equation, A(x,t)=Aocos(kx-wt+φ), φ represents

A. magnitude of wave disturbance

B. amplitude
C. phase shift
D. angular frequency

13. In Maxwell's equation ∇xH=J+∂D/∂t, J is

A. electric flux density

B. magnetic flux density
C. surface current density
D. No physical quantity

1.A 2.D 3.C 4.D 5C. 6.C 7.D 8.C 9.D 10.B 11.B 12.C 13.C

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UNIT 5: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

STRUCTURE

5.1 Introductions

5.2 Objectives

5.3 Wave Equation for Free Space Condition

5.3.1. Plane Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space

5.3.2. Energy Flow Due to a Plane EM Wave (Pointing Vector for Free Space)
5.4 Plane EM Wave in Matter
5.4.1. Relative Orientation of E and H Vectors in a Plane Wave
5.5. Plane EM Wave Propagation Isotropic Dielectric (Non Conducting Media)
5.6. Propagation of Plane EM Wave in Conducting Media
5.7. Equation of Motion (Wave Equation)
5.7.1. Phase Velocity and Refractive Index
5.7.2. Phase Velocity
5.7.3. Depth of Penetration
5.8. Energy in Electromagnetic Field
5.8.1. Pointing Theorem:
5.8.2. Pointing Vector

94
 MSCPH508

5.8.3. Pointing vector varies inversely as the square of the distance from the point
source of radiation-
5.9. Summary

5.10 Glossary

5.11 References

5.12 Suggested Readings

5.13 Terminal Questions

5.13.1 Short Answer type

5.13.2 Long Answer type

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will discuss Maxwell equation in free space condition, in non-conducting
medium, conducting medium. With the help of Maxwell equation, we will derive
Electromagnetic wave equation in free space, conducting medium, in non-conducting
medium. Electromagnetic waves carry energy with it, the amount of energy carried by it will
be discussed in terms of Pointing theorem.

5.2OBJECTIVES
To learn aboutwave equation for free space condition
To learn aboutPlane Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space
To learn aboutEnergy flow due to a plane EM wave
To discuss plane Electromagnetic Waves in conducting media
To discuss Pointing theorem.

5.3 WAVE EQUATION FOR FREE SPACE CONDITION

We have Maxwell equations

∇∙D ρ - - - - - (a)
∇∙B 0 - - - - - (b)

∇∙E − J‰
Jˆ - - -
- - - - - (c)
(5.1)
∇∙H J+
Jª
J‰
- - - - - (d)

In free space there is no charge and no current q 0

95
 MSCPH508

I 0 ρ 0 J 0

Now Maxwell equation in free space conditions can be written as –

∇∙D 0 - - - - - (a)
∇∙B 0 - - - - - (b)

∇×E −
Jˆ
- - -(5.2)
J‰
- - - - - (c)

∇×H
Jª
J‰
- - - - - (d)

Now taking curl of equation – (5.2c)

dB
∇×E −
dt

dB
curl j∇ × El curl ô− õ
dt

dB
∇ × j∇ × El ∇ × Ä− Å
dt

Using formula

A × jB × Cl = jA ∙ ClB − jA ∙ BlC

dB
j∇ ∙ El∇ − j∇ ∙ ∇lE −∇ ×
dt

O− ∇ E − J‰ j∇ × Bl mfrom equation (5.2a)n

J

−∇ E − J‰ j∇ × μ Hl
J

¤ ∇∙D 0 §
d ¢∇ ∙∈ E 0¢
∇ E − j∇ × μ Hl 0
dt £ ∇∙E 0 ¦
¢ ¢
¡ ∇ ∙ ∇ ∇2 ¥

d
∇ E μ j∇ × Hl
dt

∇ E μ f J‰ g from free space hù × ú − i

J Jª ûü
J‰ ûò

= f ∈ g mý ∈ n
û û
ûò ûò

96
 MSCPH508

þ ¬ ∈¬

or

þ ¬ ∈¬ ¬ - - - -(5.3)

This is the wave equation in free space for electric component in EM wave.

Similarly, by taking curl of equation (5.2a), we can show thatù ú = ∈

û%
ûò %

þ ¬ ∈¬ =0 - - - -(5.4)

This is the wave equation in free space for magnetic component in EM wave.

Now comparing equation (5.3) and (5.4) with wave equation,

( ç 1 ( ç
( 1 (A

( ç 1 ( ç
− 0
( 1 (A

or

ù ç−
û%
% ûò %
=0

1
= ∈
1

1 1
1
= ∈ √4æ × 10u × 8.85 × 10u

= 2.99 × 10 / ≅ 3 × 10 / C (Speed of light)

Now from equation (5.3) and (5.4), subst.

ù − 0and
û%
% ûò %

1 ( ú
ù ú− 0
(A

97
 MSCPH508

SAQ: 1 Show that there exists electromagnetic wave in space and they travel in free space
with velocity of light?

SAQ: 2Show that the wave equation can be written in the form
(ù + ) 0
#
ã
where k = is called wave vector or propagation constant?

5.3.1. PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN FREE SPACE

An electromagnetic wave, whose field vectors are the functions of only one space coordinate
and the time coordinate is said to be a uniform plane wave. Let us consider such waves that
are propagating in z-directions, so that and ú will vary only in the direction of z-axis, i.e.

(ê ( (
0, ≠0
(ç (ç (

and we write

(ê, A)

ú ú (ê, A) - - - -(5.5)

then now from equation

ù∙ 0

ù∙∈ 0

ù∙ 0

( ( (
Ä& + + Å ∙ j êé̂ + çë̂ + ðl 0
(ê (ç (

( ( (
+ + 0
(ê â
(ç (

(
0+0+ 0
(
(
0
(

(EZ = const. in space)

or

98
 MSCPH508

ù∙? 0

ù∙ = ú 0

ù∙ú 0

( ( (
Ä& + + Å ∙ júêé̂ + úçë̂ + ú ð l 0
(ê (ç (

( ( (
úâ + ú + ú 0
(ê (ç (
û‚
û
=0

[Hz = constant in space]

Also,

ù× − ûò
û

(ú
jù × l −=
(A

& ð
"
( ( (!
∴ ù×
(ê (ç ( !
ê ç

= é̂ fû − çg − fûâ ê − êg + ð fûâ ç − êg
û û û û û û
û ûâ û

( (
jù × l ðÄ ç− êÅ
(ê (ç

jù × l 0

û
ûò
0 = -=

û
ûò
= 0 [Hz = const. in time]

or

Similarly

[Ez = const. in time]

99
 MSCPH508

Thus we conclude that Ez and Hz remains constant as regards to time and space. Thus they
represent static components and consequently no part of wave motion. We can therefore write
–

Ez = Hz = 0

So that

# & ê+ ç
e
ú &úê + úç
- - - -(5.6)

Since the electric vector and the magnetic vector ú do not have any z component, the z-
direction being the direction of propagation, both these vector are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation Maxwell's electromagnetic wave are, therefore purely transverse.E
and H vectors for a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in positive Z direction, E and H are
in phase but perpendicular to each other.

5.4 PLANE EM WAVE IN MATTER:

The propagation of plane EM wave in homogenous, isotropic linear source free and
stationery media, whether conducting or non-conducting.

If the constitutive relations:

D ∈E
#B μH $
J σE
- - - (5.7)

Hold good, then the medium, is said to be isotropic and linear further a medium is stationary
if it is at rest w.r.t. the coordinate system used.

ù∙ 4

ù∙? 0

(?
ù× −
- - -
(A (5.8)

(
ù×ú B+
(A

Now taking curl of equation - (5.2c)

d?
ù × jù × l + ù ô− õ
dt

100
 MSCPH508

(
ù × jù × l + jù × ? l 0
(A

(
ù × jù × l + jù × =úl 0
(A

( (
ù × jù × l + = ôB + õ 0
(A (A

( (
ù × jù × l + = ô% + õ 0
(A (A

ù × jù × l + = ûò % + %= ûò 0
û% û
- - - (5.9)

We know

ù × jù × l ù jù ∙ l − jù ∙ ù l

= ù × jù ∙ l − ù

4
ù × jù × l ùf g−ù
∈

Now

ù f∈ g − ù + ∈ = ûò % + %ú ûò = 0
5 û% û

+&
'
þ ∈ + þ f∈g - - - (5.10)

Similarly, we can obtain an equation for the Magnetic fieldú by taking the curl of equation
(5.2d) and using equation (5.2c) and (5.1). The equation will be:

þ ∈ +& - - - -(5.11)

Let us consider a wave propagating in z-direction such that all derivative of E and H with
respect to x and y are zero.

( (
0
(ê (ç

(
≠0
(

We have, ù é̂ + ë̂ +ð
û û û
ûâ û û

101
 MSCPH508

(
ù ð
(

( ( (
ù + +
(ê (ç (

(
ù
(

Substituting in equation – (5.10)

( ( 4
ù ∈= + %= +ùf g
(A (A ∈

( ( ( ( 4
∈= + %= +ð f g
( (A (A ( ∈

or

( ( ( ( 4
ô∈ = + %= õ +ð f g
( (A (A ( ∈

( ( ( ( 4
jé̂ ê + ç+ ð l ô∈ = + %= õ (& ê + ë̂ ç + )+ ð f g
( (A (A ( ∈

Now field equation –

4
ù∙
∈

( ( ( 4
Äé̂ + + ð Å ∙ jé̂ ê + ë̂ ç + ð l
(ê (ç ( ∈

( 4
( )
( ∈

But,

( 4 ( (
ð f g ð Ä Å
( ∈ ( (

( 4 (
ð f g jð l
( ∈ (

Substituting these value in equation – (5.11)

( ( ( ( (
(& ê + ç) + jð l ô∈ = + %= õ jé̂ ê + ë̂ ç + ð l+ jð l
( ( (A (A (

102
 MSCPH508

( ( %(
(& ê + ç) = ô∈ + õ jé̂ ê + ë̂ ç + ð l
( (A (A

Writing the above equation only for example we have

( (
=∈ + =% 0
(A (A

+&
( (
∈ ¬.

5.4.1. RELATIVE ORIENTATION OF E AND H VECTORS IN A

PLANE WAVE:

From equation

(?
ù× −
(A

( ( (
0 −0 ≠0
(ê (ç (

ú 0

So, ? =ú 0

? 0

Now,

é̂ë̂ ð
( ( (
)) ))
(ê (ç (
ê ç

jé̂?ê + ë̂?ç + ð ? l
uû
ûò
=

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 MSCPH508

é̂ë̂ ð
)0 0 ()
(
ê ç 0

(é̂?ê + ë̂?ç)
uû
ûò
=

Let us suppose that the sinusoidal wave of angular frequency w is propagating in z-direction,
so that we can write

∈ * +(,òu-â) ----
(5.12)

ú ú * +(,òu-â) ----
(5.13)

Differential equation (5.12) war to z

(
− ∈ * +(,òu-â)
(

(
−
(

(
−./ -----
(5.14)

Now diff. equation (5.12) war to t

(
0 ∈ * (,òu-â)
(A

1/ -----

(5.15)

Now

é̂ë̂ ð
2 0 0 − 2 = − 0(é̂?ê + ?ç)
ê ç 0

é̂(0 + ç) − ë̂( ê ) + ð (0)

= 0(é̂?ê + ë̂?ç)

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 MSCPH508

Comparing coefficient of é̂ and ë̂

ç − 0?ê

ç − 0=úê

− ê − 0?ç

⇒ ê 3=úç
,•
−
â
â -
- - - (5.16)

Now we take the dot product of E and H

∙ú êúê + çúç

,• ,•
= -
úçúê + f− -
úêúçg

∙ú 0

Hence and ú are mutually perpendicular.

5.5. PLANE EM WAVE PROPAGATION ISOTROPIC

DIELECTRIC (NON CONDUCTING MEDIA)
Maxwell field equations: -

ù∙ 4

ù∙? 0 3&Aℎ B %
? =ú
(?
ù× − ∈
(A

(
ù×ú B+
(A
For non conducting media, we note that

(i) conductivity % would be zero, so that

B % 0

(ii) medium is taken as isotropic due to which there would be no volume distribution of
charge. Therefore
4 0.

105
 MSCPH508

Apply these conditions.

Maxwell equations for non-conducting medium:
ù∙ 0 ù∙ 0 ----- (5.17)
ù∙? 0 ù∙ú 0 ----- (5.18)

or

ù× − ûò ù × −=
û û
ûò
----- (5.19)

ù×ú ù×ú ∈
ûü û
ûò ûò
----- (5.20)

a. Equation of propagation of magnetic vector H –

Taking curl of equation - (5.20)
(
ù × jù ∙ úl ù × ô∈ õ
(A

ù jù ∙ úl − jù ∙ ù lú ∈ û$ jù × l
û

0-ù ú ∈ ûò f− ûò g
û û

( ?
ù ú ∈
(A
( ú
ù ú =∈
(A

þ
Ç
5
- - - -5.21
1
∴ =∈
1
1
=∈
1

Equation – (5.21) is the wave equation for magnetic vector ú .

i. Equation of propagation electric vector E:

Taking curl of equation (2c)

(ú
ù × jù × l ù × ô−= õ
(A
(
ù jù ∙ l − jù ∙ ù l −= jù × ú l
(A
( (
0− ù −= ô∈ õ
(A (A

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 MSCPH508

(
ù =∈
(A

or

ù
û%
% ûò %
- - - - 5.22

Which is the wave equation for electric vector

Suppose the EM wave is propagating in z-direction, then

0so that ù and ù

û û û û%
ûâ â û û %

We get from equation (5.21) and (5.22)

− 0
û% û%
û % % ûò %
- - - - - (a)

% − 0
û% û%
û % ûò %
- - - - - (b) - - - - - (5.23)

Now solution of these equations are

* +(,òu- ) 2æ
d3ℎ* * e
á
- - - - - (a)
ú ú * +(,òu- )
- - - - - (b) ----6

Differential equation (a) w.r.t. z and t, we get

(
* +(,òu- ) (− ) −
(
(
−
(
* +(,òu- ) ( 0) 0
û
ûò
and
(
⇒ −
(
(
0
(A

5.6. PROPAGATION OF PLANE EM WAVE IN

CONDUCTING MEDIA
The material do have net conductivity % which accounts for the loss of energy in the media. It
is further assumed that the materials are homogeneous, linear, isotropic, unbounded and

107
 MSCPH508

stationary. If such a material contains no free volume charge and no other current except the
one determined by Ohm's law, then Maxwell's equation in such a material are given by –
ù∙ 4 - - - - - (a)
ù∙? 4 B %
3&Aℎ 6? =ú #
- - - - - (b)

ù×ú B+
ûü
ûò
- - - - - (c) ∈

ù× −
û
ûò
- - - - - (d)

From these relations, we get:

(?
ù × jù × l + Äù × Å 0
(A
(
ù jù ∙ l − ù + jù × =úl 0
(A
4 ( (
ùf g−ù + = Ä% +∈ Å 0
∈ (A (A
4 ( (
ùf g−ù + = + %= 0
∈ (A (A
( ( 4
ù = + %= +ùf g
(A (A ∈
4
ùf g 0
∈
( (
ù =% += ∈
(A (A
ù =% ûò + = ∈
û û%
ûò %
- - - - (5.24)

Similarly, we get obtain:

ù ú =% ûò − = ∈
û û%
ûò %
- - - - (5.25)

5.7. EQUATION OF MOTION (WAVE EQUATION)

Let us consider the plane polarized EM wave is propagating in z-direction with E in x-
direction and H in y-direction

0, ≠0
û û û
So ûâ û û

( ( (
ù é̂ + ë̂ +ð
(ê (ç (

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 MSCPH508

(
ù ð
(
( (
ù∙ù ð ∙ð
( (
(
ù
(

Substituting these values in equation (5.24)

( ( (
− =% += ∈ 0
( (A (A

or

( ( (
−= ∈ − =% 0
( (A (A

or since

êé̂
ú úçë̂

Now,

− =∈ − =% 0
û% â û% â û â
û % ûò % ûò
- - - - (5.26)

Similarly, for magnetic field

− =∈ − =% 0
û% û% û
û % ûò % ûò
- - - - (5.27)

Let electric component Ex is function of time only. Let it varies with time as

ê * +,ò
( ê (
* +7ò ( 0A)
(A (A
( ê
0 * +,ò
(A
= 0 ê
( ê
0 * +,ò × 0
(A
= 0 * +,ò

−0 ê m −1n
û% â
ûò %

Now,

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( ê ( ê ( ê
−= ∈ − =% 0
( (A (A
( ê
+= ∈0 ê − =%0 ê 0
(
( ê
− ( =%0 − = ∈ ) ê 0
(

or

−9 8
8
¬
(
- - - -(5.28)

Wave equation for electric component

where, =%0 − = ∈ 0 : is called propagation constant.

5.7.1. PHASE VELOCITY AND REFRECTIVE INDEX

The solution of equation (5.28) is

; * u<
: =%0 − = ∈ 0
: =%0 − = ∈ 0

=%0 +∈ ∈ 0 m −1n

0∈
: = =%0 Ä1 + Å
%

For conductor
%
⋙1
=∈

or
%
⋘1
=∈
•∈
@
Neglect term contain

Here,

0∈
1+ ≅1
%

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: =%0

or

=%0
: (1 + )A
2
=%0 =%0
á A + A
2 2

áhas a real as well as an imaginary part, we can then put

: è + Bwhereè is real part associated with attenuation and is called attenuation constant,
while B is the imaginary part called phase. Therefore, on comparing above equations, we get
=%0
è B A
2
; * u<
%
- - - - (5.29)
•@, •@,
ôuA C+A õD
ê *
•@, •@,
*
uA Du+A D

•@, •@,
* *
uA D u+A D

EFG EFG
The term * is called attenuation factor, while *
uA D u+A D
% %
is called phase factor.

5.7.2. PHASE VELOCITY –

ç 6 &' (0A − ê)
0A − ê ' A6'A
(=
0− 0
(A
(= 0
(A

Here B
0
H
B
0
√=%0
2

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0
√=%0
2

2
0=
=%0

20
=
=%0

20
H =
=%

Reflective index I
J

A20K=%

&
L MA
1

5.7.3. DEPTH OF PENETRATION (SKIN DEPTH):

In a medium, which has conductivity, the wave suffers attenuation as it progresses. At radio
frequencies in a good conductor, the factor 0% will have high value. Consequently è, the
attenuation will be quite high and the wave may penetrate only a very short distance before
being reduced to a negligibly small percentage of its original strength. This means that an
existing wave in a conducting medium is rapidly attenuated. Therefore, we find the
penetration of the wave into the conducting medium, called depth of penetration or skin
depth.
The depth of penetration N is defined as that depth in which the wave attenuates to 2

times of its strength before attenuation constant.

; * uO
è 1
; 1
*
i.e. on traversing distance
1
è

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2
the amplitude of the wave falls times its value at z=0. By definition, such a distance

is equal to depth of penetration N so that for a good conductor,

1
N "
è !
2 !
N = !
0=%

i) for copper at one mega cycle

ω 2πF
0 2æ10P /s d e
F 10P c/s
μ μoequal to that of free space, being a non-magnetic material
4π10u Henry/meter
σ 5.8 × 10 mho/meter, so that depth of penetration is

2 × 10
δ =ô õ
2π × 10P × 4π × 5.8 × 10

0.0667 × 10 meter
= 0.0667 mm.

ii) For silver at one mega cycle

ω 2π ∙ 10P c/s {equal to that of a free space, as silver is non-

μ 4π × 10u H/m magnetic material}
σ 6.2 × 10u

so that depth of penetration is

δ ATOÛ 0.064mm.
√POÛ

which is very small for copper it is 0.066 mm. Consequently, performance of a pure silver
component and a silver plated brass component is expected to be indistinguishable of
microwave frequencies.

iii) For sea water: at 10 kc/s

ω 2π ∙ 10" c/s
μ μo 4π × 10u H/m
σ 4.0mho/m

so that depth of penetration

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δ
PÏOÛ
= 2.5 m

and the attenuation constant

α 0.4neper/m
V

This is the attenuation for δ 1 is 8.686db. For lesser δ, there will be more α, the
attenuation. At 10 kc/s
ω 2π ∙ 10" c/s
μ μo 4π × 10u H/m
σ 4.0mho/m

So the depth of penetration

δ 2.5m
PÏOÛ

and the attenuation constant

α 0.4neper/m
V

This is the attenuation for δ 1 is 8.686 db for lesser δ, there will be more α, the
attenuation. At 10kc/s the attenuation is 87 db for a distance of only 25 m. So a
communication path cannot be much skin depth long. Sea water is thus a poor medium for
communication. If a sufficiently high frequency is used, so that displacement current greatly
exceeds, the conduction current, the attenuation constant α is
1 σ μ
α A
δ 2 ε

Putting σ 4 mho/m,

ε 8/ε
μ μo 4π × 10u H/m
The equivalent skin depth δ is about 1.19 cm. only and the penetration at such
frequency is, for all practical purposes, non-existent. For this reason, frequency, which are
low enough, so that sea water acts as conducting medium, must be used in any attempt at
communication.
iv) Skin depth decreases if either the conductivity σ the permeability μ or the frequency F,
increases. Good conductors are, therefore, always highly opaque to light, except when
in the form of extremely thin films. A thin sheet of conducting material can act as a
low pass filter EM waves.

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5.8. ENERGY IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD: POINTING

VECTOR (POINTING THEOREM)
Energy may be transported through space by means of electromagnetic waves let the material
inside surface be isotropic, homogenous, and characterized by permeability μ, permittivity
V∈ and conductivity σ. To derive relation, consider a volume V banded by a closed surface
S. Maxwell third and fourth relation are
Jˆ
J‰
Curl E = -

Jª
J‰
Curl H = J +

Taking scaler product of above equation with H and E

Jˆ
H . Curl E = - H . J‰

Jª
E . Curl H = J.E + E . J‰

No subtracting
Jª Jª
E . Curl H – H . Curl E = J.E + E . J‰ + H . J‰ - - - -(5.30)

We have the following formula

div A×B = B. Curl A - A . Crul B

Now,

divE ×H = H. Curl E- E. Curl H

Multiplying by:

- divE ×H = E. Curl H- H. Curl E

Substituting these value in eg - 1

- divE ×H = J . E + E . + H.
Jª Jˆ
J‰ J‰

J . E +fE . + H. g + div E ×H = 0
Jª Jˆ
J‰ J‰

We have D = ∈ E and

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B=μ H

J . E +fE . J‰ ∈ E + H. J‰ μHg + div E ×H

J J

J.E+
J J
J‰ J‰
(∈E2) + (μH2) + div (E ×H) = 0

E ||
û
∈E2 =
J J
ûò
, =0
J‰ J‰
× 2∈E
E
û

= ∈E
J ûò
=

E
J‰ û
ûò
cos
= ∈ E . J‰
J û
ûò
=E

= E .J‰ (∈ E)
J

J.E+f (E . ∈ E) + (H . μH) g+ div (E ×H) = 0

J J
J‰ J‰

E.∈ = C ∈.
J.E+
J J
J‰ J‰ ∈ cos
(E .D) + (H .B) + div (E ×H) = 0

∈E2
J.E+ W(E . D) + (H . B) X+ div (E ×H) = 0
J
J‰

Integrating over the volume V bounded by the surface S, we get

1 d
•jJ . Eldv + • . jE . D + H . Bldv + • div jE × Hldv 0
2 dt

1 d
• J . E dv + • WjE . D) + (H . BlXdv − • div jE × Hldv
2 dt

Using Gauss divergence theorem

• div jE × Hldv • E × H . ds

1 1d
• J . E dv + • WjE . D) + (H . BlXdv
2 2 dt

− •jE × Hl. ds − (5.31)

Interpretations of terms:

1st term:

•jJ . Eldv •jJ dvl . E

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I
• I dl. E dJ e
A

d
• dl. E
dt
dl
• dq Ä Å . E
dt
d
• dq jV. El dV e
t

We have Lorentz force

F = qE + qVB sin θ

= qE + q (V × B )

F= q (E × V × B )

Work done for small displacement 'dl'

dw =F . dl= q [E + (V × B)] . dl

= qE. dl + q(V × B)] . dl

dw = qE. dl + q(V × B)] . dl

Fate of work done

= qE. J‰ + q(V × B) . J‰
J¼ JK JK
J‰

= qE. V + (V × B) . V
J¼
J‰

= q (V. E) {(V × B) . V = 0 for scaler triple product}

J¼
J‰

Including all charges we can write the above equation:

A A A
A . (B × C) = YB B B Y
C C C

A A A
A . (A × C) = YA A A Y =0
C C C

= Σ qj (Vj . Eȷ)
J¼
J‰

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Now,

dw
•(J. E) dv Σ qj jVj . Eȷl
dt

The first term of equation (5.31) represent the rate at which the work is done by the
field on the charges i.e., power second term: Interpretation of

1 d
• . (E . D + H. B) dv
2 dt

1 d
• . (E . ∈ E + H. μH) dv
2 dt

d 1 1
• Ä ∈ E + μH Å dv
dt 2 2

The first and second term on right hand side represent the time rate of charge of
electromagnetic energy stored in the electric and magnetic field respectively within the
volume V.

Rate at which work is done by the field on the charges i.e., the power spent by the
fields due to motion of charges. And the time rate of change of electromagnetic energy stored
in electric and magmatic fields within the Volume V.

We therefore conclude that the R.H.S.

•(E × H). ds of equation(5.31)

Must represent flowing per second (in power) into the volume V through surface S or
the power flowing out of volume V through the surface S we denote

E×V=P

Where P, called pointing vector which is define as -

The amount of field energy passing through unit area of the surface is unit time which is
normal to the direction of energy flow. It unit is watt/met2.

5.8.1. POYNTING THEOREM:

Law of conservation of energy for electromagnet is fields. The energy can be written as:

J.E + \ (E. D + H. B)] + div (E × H) = 0

J
J‰

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= J.E = J‰ f ∈ E + μH g+ ∇ . P
J

+∇.P
JO
J‰
=

Where:

μ = ∈ E + μH

Which represent energy density of electromagnetic field.

For non – conducting medium J = 0

So that:

+∇.P=0
JO
J‰

5.8.2. POINTING VECTOR

Pointing vector is define as the amount of field energy (Electric and Magnetic) passing
through unit area of the surface perpendicular to a plane containgE and H per unit time it's as:

P=E×H

Since in an EM wave

E⊥H

P=E×H

= EH sin 90 n;

P = EH

About pointing vector, we can further state.

5.8.3. POINTING VECTOR VARIES INVERSELY AS THE SQUARE OF

THE DISTANCE FROM THE POINT SOURCE OF RADIATION-
PROOF'
Let as consider a source & of electromagnetic radiation enclosed by two
spherical surfaces of radios r1 of r2 with source (s) centre.

Let source be emitting radius at the rate of W (Watt) that pointing vector equal
to energy flowing up

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 MSCPH508

energy Ùlowing W P
time × Area t × Area Area
a
bHcd
Pointing Vector =

a
"PH%T
P1 =

a
"PH%%
P2 = S
• r2 P2
r1
f
eT ghi%
T H%T
f
e% H%%
= =
ghi%
P1
%

= f %g or
eT H
e% HT

P ∝
Ç
¶

In case of time varying fields P = E × H. Gives the instate nous value of the
pointing vector and therefore we calculate average value for one complete period.

Suppose the fields are given by

E = E sin wt &

H = H sin wt

Pdt
ƒ
E × H dt
ƒ
dt [T݃

E sin wt × H sin wt dt
•
T

E ×H ƒ
• sin wt dt
T

E × H ƒ 1 − cos wt
• dt
T 2

E ×H ƒ
• 1 − cos wt dt
2T

E ×H sin wt
ƒ
[T݃ k l
2T 2w

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E ×H 1 sin 2π T − sin 0
mT − Ä Ån
2T 2w T

E ×H 1
mT − sin 4π n
2T 2w

E ×H
T
2T

E ×H
P
2

5.9. SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied the application of Maxwell equations. You have studied
Maxwell equations in varies conditions like free space, in conducting medium, non-
conducting medium. You have derived wave equations for free space condition, plane
electromagnetic wave in free space, plane electromagnetic wave in matter. In this unit you
have also learnt energy flow due to a plane EM wave (pointing vector for free space). In this
unit you have also learnt relative orientation of E and H vectors in a plane wave and found
both mutually perpendicular to each other. In this unit you have also learnt about propagation
constant, phase velocity, reflective index, depth of penetration (skin depth). In this unit you
have also learnt energy in electromagnetic field pointing vector (pointing theorem). Many
solved examples are given in the unit to make the concepts clear. To check your progress, self
assessment questions (SAQs) are given place to place.

5.10 GLOSSARY
Penetration depth- electromagnetic radiation can penetrate

Permeability - is the quality or state of being permeable—able to be penetrated or passed

through

5.11 REFERENCES
1. Introduction to Electrodymics David J. Griffiths

2. Classical Electrodynamics John David Jackson

3. Principle of electrodynamics by Melvin Schwartz

4. Electrodynamics by Gupta Kumar

5.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

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1. YOU TUBE

2. National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) Lectures

5.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

(Should be divided into Short Answer type, Long Answer type, Numerical, Objective type)
5.13.1 Short Answer type
1. Write short note on following-

(a) Skin depth

(b) Propagation constant

2. Show that electric and magnetic component in an electromagnetic wave are mutually
perpendicular.

• ! ∈!
3. Show that in free space

Where c is speed of light,= permeability of free space, ∈ permittivity of free space.

4. Show that the wave equation can be written in the form

(ù + ) 0
#
ã
where k = is called wave vector or propagation constant

5.13.2Long Answer type

1. Derive electromagnetic equation in conducting medium. Explain depth of penetration and
propagation constant.

2. Explain pointing vector. What are its physical significance?

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UNIT 6: INTERACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE WITH MATTER
Structure

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

6.2.1 Boundary Conditions at an interface of two Dielectrics

6.2.2 Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

6.3 Magnetic Boundary Conditions

6.4 Reflection and Refraction of Plane Electromagnetic Waves

6.4.1 Laws of Reflection and Snell's Law of Refraction

6.5 Polarization

6.6 Fresnel's Equations (Dynamic Properties Of Reflection And Refraction)

6.7 Coherence

6.8 Summary

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6.9 Glossary

6.10 References

6.11 Suggested Readings

6.12 Terminal Questions

6.13 Answers

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6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter explains about the boundary conditions and the macroscopic behavior for a
plane electromagnetic wave when it is incident on an infinite plane boundary between two
semi-infinite media of different indices of refraction, for instance as free space and a metallic
conductor. We shall be led to the familiar laws of reflection and refraction, laws that were
established, before the advent of electromagnetic theory merely from general wave theory. In
order to discuss the behavior of electromagnetic waves at the boundary, we must find the
boundary conditions holding at a surface of discontinuity between two media. Boundary
conditions can be worked out for electric displacement vector (D), electric field (E), magnetic
induction (B) and magnetic field strength (H).

6.2 ELECTROSTATIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

If the electric field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the
field must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called electrostatic boundary
conditions. These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary
when the field on other side is known.

6.2.1Boundary Conditions at an interface of two Dielectrics

For determining boundary conditions, we will use following Maxwell’s equations

∮ .( o2+3 -------------------------- (1)

and

∮ . (¯ 0 -------------------------- (2)
Also we need to decompose E to the interface of the interest-

ò + +

Where ò and + are the normal and tangential components of Electric field (E) to the
interface of the medium. Let us consider the E field exists in a region that consists of two
different dielectrics characterized by $ and $ as shown below in fig. 1-

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 MSCPH508

Figure 1
In media 1 and 2, Electric field can be decomposed as-

ò + +

ò + +

Using Maxwell Equation ∮ . (¯ 0 along the closed path abcda-

∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
0 ò ∆3 − − − ò ∆3+ +
+
2 +
2 +
2 +
2
As ∆h→0, above equation becomes

ò ò -------------------------- (3)
Thus the tangential components are the same on the two sides of the boundary, i.e. ò is
continuous across the boundary.

Since + + ò

ò ò
ò ò

or
üTp ü%p
-------------------------- (4)
T %

Thus, ò undergoes some change, hence it is said to be discontinuous across the interface.We
can also apply first Maxwell equation, to the Cylindrical Gaussian Surfaceof the fig 2.

126
 MSCPH508

Figure 2

The contribution due to curved sides vanishes. Allowing ∆h→0 gives

∆o 4î ∆q + ∆q − + ∆q

Or

+ − + 4î
here4î is the free charge density at boundary. Generally4î ý (until and unless, we are not
putting free charge at the interface deliberately), the above equation become-

+ + -------------------------- (5)

Thus the normal component of D is continuous across the interface. Further since ,
we can write-

+ + -------------------------- (6)
Showing that the normal component of the E is discontinuous at the boundary.Equations (3-
6) are known as the boundary conditions for adielectric- dielectric boundary.

6.2.2 Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions

We follow the same procedure as we did in case of dielectric-dielectric boundary conditions,
as the electric field inside a conductor is always zero.

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 MSCPH508

Figure 3

Working out the E.dlfor loop abcda-

∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
0 0. ∆3 + 0. + − ò ∆3− − 0.
2 +
2 +
2 2
Which further can be written as-

ò 0 -------------------------- (7)
Using above formula, we can write-

ò ò 0 -------------------------- (8)

Working out the first Maxwell equation∮ . ( o2+3 for cylindrical Gaussian surface-

∆o 4î ∆q + ∆q −0
Or

+ 4î

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 MSCPH508

Figure 4
Above formula can also be written in terms of En-

+ + 4î -------------------------- (9)

∴
5r
+ -------------------------- (10)

Eqns. (7- 10) give the conductor-dielectric boundary conditions. Similarly,if we incorporate

$ 1

then the eqns. (7- 10) would give the boundary conditions, for free space.

6.3 MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The magnetic boundary conditions are the conditions that H (or B) field must satisfy at the

fields ∮ ?. ( 0 and Ampere’s circuit law ∮ ú. (¯ s

boundary between two different media. This derivation make use of Gauss's law for magnetic

= and = as in Figure 5. Applying Gauss law of magnetostatics to the pillbox (Gaussian

Consider the boundary between two magnetic media 1 and 2, characterized, respectively, by

surface) of Figure 5(a) and allowing ∆ℎ → 0, we obtain -

129
 MSCPH508

? +∆ − ? +∆ 0
Thus ? + ? +

or= ú + = ú +
since ? =ú, Equation (11) shows that the normal component of B is continuous at the
-------------------------- (11)

boundary. It also shows that the normal component of H is discontinuous at the boundary; H
undergoes some change at the interface.
Similarly, we apply Ampere’s law to the closed path abcda of Figure 5(b) where surface
current K on the boundary is assumed normal to the path. We obtain

t. ∆ ú ò . ∆3 + ú +ú − ú ò . ∆3 − ú
∆u ∆u ∆u
+ + + ----------------------(12)

As ∆ℎ → 0, above equation leads to-

ú ò−ú ò t -------------------------- (13)

Figure5 Boundary condition between two magnetic media: (a) for B, (b) for H

This shows that the tangential component of H is also discontinuous while that of B is
discontinuous at the boundary. Equation (13) may be written in terms of B as-
Tp %p
t
•T •%
-------------------------- (14)

In the general case, eq. (13) becomes-

(ú − ú ) × 6+ t

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where6+ is a unit vector normal to the interface and is directed from medium 1 to medium
2. If the boundary is free of current or the media are not conductors (for K is free current
density), K = 0 and eq. (13) becomes-

ú ò ú ò -------------------------- (15)
or

Tp %p
•T •%
-------------------------- (16)
Thus the tangential component of H is continuous while that of B is discontinuous at the
boundary. If the field make an angle θ with the normal to the interface-

? cos ? + ? + ? cos -------------------------- (17)

And eq. (16) produces-
T
•T
sin ú ò ú ò
%
•%
sin -------------------------- (18)

Dividing eq. (18) by (17) gives-

‰dM ïT •T
‰dM ï% •%
-------------------------- (19)

Eqn (11), (16) and (19) give the boundary conditions for B, H and θ respectively.

6.4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Previous section describes the change in the electromagnetic components acroos the interface
of two different media. We shall now investigate the behaviour of EM waves in different
combinations of different types of media, i.e. dielectrics, conductors (including good
conductors) and combinations of these. We remind ourselves that the dielectrics are non-
conductors, and they may be either magnetic or non-magnetic; we shall restrict ourselves to
non-magnetic dielectrics.
We assume an ideally thin, infinitely plane interface between the two Linear, Isotropic and

reflected wave along ' and a transmitted wave along 'ò (Figure 6). These three waves,
Homogeneous (LIH) media. An incident wave along ni would. in general, give rise to a

combined together, satisfy the continuity conditions for thc tangential Components of E and
H, and for the normal components of D and B at the interface. Initially, we exclude the total
reflection from the dielectric, and assume the media to extend to infinity on the sides of the
interface.

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Figure 6 An electromagnetic wave in medium 1, incident on the interface between media 1

and 2, giving rise to both the reflected wave in the medium 1 and the transmitted wave in the
medium 2.

The whole analysis is classified by the method through which the incident wave hits the
interface surface of discontinuity, i.e. (l) the incident wave meeting the interface normally;
and (2) the incident wave meeting the interface obliquely, ir which case, the interference
pattern produced in the first medium, by the combination of the incident and the reflected
waves would be stationary in one direction and travelling in an orthogonal direction. The
properties of such patterns are of great practical importance in design and study of
waveguides.
Therefore, it is to be mentioned that when a wave meets a discontinuity in the media of
propagation, then, in general, it (the incident wave) produces a transmitted wave in the
medium and a reflected wave which travels back in the first medium, the exact directions of
propagation being decided upon by the interface continuity conditions. We shall now
consider waves incident normally on different types of interface surfaces, startirg first with a
perfectly conducting surface.

6.4.1 Laws of Reflection and Snell's Law of Refraction

Referring to Figure 6, we consider the electromagnetic wave incident on the interface, to be

, exp \ 0$ fA − ', . w g]
both plane and plane-polarized, so that its electric field intensity is of the form
$
ò, -------------------------- (20)
T

where u1 is the phase velocity Of the wave in the medium 1. The time t = 0, and the origin
r=0 can be chosen arbitrarily. We, however, choose the origin at a point on the interface
plane. The above equation defines a plane wave for all values of t and r, but we shall use it

132
 MSCPH508

only for medium 1, and when we consider normal incidence, then ni . r = z (+ve Z-direction).

$ exp \ 0$ fA − '$ . g]
The reflected and the refracted waves from the plane interface are also plane
$
$ wT
-------------------------- (21)

ò exp \ 0ò fA − 'ò . w g]
$
ò -------------------------- (22)
%

where u2 is the phase velocity of the wave in the medium 2. It should be noted that so far no
assumptions have made about the amplitudes, phases, frequencies, and the directions of the
reflected and the refracted waves. The amplitudes E0r, E0t can be complex if required.
The characteristics of the reflected and the transmitted waves are obtained from the
interface continuity conditions that the tangential components of E and H must be continuous
across the interface, i.e. the sum of the tangential components of Ei and Er must equal that of
Et on the interface (z = 0). Similar conditions must holds for H. These conditions must hold
for all instants of time and at all points on the interface (z = 0)

∴ 0, 0$ 0ò
i.e. all the three waves must be of same frequency. Also, since these conditions hold at all the

∴ w* *
+ .$ +x .$* +p .$*
points on the interface,
w w
-------------------------- (23)
T T %

(', − '$ ). , 0
where ri is any point on the interface. From the first two terms of the above equation

Since ri lies on the interface, the (ni - nr) must normal to the interface plane z = 0, i.e.
referring to the figure 6.

, $

which means that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. Since (ni - nr) is
parallel to n (the normal to the interface), the three vectors ni, nr and n are coplanar. These are
the laws of reflection of the waves. The plane containing these three vectors is the 'plane of

fw* − w p g . , 0
incidence'. Going back to Eq. (23), we get
+ +
-------------------------- (24)
* %

Therefore, the vector in the brackets must be normal to the interface plane z = 0, and hence ni,
nt, and n are coplanar, and hence all the four normal vectors ni, nt, nrand n must lie in the
plane ofincidence. Furthermore, the tangential components of (ni/ui,) and (nt/u2) must be
equal, i.e.
LIM ï* LIM ïp
wT w%
= -------------------------- (25)

B ( &' , ) B ( &' ò )
or since the wave number β= ω/u, the above equality can be expressed as-

or
î,+ïp yT +T √ xT •xT
î,+ï* y% +% √ x% •x%
-------------------------- (26)
where n is the index of refraction. This is the 'Snell's law of refraction'. Thus the

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quantity‘βsinθ’ is conserved across the interface. The above laws are general, and apply to
any two media. They hold true for total reflection as well.

6.5 POLARIZATION
An important property of an electromagnetic wave is polarization which describes the
orientation of thc electric field E. It is defined as the property of a radiated electromagnetic
wave describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector;
specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed
location in space, and the same in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of
propagation, i.e. polarization is rhe curve traced out by the end-point of the arrows
representing the instantaneous electric field. The field must be observed along and towards
the direction of propagation. For the simplicity of understanding we consider the simplest
case of a uniform plane wave, trasverse in nature, propagating along the z-axis of the referred
co-ordinate system, travelling in the +ve z-direction. In this case, E and H vectors have to lie
in a plane orthogonal to z-axis, but there is no constraint that E and H vectors have to be
constant as function of space and/or time. The only requirements are that E and H should be
to each other, and the ratio of their magritudes should equal to η (= intrinsic impedance of the
medium). Hence both the vectors can rotate in the transverse plane by the sane angle and
scale in the same proportion, without affecting the nature of the wave. Thus a knowledge of
the E wave is sufficient to specify the H field unambiguously. Hence for
completeunderstanding, it would be sufficient to discuss the behaviour of E field only (see
Figure 7).

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Figure 7- Rotation a plane electromagnetic wave, at a fixed space point (say z = 0 asa
function of time. The figure shows that the two orthogonal components (x- and y-) of space
phase displacement ofx/2 and also the time phase difference of these two components. If the
axis is replaced by z-axis, then the above 3 diagrams would the space rotation of the wave at
a given instant of time t=to. Furthermore. If ωt is is replaced by kz, then the diagrams show
the behaviour of a travelling wave propagating in z-direction, showing both time and space
phase variatons of the orthogonal cornponents.

Polarization can be classified into three categories: linear, circular and elliptic. If the vecor
which describes thc electric field at a point in space as a function of time is always directcd
along astraight line which is normal to the direction of propagation of the wave, then thc field
is said to be linearly polarized. In general, if the figure that the tip of the electric field vector
traces is an ellipse, then the field is said to be elliptically polarized. Linear and circular
polarizations arc special cases of the elliptic polarization, and they can be obtained when the
ellipse degenerates to a straight line or a circle. The figure of the electric field (i.e. the closed
loop) would be traced either in clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) sense, looking at
it along the direction of propagation as specified earlier. It is to be noted that thc clockwise
polarization is also known as right-handed (i.e. CW = RH) polarization and the
counterclockwise polarization is known as left-handed (CCW = LH) polarization for all
three-types of polarizations. It is being reminded that this sense of rotation (right-handed or
left-handed) is obtained by viewing the progressive wave from its ’rear' in the direction of
propagation. In the present example, the wave is travelling in the +ve z-direction (which has
been taken as into the page), so that the rotation is being examined from an observation point
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looking into the page and perpendicular to it. (Figure 8).To study and analyse the different
states of polarization of a wave, we consider two waves of same frequency propagating along
the z-axis in the z-direction and having electric fields oriented along the x- and the y-
directions respectively. To maintain the generality, let the amplitudes of these two waves be
unequal and an arbitrary phase difference between them. We assume the time-variations of
both the waves to be of time-harmonic and hence we can express the fields as-

â3 z â*
+(,òuy )
{ â (0A − B + |â ) -------------------------- (27a)

3 z * +(,òuy ) { j0A − B + | l -------------------------- (27b)

the analysis completely general, â3 , 3, â,

where ω is the angular frequency of the waves and β is their propagation constant. To keep
are all complex with â ,
and | − |â ≠ 0 (at this stage).
being real

Next, in the above expression, if | − |â is +ve, leads â , and if | − |â , is -ve, lags

â . Since at present, the investigation is of the behaviour of the two fields as a function of
time at any specified point in space, we can assume that point to be located at z = 0 (for
principality of analysis) without any loss of generality. Thus the equations for the two fields
become:

â â (0A + |â )
j0A + | l z( A 0A + |â ) + (| − |â ){
-------------------------- (28a)
-------------- (28b)

At any instant of time, the resultant E field would be the vector sum of these two

∴ At some instant of time t, the resultant field is:

instantaneous fields.

&â â (0A + |â )+ & j0A + | l

&} â Az â (0A + |â ) + (0A + |â ) + (| − |â ){

∠tanu h
,òC}€ )C(}• u}€ ){
i
•! 3íîz(3íò
€! 3íî(,òC}€ )
-------------------------- (29)

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where &} â is the unit vector in the direction of E (see Fig. 8).

Figure8: Polarization figure traces of an electric fields vector tip as a function of time for
given spece position: (a) linear (b) circular (c) elliptical
It is Obvious from the above equation that the magnitude and the direction of the resultant
Electric field are functions of time and hence change with time. To obtain the locus of the tip
of the E vector (by eliminating from these equations):-
(0A + •â ) and sin (0A + •â ) Ah1 − i
%
€ €
%
€! €!
c -------------------------- (30)

in the expression for –

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j0A + • l (0A + •â ) + (• − •â )

(0A + •â ). j• − •â l − &'(0A + •â ). &'(• − •â )

j• − •â l − Ah1 − i &'j• − •â l------------------------- (31)

%
€ €
%
€! €!

Rearranging and squaring Sides,

d j• − •â l − e h1 − i &' j• − •â l
%
€ • €
%
€! •! €!

Further rearranging-

− + &' j• − •â l
€ • 3íîj‚• u‚€ l
% %
€ •
% %
€! €! •! •!
-------------------------- (32)

This is an equation of an ellipse. Hence the tip of the E-vector, in general, for a time-
harmonic plane wave. traces an ellipse. as a function of time. Once in every time-period. So
this ellipse will be traced ω/2π times every second. Thus this wave is called an elliptically
polarized wave.

and/or j• − •â l. Thus it is the phase of the ellipse, and

The equation of the ellipse and hence its orientation {i.e. its tilt to the x or y-axis) would
change with any change in â ,
not its absolute size which is of interest in the study of the polarization of waves. The shape
of the ellipse can be characterized by two of parameters, each set consisting of two
parameters or their equivalent angles.
The first set of parameters consists of (i) the axial ratio (AR), i.e. the ratio of thc major to the
minor axes of the ellipse (which can also be expressed as angle ε) and the tilt angle (τ), i.e.

of parameters. denoted by (τ,δ) are also related to AR and the phase difference j• − •â l.
the orientation of the major axis of the ellipse with respect to the x-direction. The second set

LINEAR POLARIZATION-
The two components of the wave â and may or may not have the same magnitude, let

phase differencej• − •â l is zero. Then Eq. (32) becomes:

their

h − i 0
• •
€! €!
-------------------------- (33)

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Fig.8 A linearly polarized wave (the co-ordinate system is right handedwith the +ve z
directionin to the plane of the paper and normal to the paper plane)

h i
This gives
•!
â
€!
-------------------------- (34)

•!
€!
This is the equation of a straight line whose slope is , and so the tip of the electric field
vector draws a straight line when j• − •â l 0(j• •â • 0l), independent of the
relative amplitudes of â and This Polarization is known as 'linear polarization’, and the
wave is saidto be linearly polarized.
The instantaneous value of thc resultant E vector will vary from zero
toAz âí − í { (0A + •) when the two components are â (0A + • )and
(0A + •) in the first half-cycle and then to -ve maximum and back to zero in the next
half-cycle, and this pattern along the straight line given by Eq. (34) will keep on repeating
itself. The slope of this line would depend on the relative magnitudes of â and

0, this line becomes vertical and the wave is called 'vertically polarized wave'.
Hence summarizing:
l. If â
2. if - the line becomes horizontal giving rise to a 'horizontally polarized wave'.
,

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3. If â = the wave is said to be linearly polarized with 450 polarization angle.

4. In general, when both components â and are at the same phase, the wave is said to be

} A6' u h i A6' u h i
linearly polarized along a line that makes an angle V with the x-axis where-
• •!
€ €!
-------------------------- (35)
Hence, a time-harmonic field is linearly polarized at a given point in space if the electric field
(or the magnetic field) vector at that point is always oriented along the same straight line at
all instants of time.

6.6 FRESNEL'S EQUATIONS (DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION)
The equations relating the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves with that
of incident wave are known as Fresnel's equations (or Fresnel's formulae). We know that field
vectors E and B in a plane electromagnetic wave are mutually perpendicular and also they are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Though the field vector E is always
at right angles to the direction of propagation, but that does not fix the direction uniquely, and
is said that the wave is polarised in a particular direction of its electric (or according to an
alternative convention, its magnetic vector) points in that direction.
It is convenient to consider two extreme cases (i) in which incident wave is polarişed
such that electric field vector E is normal to the plane of incidence, and (ii) in which field
vector E is parallel to the plane of incidence. The general result may be obtained by a suitable
linear combination of these two extreme results.
Case (i) When E-vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence: The electric and
magnetic field vector E and B of the incident wave are Z perpendicular to direction of
propagation k as shown B, or H in fig. 9. The electric field vector E is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence. Since the media are isotropic, the electric field vectors of the reflected and
refracted waves are also perpendicular to the plane of incidence. All the electric field vectors
are shown directed away from the observer. The orientations of B, or H, the B-vectors are
chosen to give a positive flow of energy in the direction of wave vectors.

Fig. 9.Reflection and Refraction with polarization perpendicular to the plane of incidence

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Since electric field vectors are parallel to theboundary surface, the continuity of the
tangential Fig. 9)Reflection and refraction with polarizationcomponent of electric field
vectors E at the interface perpendicular to plane of incidence,requires that

+ ′ -------------------------- (36)
Similarly, the continuity of the tangential component of the magnetic field at the
interface requires that
ú ò + ú′ ú ò -------------------------- (37)

i.e. −ú , + úw w
$ −ú $

i.e. (ú − úw ) , (ú ) $ -------------------------- (38)

(Since from law of reflection ; , = ′$ )

-T × T -T × T
But ? ,T
; therefore ú •T ,T
(since ? = ú)

-T +T × T
Or ú •T ,T

(•T ƒT)+T × T
•T

0 (= „ ) i.e. T
,T -
= − 1)
,
(since
T T

This gives-

A•
ƒT
ú -------------- (39a)
T

A•
ƒT
ú′ ′ -------------- (39b)
T

A•
ƒ%
ú ------------- (39c)
%

Using these results, eqn (38) gives-

A• (
ƒ
A•
ƒ%
T
− w
) , $ -------------------------- (40)
T %

Eliminating , we get-

„ „
= ( − w
) = ( + w
)
= ,
= $

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On simplification we get-
† †
AE 3íîï* uAE 3íîïx
T %

f( g
( w!T T %
†T †
… AE 3íîï* CAE% 3íîïx
-------------------------- (41)
!T
T %

Where the symbol⊥ denotes that in the case under consideration electric field is
perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Equation (41) gives the ratio of amplitude of electric
field vectors in reflected and incident waves, i.e. relative electric field amplitude of reflected
wave with respect to incident wave.

Similarly, eliminating ′ , we get-

„ „
= m −( − )n =
= ,
= $

A• m2 n
ƒ
A•
ƒ%
Or T
− , $
T %

On simplification, we get-
†
AE 3íîïx
T

f g
!% T
†T †
… AE 3íîï* CAE% 3íîïx
-------------------------- (42)
!T
T %

This equation gives relative electric field amplitude of refracted wave with respect to
that of incidentwave. Equations (41), and (42) are-known as Fresnel's equations. Now let us

= = , so that
find the form of these equationin the particular case of non-conducting medium, where=

= „ „
' (t ät 2) = =
= „ „

= „ „
' (t ät 2) = =
= „ „

So that-

Aƒ%/ƒ!
ƒ /ƒ
Aƒ
+% ƒ%
+T
-------------------------- (43)
T ! T

In this case, equation (41) becomes

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„ „
′ A= , − A= $
ô õ
„ „
… A= , + A= $

„
−A
, „ $

„
, + A„ $

3íîï* uA % 3íîïx
T

3íîï* CA % 3íîïx
= -------------------------- (44a)
T

Aƒ )
+ ƒ
(Since +% %
T T

+ î,+ ï*
Now using Snell's law+% î,+ ïx
, we obtain
T

&'
′ , − &' ,
$
ô õ $
&'
… , + &' ,
$
$

&' $ , − &' , $
&' $ , + &' , $

f g
w!T î,+ (ï* uïx )
… î,+ (ï* Cïx )
i.e. -------------------------- (44b)
!T

Similarly, equation (42) becomes

†
AE 3íîï*
T

f g =
!% !
†T †%
!T … AE 3íîï* CAE 3íîïx
! !

3íîï*
†
3íîï* CA % 3íîïx
=
†T

3íîï*
3íîï* CA % 3íîïx
-------------------------- (45a)
T

Using Snell's law

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f g =
!% 3íîï*
r* ‡
… 3íîï* Cr* ‡ 3íîïx
!T *
x

2 &' $ ,
&' $ , + &' , $

f g =
!% 3íîï* î,+ ïx
… LIM (ï* Cïx )
-------------------------- (45b)
!T

Equations (44) and (45) represents Fresnel's equations for non-conducting media
when electric field vectorEis perpendicular to the plane of incidence.Fresnel's equations lead
to following results
(a) When (n1/n2) < 1 i.e. n1<n2 or in words when an electromagnetic wave in
incident on the interfaceof two dielectrics from a medium, then from Snell's law sin , /sin $
= n2/n1> 1; sin , > sin $ , or , > $ ; i.e. refracted rays are deviated towards the normal hence
from equation (44b) is negative thereby indicating that the reflected and the incident waves
are in a opposite phases atthe interface. In other words, when an electromagnetic wave is
reflected from a denser medium; it suffers a phase change of π radians
(b) When (n1/n2) >1 i.e. n1>n2 or in words, when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on the interface of two dielectric from a denser medium, then from Snell's law
sin '
< 1 <
,
sin ' , $

f !Tg thereby indicating that reflected and incident waves are in same phase.
i.e. refracted ray is deviated away from the normal and hence from equation (44a),
w
!T …

(c) In both the above cases (a) and (b), f !%

g in equation (45b) is always positive;
!T …
there by indicatingthat the refracted or transmitted wave docs not suffer any phase change.

6.7 COHERENCE
Coherence has been explained in thc context of wave polarization, i.e. if the two components
of
the E wave are expressed as -

â (A) sin 0A
(A) sin 0A + NA

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where all the three time functions are independent, then the resultant wave is said to
completely unpolarized or incoherent (which implies that a completely polarized wave is a
coherent wave), it being assumed that –

〈 (A)〉 〈 (A)〉
Coherence will now be discussed in a different sense. Let us consider a plane E wave

phase at point 2 will be retarded from that at point 1 by an amount equal to B(. However, on
travelling to the right as shown in Figure 10 . As the wave travels from point 1 to point 2, the

the wave-front, points 1 and 3 will be in phase (i.e. zero phase difference). Similarly, the
phase difference points 2 and 4 {both on the moved position of the wave-front) will also be
zero. The condition described herecharacterize the providing of wave-front coherence as
distinct from the situation regarding polarization. In homogeneous media, wave-front
coherence exists, but the waves not necessarily polarization coherent.

Figure 10 Two types of coherence in waves

In non-homogeneous media there can exist wave-front incoherence, in which case it is not
possible to define a wave-front, i.e. an equiphase surface. In such a medium, referring to
Figure 10, the â component of the field at points 1 and 3 will not necessarily in phase and be
time-independent. Wave-front incoherence can exist for wavelengths of 10 - 20 m for waves
coming through earth' s ionosphere from celestial radio source.

6.8 SUMMARY
Present chapter discusses the change in electromagnetic quantities across different interfaces.
Boundary conditions for electric field, electric displacement, magnetic field and magnetic
induction has been obtained. These relationships later have been used to derive the
expressions for several optical phenomena like reflection, refraction and polarization etc.

6.9 Glossary
Interface – Boundary
Homogeneous- uniform
Specified- particular
Limited- restricted

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6.10 References

1. J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.

2. J.R. Reitz, F.J. Milford and R.W. Christy, Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory, 3rd
Edition, Narosa Publication, New Delhi.
3. Electrodynamics Gupta- Kumar, Pragati publication

6.11 Suggested Readings

1. Introduction to Electrodynamics, D.J. Griffiths, 3rd Edn., 1998, Benjamin Cummings.

2. Feynman Lectures Vol.2, R.P.Feynman, R.B.Leighton, M. Sands, 2008, Pearson
Education
3. Elements of Electromagnetics, M.N.O. Sadiku, 2010, Oxford University Press.
4. Electricity and Magnetism, J.H.Fewkes&J.Yarwood. Vol. I, 1991, Oxford Univ. Press

6.12 Terminal Questions

1. A homogeneous dielectric ( $ 2.5) fills region 1 (ê ≤ 0) while region 2 (ê ≥ 0) is free
space. If 126â − 106 + 46 ' / , find

606â + 206 − 306 H/ at a particular point on the interface

between air and a conducting surface. Find and 4î at that point.
2. It is found that

3. Given ú −26â + 66 + 46 / in the region ç − ê − 2 ≤ 0 where= 5= ,

calculate –

(a) • and ?
(b) ú 6'( ? in region ç − ê − 2 ≥ 0 where = 2= , calculate –

6.12 Answer

1. 126â − 46 + 1.6 6 ' /

2. 0.531 6â + 0.1776 ± 0.2656 • / , 0.619 • /

3. (a) • −86â + 246 + 166 / , ? −12.576â + 37.76 + 25.136 =•9/

ú −86â + 126 + 46 / , ? −20.116â + 30.166 +

10.056 =•9/
(b)

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UNIT 7: Electromagnetic radiations

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Radiation from an accelerated charged particle
7.4 Radiation from a dipole
7.5 Retarding Potential
7.6 Lenard-Wiechert potential
7.7 Larmor’s radiation power formula and interpretation
7.8 Bremsstrahlung radiation
7.9 Cerenkov radiation
7.10 Summary
7.11 Glossary
7.12 References
7.13 Suggested Readings
7.14 Terminal Questions
7.15 Answers

7.1 Introduction

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In this unit, you will study about the ultimate sources of all type electromagnetic
radiation. A moving charge produce electromagnetic radiation and the field vectors for such
conditions will be calculated. The behavior of such electromagnetic radiations will be
discussed. An understanding of special radiations, viz Bremsstrulung and Cronokov will also
be conferred.

7.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand-

• the concept of radiation emission due to a moving charge.

• dipole radiation
• different potential forms of electromagnetic radiations.
• power radiation from a moving charge
• Bremsstrahlung and Cronokov types of radiations.

7.3 Radiation from an accelerated charge particle

Radiation is a process of transporting energy from the electromagnetic field of an
accelerating charge. Radiation is an irreversible flow of electromagnetic energy from the
source (charges) to infinity. This is possible only because the electromagnetic fields
associated with accelerating charges fall off as 1/r instead of 1/r2 as in the case for charges at
rest or moving uniformly. So the total energy flux obtained from the Poynting flux is finite at
infinity.

To understand this, let us assume a source which is placed at origin. The energy
radiating by the source at time t0 is P(t0). When the time passes to t, the radiated energy
covered a distance r with the speed of light. Therefore, we can express P(t0) as below:

‘ (A ) lim ‘ f , A + g
$→7

Where power is integral over the area (of sphere with radius r) of Poynting vector:

1
‘ : ’. (“ :( × ”). (“
=

The above equations represent the energy per unit time (radiation) that is carried away
and never come back. Thus the study radiation involves the electric and magnetic fields
which construct Poynting vector results in the radiation (in terms of power) on integrating
over a large spherical surface.

7.4 Radiation from dipole

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A dipole is defined as the two and equal opposite point charges separated by very

metallic wire and can move along it with angular frequency 0

small distance say d. Now, if we suppose that these two point charges are connected by a thin

Than at any time t, total charge

(A) cos(0A ) (7.1)

and electric dipole moment is

•(A) • cos(0A ) ̂ (7.2)

Where • (, is the maximum dipole moment.

The retarded potential is

$—K $˜K
! –¿L\,fòu
H ( , A) • ™
3 g] ! –¿LW,jòu
− 3 lX
"#ƒ! $— $˜
(7.3)

where

± A ∓ ( cos + f(K2g

As the distance between the charges is very small as compared to r (( ≪ ).

± ≅ ∓ ( cos

(
=1 ∓ cos

since $ ≪ 1
û

Hence, we can use here the binomial expansion

u K
1 1 (
Ä1 ± Å
± 2

i.e.

1 1 (
Ä1 − cos Å
C 2

f1 + cos g
û
$˜ $ $
And,

Now,

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CK
(
cosW0jA − lX ≅ cos m0 dA − Ä1 − cos Åen
2

CK
0(
cosW0jA − lX ≅ cos m0 fA − g + cos n
2
Now use the formula cos( + ? ) cos cos? − sin sin?

Hence,

0( 0(
cos 0 fA − g cos cos − sin 0 fA − g sin cos
2 2

For a perfect dipole, ( is very small as compared to ,, where 0 is related to a wavelength

3

á and á is very large to (.

#3
,

CK
0(
cosW0jA − lX ≅ cos m0 fA − g − cos sin 0 fA − gn
2
From the above equations, we can write the potential of an oscillating perfect dipole:

p cos 0 1
H( , , A) d− sin \0 fA − g] + cos \0 fA − g]e
4æ

In static limit (0 → 0), the second term provides the familiar potential of a stationary dipole:

p cos
H( , , A)
4æ

(( ≪ á ≪ ) and ( ≫ ,). For such conditions, potential is now reduced to

As we are concerned about the fields at large distances from the source with the condition
3

H ( , , A) g sin \0 fA − 3 g]
• , –¿L ï
− "#! f
$
!3 $
(7.4)

Calculation of vector potential:

The vector potential is determined by the current flowing in the z-direction in the wire:

ž(A) . − 0 sin (0A).

û
ûò

Where . is the unit vectoralong z direction (Fig 7.1).

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+q R
dz

d r
y

-q

Fig (7.1)

û/ − 0 sin \0 fA − g] .
=
Ÿ( , A) • (
4æ uû/

After solving the above equation (keeping only first order 1 and 2, we have

Ÿ( , , A) sin \0 fA − 3 g] .
•! ¡! , $
"#$
(7.5)

Calculations of E and B:

The electric field and magnetic field can be calculated from the desired relations:

@
−∇H −
@A

̂ + $ ¢ï ð
¢J ¢J
Where, ∇H ¢$

p 0 1 0
∇H − dcos Ä− sin \0 fA − g] − cos \0 fA − g]Å ̂
4æ
sin
− sin \0 fA − g] ð e

As we know ( ≫ ).
3
,

p 0 cos 0
∇H − Ä Å cos \0 fA − g] ̂
4æ

Whereas,

@Ÿ = p 0
− cos \0 fA − g] jcos ̂ − sin ðl
@A 4æ
¢Ÿ
On substituting the values of ∇H and
¢ò
, we get electric field as

g cos \0 fA − 3 g] ð
•! •! ,% LIM ï
° − f
$
"#$ $
(7.6)

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Also, ” ®×Ÿ

Where

1 @ @ $
®×Ÿ m ( ï) −
ñ
n∅
@ @

= p 0 0 sin
∇ן − d sin cos \0 fA − g] + Ä ñ
Å sin \0 fA − g]e ∅
4æ

As we know ( ≫ ).
3
,

= p 0 sin
∇ן − Ä ñ
Å cos \0 fA − g] ∅
4æ

Hence, the magnetic field is calculated as

b −
•! •! ,% LIM ï
f
$
ñ (7.7)
g cos \0 fA − 3g] ∅
"#3 $

wavelength (á), frequency(0) propagating in radial direction. This, in other words, represents
The above equations of electric and magnetic fields represents a monochromatic wave with

electromagnetic wave in free space.

The pointing vector gives the energy radiated by such oscillating dipole:

1 = p 0 sin
’ ( × ”) • Ä Å cos \0 fA − g]™ ̂
= 4æ

The intensity is obtained by arranging (in time) over a complete cycle:

〈£〉
•! •%! ! ,g LIM% ï
− #% 3
f
$%
g ̂ (7.8)

The total power radiated is found by integrating 〈£〉over a sphere of radius r:

= p 0" sin
〈‘〉 •〈£〉 . (“ − • sin ( (∅.
32æ

〈‘〉
•! •%! ! ,g
#3
(7.9)

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7.5Retarding potential
Consider Poisson’s equation for the static case with scalar potential (V) and vector potential
(A).

∇ H − 4, ∇ Ÿ −= ¤
!

where 4 and ¤ defines charge and current densities respectively. The solution of above
equations can be given as:

H( ) (¦′andŸ( )
¤( s )
(¦′
5( s) •!
"# ! ¥ "# ¥

dτ’
r

r’
O Fig (7.2)

Where ¥ is the distance from the source point w to the field point r (Fig 7.2).Let us consider
now that some information is travelling at a speed of electromagnetic wave (c) and travels a
distance¥ upto a reciever. But, the information received by the receiver is that which was

This delay in time is known as retarded time (A$ ), which can be defined mathematically as
generated at earlier time. Hence, we can say that there is a delay in receiving the information.

below:
¥
A$ A− 3
(7.10)

This earlier time (A$ ) is called retarded time when the message left. Since this message
covered a distance ¥, the delay is ¥/ .

In view of retarded time, the above mentioned potentials can be written in a more general
way as:

H ( , A) (¦′
5( s ,òx )
"# ! ¥
(7.11)

Ÿ( , A)
¤( s ,òx )
(¦′
•!
"# ¥
And in similar way (7.12)

Where 4( w , A$ ) is the charge density at w

point and retarded timeA$ .

The above mentioned potentials are called as retarded potentials.

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7.6 Lienard -Wiechert Potential

From the last section, we understand the retarded potential. In this section, we will derive the
famous Lienard - Wiechert potential for a moving point charge using the concept of retarded
potential. For this purpose, consider a moving charge q on a specified trajectory. It is also
learnt from earlier units that Poisson’s equation can be described as below:

∇ H − and ∇ Ÿ −= ¤
ƒ!

wave for a distance (¥) from a point source r’ to a field point r unrewarded time A$ . Hence,
The solution of above scale potential can be obtained as below for a travel of electromagnetic

the scalar and vector (retarded) potentials due to moving charge can be given by -

H ( , A) (¦′
5( s ,òx )
"# ! ¥
(7.13)

Ÿ( , A )
¤( s ,òx )
(¦′
•!
"# ¥
and
(7.14)

A − 3 and4( w , A$ ) and ¤( w , A$ ) are the charge

¥
where, the retarded time can be defined as A$
and current densitiesthat prevailed at point r’ at the retarded time A$ . The main difficulty to
integrate equation (7.13) and (7.14) because time (A$ ) is not fixed and hence the volume of
integration. This implies that the volume is not specified and nonzero.

The above-mentioned integrals can be solved by using one dimensional delta function. As we
know that

N(;) 0 for ; ≠ 0 and N(0) ≠ 0

N(;)(; 1
7
u7
and
(7.15)

Using the above property of delta function, the scalar and vector potential given by equation
(7.13 and 7.14) can be re-written as

H ( , A) N fA$ − tA − 3 tg (¦ w (A$
¥
∬u7
7 5j$s ,òx l
"# ! ¥

Ÿ( , A) N fA$ − tA − 3 tg (¦ w (A$
7 ¤j$ s ,òx l ¥
∬
•!
(7.16)
"# u7 ¥

However, 4( w , A$ )(¦′ ( is the charge in the volume element (¦′ and ¤( w , A$ )

4( w , A$ )5(A$ ) is the current density produced by an element of charge density 4( w , A$ )
moving with velocity 5(A$ ), so

H ( , A) N fA$
¥
− A + 3 g (¦ w
7 û
"# ! ©w u7 ¥

Ÿ( , A) N fA$
7 5(òx ) ¥
− A + 3 g (¦ w
•!
(7.17)
"# ©w u7 ¥

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If the charge distribution limits to point charge q, we can rewrite the equation (7.17) as

H ( , A) N fA$ − A + 3 g (A$
7 ¥
"# ! u7 ¥

Ÿ( , A) N fA$ − A + 3 g (A$
•! 7 5(òx ) ¥
(7.18)
"# u7 ¥

To solve above equation, we substitute

ª
¥
A$ − A +
3
(7.19)

On differentiating with respect to A$

1 + 3 ûò
û« û¥
ûòx x
(7.20)

¥ 5(A

¥+d¥

Fig (7.3)

Now consider

¥ ¬. ¬

(¬ (¬
2¥ 2¬.
(¦$ (¦$
¬ û¬
.
û¥
û©x ¥ û©x
(7.21)

For a charge moving from position vector ¬ to ¬ + (¬ in time interval (A$ with velocity5 ,
¬can be written as:

¬ (¬ + (¬) + 5(A$

(¬
−5
(¦$
The equation (7.21) is then becomes

(¥ ¬
−1.
(¦$ ¥

From equation (7.20)

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(ª 5 ¬
1− .
(A$ ¥

or

(ª ¥ − 5. ¬
(A$ ¥

(A$
3¥ û«
3¥u5.¬
(7.22)

This value of (A$ can be substituted in equation (7.18), the integrals of scalar and vector
potentials reduced to the following form:

H
7 -(«) 3¥û«
"# ! u7 ¥ 3¥u5.¬

Ÿ
•! 7 5-(«) 3¥û«
(7.23)
"# u7 ¥ 3¥u5.¬

From the property of delta function, we have

H \ ]
3
"# ! 3¥u5.¬ «-

Ÿ \ ]
•! 35
(7.24)
"# 3¥u5.¬ «-

But ª
¥ ¥
0 impliesA$ − A + 3
0 or A$ A + 3 , which is retarded time

Therefore,

H( , A) \ ]
3
"# ! 3¥u5.¬ $2ò

Ÿ( , A) \3¥u5.¬]
•! 35
(7.25)
"# $2ò

This form of potentials which exhibit the dependence of the potentials on the velocity of the
particle was first of all given by A. Lienard and E. Wiechert. On their name, these scalar and
vector potential forms are known as Liennard-Wiechert potentials.

7.7 Larmor’s radiation power formula and interpretation

This Larmor’s formula describes the power radiated by an accelerated charge particle. A
moving charge can have a uniform velocity of acceleration. As in earlier section we have
developed the scalar and vector potential forms, famously known as Liennard-Wiechert
potentials, for a moving charge. These potentials will be useful to calculate the associated
electric and magnetic fields. Finally, poynting vector will be calculated and represents the
energy flow per unit area per unit time i.e. power radiated per unit area by moving charge.

From equation (6), according to Liennard-Wiechert potentials:

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H ( , A) N fA$ − A + g (A$
7 ¥
"# ! u7 ¥ 3

Ÿ( , A) N fA$ − A + g (A$
•! 7 5(òx ) ¥
(7.26)
"# u7 ¥ 3

We know that the fields of a charged particles are related to scalar and vector forms as below:

@Ÿ
−∇H −
@A
” ®×Ÿ

By substituting the values of V and A, we have

( . A) − \"# ® N fA$ N fA$ − A + 3 g (A$ ]

¥ ¢ 7 (òx ) ¥
− A + 3 g (A$ +
7 •!
! u7 ¥ "# ¢ò u7 ¥
(7.27)

”( , A) N
7 5(òx ) ¥
®× fA$ − A + 3 g (A$
•!
"# u7 ¥
and (7.28)

On solving equation (7.27) and (7.28) (Ref 3) using delta functions, the simplified forms of
electric and magnetic fields are

(¬ − ¥®)(1 − B ) ¬ × (¬ − ¥®) × ®¯
( . A) − k + l
4æ (¥ − ¬. ®) (¥ − ¬. ®)

And

°×
¬ ¬×
”( , A)
¥
or

= (® × ¬)(1 − B ) ¬ × z¬ × (¬ − ¥®) × ®¯{

”( , A ) k + l
4æ (¥ − ¬. ®) ¥ (¥ − ¬. ®)

Where ®is a time derivative which has the values as ® and®¯

5(òx ) 5̄(òx ) “(òx )
3 3 3
.

The above fields (E and B) divide themselves naturally into velocity fields (independent of

+ å and ” ” + ”å
acceleration) and acceleration field (independent of velocity).

The velocity field falls off as ¥ % and is just the generalisation of Coulomb’s Law to uniformly

¥
moving charges. The second term (acceleration field contribution) falls off as , is
proportional to the particle’s acceleration and is perpendicular to¬. In order to calculate the
energy radiated by a particle, we must integrate the normal component of S over the surface
of a sphere. Hence only the acceleration field will contribute to produce radiation due to a
moving charge.

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Hence, the electric field and magnetic field due to acceleration constitute the radiation field
of the moving charge:
¬×(¬u¥®)×®¯
“ ( . A) − "# \ 3(¥u¬.®)Q
] (7.29)
!
and

” ( , A)
°×
¬ “ ($,ò)
“ 3
(7.30)

When (B ≪ 1), the radiation fields simplify to

° 1
¬
( , A) − ° × “)l
k × (¬
“
4æ ¬

¯
Where 5̄
±5
±
.

“ ° and “and ”
lies in the plain containing ¬ “
angle between ¬ ° and “, then
is perpendicular to this plane. If is the

“
²? sin
“ “
4æ ¥

The pointing vector gives the energy radiated along:

1
’ ( × ”)
=

’ sin ° (7.31)
¬
•! å%
P#% 3 ¥%

This is the required expression and represent the energy flow per unit area per unit time i.e.
power radiated per unit area.

We may express the angular distribution of the radiation as the power radiated per unit solid
angle, i.e.

(‘ ° ). ’
(4æ¥ ¬
(Ω 4æ
(‘ = 6
sin
(Ω 16æ
The total power radiated is obtained by integrating the above equation over the entire sphere

= 6
‘ • (‘ • sin (Ω
"# 16æ

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= 6 # P
‘ • • (sin θ)sin θ dθd∅
16æ

‘
•! å% å%
P#3 "# ! 3Q
(7.32)

This is the famous Larmor’s formula for the power radiated by an accelerated (non
relativistic) charge particle.

Radiation by an accelerated (relativistic) charge particle:

To find the appropriate generalization of Larmor formula for arbitrary velocities of charge,

The main aim is to find a Lorentz invariant which reduces to Larmor formula for B ≪ 1.
Lorentz transformations will be used. The power (P=dE/dt) is a Lorentz invariant quantity.

From Larmor formula where ( “

û´
ûò
):

1 2 (´ (´
‘ Ä . Å
4æ 3 (A (A

Lorentz invariant generalization will be

1 2 (•• (••
‘ ô . õ
4æ 3 (A (A

Where •• is a four vector given by •• f´, 3 g and A is the proper time interval given by
,

A :A , where :
uy%
.

The above equation will be reduced as B → 0,

1 2 (• (• (• (•"
‘ ôm n +m n +m n +m n õ
4æ 3 (A (A (A (A

1 2 (´ ( &
‘ ôm n +d Ä Åe õ
4æ 3 (A (A

1 2 : (´ 1 (
‘ ôm n + d e õ
4æ 3 (A (A

ä3 % ä5 û û´
uy % uy % ûò ûò
Now from and , substitute the values of and in the above equation
and after simplifying we get,

‘ jB¯ − B B¯ sin
<µ
"# ! 3
l (7.33)

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) and acceleration (B¯

å
3 3
Where is the angle between velocity (B ). The above
expression is also known as Lienard radiation formula. There will be three cases

Case I: If the moving particle has non-relativistic motion, then as B → 0, : → 1. Therefore,

above formula reduces to Larmor formula

1 2 6
‘
4æ 3

0 (*¶ ** and hence

Case II: If the moving particle has relativistic motion and velocity and accelerations are
linear to each other this implies

1 2 6
‘ :P
4æ 3

Example of such type of radiation is Bremsstrahlung.

90 (*¶ ** and hence

Case III: If the moving particle has relativistic motion and velocity and accelerations are
perpendicular to each other this implies

1 2 6
‘ :"
4æ 3

Examples of such type of radiation are found in circular acceleration.

7.8 Bremsstrahlung radiation

Bremsstrahlung is a German originated word, which means ‘breaking the radiation’.
Bremsstrahlung can be observed when a free electron is accelerated in the field of an ion. The
English name of Bremsstrahlung is “free-free,” represents the transition between two
unbound electronic states. Electrons with energies smaller than 1 MeV lose their energies
mostly by excitation or ionization of the atoms through which they pass. While, electrons
with energies greater than 1 MeV will be radiating a considerable fraction of energy in the
form of X-rays during inelastic collision with atomic nuclei.

When high velocity electron passes close to nucleus of an atom, it experiences strong
coulomb’s force of attraction due to the nucleus and is suddenly slowdown. Therefore, the
electron suffers a deflection in its path. During its retardation, the electrons emits
electromagnetic radiation, which falls in X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Due
to different losses in velocity of the incident electrons, e.m. radiations of all possible
wavelength with in a certain range are emitted and, therefore, a continuous spectrum of X-ray
is produced. These radiations having continuous spectrum is called Bremsstrahlung. It has
been found that rate of loss of energy per unit path length of the incident electron by this type

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of radiative interaction, is proportional to square of atomic number Z of the absorbing

material i.e.

(
− ∝·
(ê
The energy loss by radiative collisions depends on Z2 in contrast to Z dependence in case of
ionization losses due to atomic electrons of absorber material. The loss of energy due to
radiative collision is, therefore more prominent in heavy material. It has also been found that
the loss of energy also increases with the energy E of the incident electrons.

7.9 Cerenkov radiation

As of now, we know that a moving charge radiates electromagnetic waves. If the velocity of
a charged particle becomes greater than the phase velocity of light in a dielectric medium, the
emitted electromagnetic radiation is called Cerenkov radiation. Electromagnetic shock wave
(light) emitted by a high-speed charged particle when the particle passes through a
transparent, non-conducting, solid material at a speed greater than the speed of light in the
material is known as Cerenkov radiation The discovery of Cerenkov radiation was made in
1934 by Soviet physicist Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov. He was awarded Nobel prize in
1958 for this discovery. On his name, it is called Cerenkov radiation.

Cerenkov radiation is an observable effect. A brief flash of light is observed when a charge
particle travels faster than the speed of light in a transparent medium like water or air. This
has been firstly observed when a beta electron, a light weight charged particle, is accelerated
in water to the energy more than or 175 KeV energy or velocity 2 x 108 m/s (speed of light in
water). Cerenkov radiation is not possible with heavy and too slow alpha particles. Hence,
Cerenkov radiation is found very useful to detect high-energy beta (or other lighter and
faster) charged particles in nuclear reactors or in a spent nuclear fuel pool where such highly
energetic beta particles are released as the fission fragments decay. The glow is visible also
after the chain reaction stops (in the reactor). Cerenkov radiation are also being used to check
the remaining nuclear fuel in controlled nuclear reactions. Therefore, it can be very helpful
for measuring of fuel burn up.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 1: Accelerated charge particles ____________energy.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 2: Larmor’s formula used to calculate the

radiated________by an accelerated charge particle.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 3:___________________is an example of power radiated

by a moving charge particle which has co-linear velocity and acceleration.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 4: What is the speed of electromagnetic potentials A and
V propagated in space.

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7.10 Summary
In this unit, we have analyzed some mathematical and physical problems which arise
due to moving charge and due to electric dipole during its oscillation along the vector of the
dipole moment. The concept of retarded potential explains that the present potentials at a
given position are due to the past positions of the charge. This means the charges does not
instantaneously establish the potential but the potentials are related casually to motion of
charge. The Liénard–Wiechert potentials explains the electrodynamics of a moving charge in
terms of a vector potential and a scalar potential. Electromagnetic radiation in the form of
waves can be obtained from these potentials. It was also concluded that charge particles with
uniform motion does not radiate energy, while accelerated charge particles produce radiation.
The power radiated by such accelerated charged particles can be calculated with the help of
Larmor’s formula. Bremsstrahlung radiations are special type of radiation occurs when
electrons are slowed down in a target and gives rise to continuous spectrum.

7.11Glossary
Retarding potential –the potentials that can provide earlier values based on retarded time.

Bremsstrahlung- an example of power radiated by a moving charge particle which has co-
linear velocity and acceleration

Charge density- the charge per unit volume

Dipole- two equal and opposite charges separated by a finite distance

Current density- current flowing per unit area

7.12 References
1. Electrodynamics, IGNOU, New Delhi

2. Introduction to Electrodynamics, D.J. Griffiths, Pearson Publication, Chennai

3. Classical Electrodynamics, J.D. Jackson, Willey Eastern Ltd., New Delhi

7.13 Suggested Readings

1. Electrodynamics, Gupta Kumar, Pragati Publication

2. Foundation of Electromagnetic Theory, J.R. Reitz, F.J. Milford and R.W. Christy, Narosa
publications, New Delhi

3. Foundation of Electrodynamics, Parry Moor, Dover publication, New York.

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7.14 Terminal Questions

(Should be divided into Short Answer type, Long Answer type, Numerical, Objective type)
7.14.1 Objective type
1. Power radiated by a point charge is proportional to
(a) position
(b) acceleration
(c) square of acceleration
(d) none of these

2. A combination of equal and opposite charges separated by a finite distance is called

(a) dipole
(b) magnet
(c) antenna
(a) none of these

3. In synchrotron radiation, a charge moves with relativistic velocity in

(a) linear path
(b) parabolic path
(c) circular path
(d) none of these

−®. Ÿ − ¢ò
¢J
4. Electric field (E) is calculated using scalar field (V) and vector field (A) as

” ®×Ÿ
(a)
(b)
¢Ÿ
−®H −
¢ò
” −® × Ÿ
(c)
(d)

−®. Ÿ −
¢J
5. Electric field (E) is calculated using scalar field (V) and vector field (A) as
¢ò
” ®×Ÿ
(a)
(b)
¢Ÿ
−®H − ¢ò
” −® × Ÿ
(c)
(d)

’ • (” × )
6. Poynting vector (S) is calculated from electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) as
(a)
!

(b) ’ (” × )
!

(c) ’ ( × ”)
!

(d) ’ •!
( × ”)

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7. If the kinetic energy of incident particles passing through matter is comparable to rest
mass energy, then the energy loss by the emission of electromagnetic radiations is
called as
(e) Compton effect
(f) Bremsstrahlung
(g) Cerinkov radiation
(h) Straggling

7.14.2 Short Answer type

1. Why only accelerated charge particles radiate energy.

2. Explain why it is not possible to have a consistent model for a stable atom based on the
laws of classical mechanics and electrodynamics.

3. What is the power radiated by a non relativistically accelerated charge particle?

4. What will be the power radiation for a relativistically accelerated charge particle with
velocity and acceleration in perpendicular direction. Give one example for such radiation.

5. Why linear accelerators are more efficient to circular one?

7.14.3 Long Answer type

1. Explain retarded potentials. Derive an expression for the retarded potentials and show that
they are become the solution of Poisson’s equation for stationary charges and steady
currents.

2. What are Lienard Wiechert potentials? Calculate the electric and magnetic field vectors for
a uniformly moving charged particle using Lienard Wiechert potentials.

3. Using Lienard Wiechert potential derive an expression for the total energy radiated by a
uniformly accelerated point charge.

4. Derive an expression for the radiated energy from a high velocity electron moving with an
acceleration parallel to the velocity.

5. Show that the radiative energy loss per unit revolution in a circular orbit of radius R meter
by an electron (rest mass energy E0) of total energy E MeV in the relativistic limit is given
by

* "
∆ Ä Å
3

6. Write short notes on-

(a) Larmor’s formula

(b) Bremsstrahlung and Cerenkov radiation.

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7.14.4 Numerical Answer type

1) An early model of hydrogen atom pictured an electron moving in a stationary circular orbit
around a proton. If the radius of the orbit is 0.53 Å (Bohr first orbit), Show that on the
basis of classical theory the electron would radiate energy at a rate of approximately 0.46
ergs per second?

2) In a betatron accelerator, an electron is revolving in an orbit of radius 50 meter with total

energy 20 MeV. Calculate the energy loss due to radiation.

3) If an electron is accelerated in synchrotron with energy 5 BeV in a radis of 10 meter,

calculate the power radiated by the electron and energy loss per unit turn.

4) Find the radiation resistance of the wire joining the two ends of the dipole. The wires are
in ordinary radio (d=5cm and λ=103 meter)

7.15 Answers
7.15.1 Self Assessment Questions (SAQs):
1. radiates

2. power

3. Bremsstrahlung

4. speed of light

7.15.2 Terminal Questions: Objective type

1. (c), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (c), 5. (b) , 6. (d) , 7. (b)

7.15.3 Terminal Questions: Short Answer type

1. The contribution due to accelerated moving charge is perpendicular to its motion. In order
to calculate the energy radiated by a particle, we must integrate the normal component of
S over the surface of a sphere. Hence only the acceleration field will contribute to produce
radiation due to a moving charge.

2. The classical theory represents a non radiative motion of electron in an orbit while
according to electrodynamics the orbital motion is an accelerated motion of electron and it
should radiate.

3. ‘
å%
"# ! 3Q

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4. ‘ : " , circular accelerators

å%
"# ! 3Q

acceleration is : higher than parallel acceleration.

5. For a given magnitude of applied force the power radiation emitted with transverse

7.15.4 Numerical type questions

1. ‘ ,6
2 %å% % ä % 2%
"# ! 3Q ¸ ¸ "# ! ¸ %
, ; On solving P=0.46 x10-7watts=0.46 ergs/sec

"
2. ∆ f g 0.03 *H, where 0.51 •*H for electron
2%
! ¸ !

"
3. ∆ f g 5.5 •*H
2%
! ¸ !

4. ‘ s 0 R sin 0A ⇒ 〈‘〉 0 2 × 10uP Ω

•! % û % , %
⇒
"•! #% û %3 %
#3 P #3ã%

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UNIT 8: Four Vector Formalism of Maxwell’s

equation
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 D’Alembertian operator
8.4 The Electromagnetic field tensor
8.5 Lorentz invariance in field tensor
8.6 Covariant form of Maxwell’s equation in four-vector
8.7Four vector potential
8.8 Four vector current and continuity equation
8.9Gauge invariance of Maxwell equation
8.10Electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor
8.11 Motion of a charge in electromagnetic field: Lorentz force
8.12 Summary
8.13 Glossary
8.14 References
8.15 Suggested Readings
8.16 Terminal Questions
8.17 Answers

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8.1 Introduction
The relativistic mechanics indicates that space and time coordinates depend on each
other. The measurement of time coordinate in an inertial frame includes both the space and
time coordinates of another inertial frame where the event takes place. Therefore, it is natural
that space and time coordinators can be handled together as similar as to three space
coordinator. This procedure was first developed by H. Minkowski and known as four
dimensional formulations or Minkowski space. A vector in four dimensional Minkowski
space is called a four vector. These four vectors hold the properties similar to those of
ordinary vectors and their components transform from one frame to another follows Lorentz
transformation. These four vectors are generally belong to tensors of the first rank.

8.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to -

• understand operations of four vector forms

• write quantities in electrodynamics in term of four vector
• write and understand Maxwell’s equations in four vector
• derive four vector form of continuity equation and Lorentz force.

8.3 D’Alembertian operator

In the earlier chapter, it has been cleared that gradient is known as the rate of a change
of a scalar function. In three dimensions, gradient is represented as:

@ @ @
® é̂ + ë̂ +ð
@ê @ç @

Or

@ @ @
® Ä , , Å
@ê @ç @

This definition of three dimensional gradient operator can be extended to four

dimensional gradient operator, which is given by

@ @ @ & @
®O Ä , , , Å
@ê @ç @ @A

dimension (∇ ®. ®), a new operator can also be defined as D’Alembertian operator

The above operator behaves as a four-operator. Similar to Laplacian operator in three

j# ®O . ®O l, which can be defined as below:

@ @ @ & @ @ @ @ & @
# ®O . ®O Ä , , , Å.Ä , , , Å
@ê @ç @ @A @ê @ç @ @A

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#
¢% ¢% ¢% ¢%
+ + −
¢â % ¢ % ¢ % 3% ¢ò %
(1)

8.4 The Electromagnetic field tensor

electromagnetic potential A and ∅ as

The electromagnetic field vectors E and B can be expressed in terms of

® × Ÿ(2)
¢Ÿ
−∇∅ − ¢ò and”

The vector B, E and A has three components (Bx, By, Bz),(Ex, Ey, Ez) and (A1, A2, A3)
respectively.

From equation (1),

” ® × Ÿ , where® is an Laplacian operator, Hence

º / .
"
@ @ @
” !
@ê @ê @ê !

Therefore,

@ @
?â − »
@ê @ê

@ @
? − »
@ê @ê

@ @
? − »
@ê @ê
¢Ÿ
Also from −∇∅ − ¢ò ,

@ @∅
−
â
@A @ê
& &@ & @∅
− −
â
@A @ê
&∅
& @ @( )
− −
â
@(& A) @ê

& @ @ "
Therefore, let us consider

− »"
â
@ê" @ê

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& @ @ "
Similarly
− »"
@ê" @ê

& @ @ "
and

− »"
@ê" @ê

In general, from above equations one can write

»•¼
¢½¾ ¢½E
¢âE
− ¢â¾
(3)

With »•¼ −»¼• and »•• »¼¼ 0

0 ? −?
u, €
"
» » » »"
3
u, • !
» » » »" −? 0 ?â 3 !
»•¼ ¿ À !
» » » »" ? −?â 0
u,
!
(4)
»" »" »" »"" 3
!
0
u, € u, • u,
3 3 3

This is the electromagnetic field tensor of rank 2.

8.5 Lorentz invariance in field tensor

of course necessary that the field tensor component »•¼ have the same form in all Lorentz
If the field equations are to be covariant with respect to Lorentz transformations it is

reference frames. Using above equation (3), let us consider electromagnetic field tensor is in
S-frame as

»•¼
¢½¾ ¢½E
¢âE
− ¢â¾
(5)

If any S’ frame is moving with constant velocity with respect to S frame, the above
electromagnetic tensor can be described as:

»′•¼
¢½w¾ ¢½wE
¢âwE
− ¢âw¾
(6)

The Lorentz transformation for ê• and • are

ê′• Á 6•ã êã
ã

And

′• Á 6•} ê}
}

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The inverse Lorentz transformation of ê• are

êã Á 6•ã ê′•
•

On differentiating with respect to ê′• ,

@êã
6•ã
@ê′•

Now from equation (8.6),

@ w ¼ @ w• @ @
» w•¼ − ÂÁ 6 } }à − ÄÁ 6•ã ãÅ
@ê w• @ê w ¼ @ê w• @ê w
} ã

@ } @ ã @ } @ ã @ ã @ }
Á 6•} − Á6 . − Á 6 .
@ê w• @ê w }
@êã @ê w• •ã
@ê} @ê w
} },ã ã,}

@ } @ ã @ } @ ã
Á6 } 6•ã − Á 6•ã 6 Á 6 } 6•ã ô − õ
@êã }
@ê} @êã @ê}
},ã ã,} },ã

∑},ã 6 } 6•ã »ã} (7)

Where,
6 6 6 6" : 0 0 −&B:
6 6 6 6 " 0 1 0 0
Æ6 6 6 6 "Ç ¿ 0 01 0 À
6" 6" 6" 6"" −&B: 0 0 :

Using equation (7) we can calculate the field components very easily, for example

»w Á 6 ã 6 } »ã} Á 6 ã [6 »ã + 6 »ã + 6 »ã + 6 " »ã" Ý

ã,} ã

»w 6 [6 » + 6 » + 6 » + 6 " » " Ý

+6 [6 » + 6 » + 6 » + 6 " » " Ý

+6 [6 » + 6 » + 6 » + 6 " » " Ý

+6 " [6 »" + 6 »" + 6 »" + 6 " »"" Ý

As we know 6 1 and 6 6 6 " 0

»w 6 [6 » + 6 » + 6 » + 6 " » " Ý

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»w »

Similarly, » w » , »w " » " and others

Hence,

»′•¼ »•¼ (8)

This is the desired result. Hence electromagnetic field tensor is invariant under Lorentz
transformation. This is also known as Lorentz invariance of field tensor.

8.6 Covariant form of Maxwell’s equation in four-vector

We start with Maxwell’s equation in free space

®.
5
(9)
!

®. ” 0 (10)
¢”
®× − ¢ò (11)

®×” = ¤+= = ¤ + 3 % ¢ò
¢ ¢
¢ò
(12)

From considering the non-homogeneous pair of equations i.e. equation (9) and (12)-

⟹ ®. ⟹ ®. = & 4 ⟹ ®.
º º º
®. =
5 ,5
² 3 ! ² ² " (13)
!

®×” ¤ + 3 % ¢ò ⟹ ® × ” = ¤+ ⟹®×”− = ¤
¢ ¢(, /²) ¢(, /²)
¢(,3ò) ¢(,3ò)
(14)

In terms of four co-ordinates, we introduce (ê, ç, , & A) (ê , ê , ê , ê" ). The above

equations can be written as
¢ ¢ • ¢(, € /3)
0+ − + = B
¢â% ¢âQ ¢âg
(15)

¢ ¢ ¢ju, • /3l
− ¢â + 0 + ¢â€ + ¢âg
= B (16)
T Q

¢ • ¢ ¢(u,
− ¢â + ¢â€ + 0 + = B
/3)
¢âg
(17)
T %

¢(, € /3) ¢j, • /3l ¢(,

+ + +0 = B"
/3)
¢âT ¢â% ¢âQ
(18)

Treating the right hand numbers of this system as the components of a four current density
and introducing in the LHS as a set of independent variables defined as:

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−&
0 ? −? "
â

!
» » » »" −&
!
» » » »" −? 0 ?â
»•¼ ¿ À !
» » » »" −& !
»" »" »" »"" ? −?â 0
!
−& −& −& !
0
â

Hence equations (15) to (18) are

@» @» @» @» "
+ + + = B
@ê @ê @ê @ê"

@» @» @» @» "
+ + + = B
@ê @ê @ê @ê"

@» @» @» @» "
+ + + = B
@ê @ê @ê @ê"

@»" @»" @»" @»""

+ + + = B"
@ê @ê @ê @ê"

From the above equations, Maxwell electromagnetic field equations (9) and (12) are obtained
in compact form as below:
¢ÉEÊ
∑"- = B
¢âÊ
(19)

Now consider equations (10) and (11)

®. ” 0 (20)

− ¢ò ⟹ ® × 0⟹®×
¢” ¢” ¢”
®× +& + ¢â 0
uº
¢âg ² g
(21)

Thus equation (20) and (21) in terms of components can be written as:

¢(u, ¢j, • /3l ¢

0+ + + ¢â€ 0
/3)
¢â% ¢âQ g
(22)

¢(, ¢(, € /3) ¢ •

+0+ + ¢â 0
/3)
¢âT ¢âQ g
(23)

¢ju, • /3l ¢(, € /3) ¢

+ +0+ 0
¢âT ¢â% ¢âg
(24)

¢( € ) ¢( ) ¢( € )
+ € + +0 0
¢âT ¢â% ¢âQ
(25)

The above equations can be rewritten as:

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@» " @»" @»
0+ + + 0
@ê @ê @ê"

@»" @» " @»
+0+ + 0
@ê @ê @ê"

@» " @»" @»
+ +0+ 0
@ê @ê @ê"

@» @» @»
+ + +0 0
@ê @ê @ê

All the above equations and hence Maxwell electromagnetic field equations (10) and (11) can
be written more compactly in a single equation
¢ÉËE ¢ÉEÊ ¢ÉÊË
+ + 0
¢âÊ ¢âË ¢âE
(26)

As tensor equations are invariant under coordinate transformation. Hence, equations (19) and

tensor (»• ) .
(26) express the covariant form of Maxwell’s equations in terms of electromagnetic field

8.7 Four vectorpotential

The four vector potential form can be obtained in two steps. In the first step, we will reduce
Maxwell four equations in two equations in terms of scalar and vector potentials. In the next
step four vector potential will be obtained using reduced Maxwell two equations.

The four Maxwell’s field equations are:

4 @” @
(&)®. (&&)®. ” 0 (&&&)® × − (&1)® × ” = Ä + ¤Å
@A @A

From (ii) and (iii) Maxwell equations, the electromagnetic field vectors E and Bare expressed
as

” ®× Ÿ (27)
¢Ÿ
−®V − ¢ò (28)

Now take dot product with ®in equation (28) andcross product with ®in equation (27) on
both the side, we have

−∇ ϕ − ¢ò (®. Ÿ)
¢Ÿ ¢
®. ®. f−®V − ¢ò g (29)

®×” ® × (® × Ÿ) ®(®. Ÿ) − ∇ Ÿ(30)

Substituting the div E and curl B in Maxwell’s equation (i) and (iv), we obtain

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−∇ ϕ − ¢ò (∇. Ÿ)
¢ 5
(31)
!

®(®. Ÿ) − ∇ Ÿ + = ¤(32)
¢
= ¢ò

But from equation (28) and (32), we have

@ @Ÿ
®(®. Ÿ) − ∇ Ÿ = Ä−®V − Å + = ¤
@A @A
1@ Ÿ 1 @H
®(®. Ÿ) − ∇ Ÿ − − ®Ä Å+ = ¤
@A @A
Hence, equation (31) and (32) can be rewritten as

1@ | 1@ | @ 4
∇ H− + + (®. Ÿ) −
@A @A @A

And

1@ Ÿ 1 @H
∇ Ÿ− − ∇ Ä®. Ÿ + Å −= ¤
@A @A

From the relation #

¢%
∇ − 3 % ¢ò % , we have

# Ÿ − −∇ f®. Ÿ + 3 % ¢ò g −= ¤
¢J
(33)

H + ¢ò f®. Ÿ + 3 % ¢ò g
¢ ¢J
− (34)
5
and#
!

and represents the Maxwell’s equations in terms of the potential A and H.

Equation number (33) and (34) are the two reduced equations of Maxwell four field equations

The coupled equations in (33) and (34) and these equations become in much simplified form,
if we choose following gauge (Lorentz condition) such that

∇. Ÿ +
¢J
3 % ¢ò
0 (35)

When the Lorentz condition is impressed on equation (33) and (34), the Maxwell’s field
equations assume

# Ÿ −= (36)

# H −
5
(37)
!

Equation (36) and (37) are uncoupled second order differential equations and are known as
D’ Alembertian equations for electromagnetic potentials.

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For defining four vector potential, equation (37) can be written as:

&H &= 4
# − −&= (& 4)
=

1K
Where =

Thus we may write equations (36) and (37) as below:

# Ÿ −=

&H
# −&= B"

From above two equations, we can write

&H &H
• ÄŸ, Å ( , , , " )where " .

fŸ, 3 g is a four vector and caller four vector potential.

,J
Where •

8.8 Four vectorcurrent and continuity equation

total charge in an isolated system remain invariant. Let us consider ( charge is distributed in
Charges on a moving body is independent of the observer’s motion. In other words,

(H volume. Therefore charge density (4) is defined as ( ⁄(H for the considered system. We
can write

( 4(H 4(ê (ê (ê

Multiplying by four vector (ê• both sides in the above expression, we get

( (ê• 4 (ê• (ê (ê (ê

( (ê• 4 (ê (ê (ê (A
ûâE
ûò
(38)

Now as we know that ê" & A and on differentiating both sides we have (ê" & (A.
Therefore,

(ê"
(ê (ê (ê (A (ê (ê (ê
&

four-vector. On right hand side (ê (ê (ê (A represents a scalar (invariant) quantity.

Which is invariant. Also the left hand side of equation (38) is invariant and represent a

Therfore the remaining quantity f4 gon right hand side will be a four –vector. This four
ûâE
ûò
vector is represented by •.

f4 g
ûâE
• ûò
(39)

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( , , , ") f4 ,4 ,4 ,4 g
ûâT ûâ% ûâQ ûâg
Where, the four vector • ûò ûò ûò ûò
(4; , 4; , 4; , & 4).

The four vector • ( , , , & 4) (/, & 4) is known as four-vector current.

Continuity equation in four- vector form

, the continuity equation,in electrodynamics, represents conservation of charge and

mathematically expressed as

®. ¤ + ¢ò
¢5
0 (40)
In relativity theory it is clear that charge density and current densities are completely
separable quantities. Charge distribution in static reference frame will appear as a current
distribution in other moving reference frame.

The continuity equation (40) can also be written as

@(& 4)
®. ¤ + 0
@(& A)
from the definition of current density above B" & 4 and ê" & A

Hence, the above equation can be rewritten as

@B @B @B @B"
+ + + 0
@ê @ê @ê @ê"

0⟹# . ¤•
¢¤E
0
¢âE
(41)

Where # is D’Alembertian operator and equation (41) represents the continuity

equation in four vector form.

8.9 Gauge invariance of Maxwell equation

Maxwell equations represent one of the most elegant and concise ways to state the
fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. Maxwell equation in free space can be written as
below

4 @” @
(& )®. (&& )®. ” 0 (&&& )® × − (&1)® × ” = ¤+=
@A @A

Where 4 is the charge density, ¤is the current density. = and are the permeability
anf permittivity in free space. We know that electric field ( ) and magnetic field (”) canbe
written in form of scalar (V) and vector potential (A) as follows:

” ®×Ÿ (42)

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¢Ÿ
and, −®H − ¢ò (43)

The equations (42) and (43) can also be considered as the solutions of Maxwell’s

gradient of scalar function Λ does not change the magnetic field vector. Thus
equations. However these solutions are not unique, because in former case, an addition of the

Ÿw Ÿ + ®Λ (44)
Then from equation (42)

” ® × (Ÿ + ®Λ) ® × Ÿ + ® × ®Λ

” ®×Ÿ+¬

” ®×Ÿ

vector ( ′) does not change ifŸis replaced byŸw in equation (43).

Which is similar toequation (42). Therefore, in a similar way, a new electric field

@Ÿ
′ −®H′ −
@A
@
′ −®H′ − (Ÿ + ®Λ)
@A
@Λ @Ÿ
′ −® ÄH w + Å−
@A @A

Now we define, H w + ¢ò H or
¢Ï

Hw H − ¢ò (45)
¢Ï

thenfrom the above equation

@Ÿ
w
−®H −
@A
The equations (44) and (45) are called gauge transformations. Therefore, Maxwell
equations remain unchanged (or invariant) under gauge transformationgiven in equation (44)
and (45).

8.10 Electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor

It is now well understood that position four vector are expressed as

ê• (ê , ê , ê , ê" ) ( , & A)

From the above the component of velocity four-vector W;• (; , ; , ; , ;" )X can be
obtained as

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(ê (ê (A (ê 1 ;â
;
(¦ (A (¦ (A
A1 − ; A1 − ;

(ê (ê (A (ç 1 ;
;
(¦ (A (¦ (A
A1 − ; A1 − ;

(ê (ê (A ( 1 ;
;
(¦ (A (¦ (A
A1 − ; A1 − ;

(ê" ((& A) (A &

;"
(¦ (A (¦
A1 − ;

:
ûò
where, û© %
A uÐ%

Hence, ;• (; , ; , ; , ;" ) ;• j:;â , :; , :; , &: l (:Ñ, &: )

These are known as four vector velocity or velocity four vector. From the velocity four
vector, one can easily derive momentum four vector as follows
;â
• ; ;â •â
A1 − ;

Similarly,
;
• ; ; •
A1 − ;

;
• ; ; •
A1 − ;

&
•" ;" & &
A1 − ;

Hence, •• (• , • , • , •" ) j•â , • , • , & l (´, & ) with ´ Ñ

3

This•• is also called energy momentum four vector which is a tensor of rank one.

8.11 Motion of a charge in electromagnetic field : Lorentz force

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The Lorentz force is the force experienced by a charged particle moving in an electric
and magnetic field. Let us consider a charge q is moving with velocity u through magnetic
induction B and electric field E. Then the Lorentz force applicable on the charged particle is

Ò ( + Ñ × ”)

If in a given volume (¦), there are n charge carriers then the net force per unit volume
is given by

(Ò
Ó 4 + B (Ñ × ”)
(¦
or

Ó 4 +¤×”

and ¤ '(( )Ñ
û
û©
where4

In terms of components, the above equation can be written as

Ô 4 â +B ? −B ?

Ô 4 + B ?â − B ?

Ô 4 +B •
− B ?â

In terms of electromagnetic field tensor (»• ) , the above equations are obtained as

Ô » B + » B + » B + » " B"

Ô » B + » B + » B + » " B"

Ô » B + » B + » B + » " B"

The above equations can also be written in compact form as

"

ÔO Á »O¼ B¼ , where è 1,2,3

¼-

Where, B (¤, & 4) is the corrent four-vector. The right hand side of this equation is
the space component of a four vector Ô• . Therefore above equation can be expressed as
"

Ô• Á »•¼ B¼
¼-

This Ô• is called force-density four vector. To see the meaning of the fourth
component of force density four vector, we substitute= 4 in above equation

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Ô" »" B + »" B + »" B + »"" B"

&
Ô" ( B + B + B)

&
Ô" ( . ¤)

The above equation implies that the fourth component of Ô• is imaginary. Hence in
the light of above equation, force-density four vector Ô• can be expressed as

Ô• ∑"¼- »•¼ ∑"ã-

¢ÉE¾
, where ∑"¼-
¢É¾Ë
= •
•! ¢âË ¢â¾

"
1 @»¼ã
Ô• Á »•¼
= @êã
¼,ã-

This tensor form of force density four vector represents the covariant form of the
Lorentz force.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 1:The current four vector is _____

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 2:The fourth component of the force-density four vector is
____________

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 3:What is the form of continuity equation in four vector.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ) 4:What is Lorentz condition?

8.12 Summary
In this unit, you have studied about the four vector formalism to simplify the complex
behaviors of four coordinates including time. Maxwell equations and other quantities in
electrodynamics are represented in terms of four vector. The operations of four vectors are
similar to ordinary vectors and hence are easy to understand mathematically.

8.13 Glossary
Transformation equations- A set of equation to covert from one reference frame to another.

Tensor- a mathematical object analogous to but more general than a vector

Covariance- no change in any equation due to change in frame.

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8.14 References
1. Electrodynamics, IGNOU, New Delhi

2. Introduction to Electrodynamics, D.J.Griffiths, Pearson Publication, Chennai

3. Classical Electrodynamics, J.D. Jackson, Willey Eastern Ltd., New Delhi

4. Classical Mechanics, J.C. Upadhyay, Himgiri publishing house, Mumbai

8.15 Suggested Readings

1. Electrodynamics, Gupta Kumar, Pragati Publication

2. Foundation of Electromagnetic Theory, J.R. Reitz, F.J. Milford and R.W. Christy, Narosa
publications, New Delhi

3. Foundation of Electrodynamics, Parry Moor, Dover publication, New York.

8.16 Terminal Questions

(Should be divided intoShort Answer type, Long Answer type, Numerical, Objective type)
8.16.1 Objective type
8. For gauge transformation
(e) The electric and magnetic field vector do not change
(f) The electric field vector change but not the magnetic field vector
(g) The magnetic field vector changes but not electric field vector.
(h) Both the electric and magnetic field vector change

¢ ¢ ¢ ¢
(d) ¢â + ¢ + ¢ − 3 % ¢ò
9. Which of the following remains under Lorentz transformations:

¢ ¢ ¢ ¢
(e) ¢â
+ ¢ + ¢ + 3 % ¢ò
¢% ¢% ¢% ¢%
(f) ¢â %
+¢ % +¢ % − 3 % ¢ò %
¢% ¢% ¢%
(g) + +
¢â % ¢ % ¢ %

¢½ w ¢½
(i) ∑• E ∑• E
10. Choose the correct statement/s

¢•w ¢•
¢½E w ¢½E
(j) ∑• ¢•w
≠ ∑• ¢•
(k) Lorentz condition is # • −= B•

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(l) None of these

11. Covariant form of Maxwell’s field equations ® × ” + = ¤and®.

¢ '
3 % ¢ò Ö¬
in

(e) # −= B•
terms of electromagnetic field tensor is
•
¢ÉEÊ
(f) ∑"- ¢âÊ
= B•
¢ÉEÊ
(g) ∑"-
'
¢âÊ Ö¬
(h) none of these

12. Lorentz force equation in the covariant form gives

(a) The rate of change of linear momentum per unit volume as the space part
(b) The rate of change of linear momentum per unit volume as the time part
(c) The rate of change of mechanical energy per unit volume as the space part
(d) The rate of change of mechanical energy per unit volume as the time part

(e) ∇. Ÿ + 3 % ¢ò
¢J
0
13. The Lorentz condition is

(f) ∇. Ÿ −
¢J
0
3 % ¢ò
(g) ∇ × Ÿ +
¢J
0
3 % ¢ò
(h) ∇ × Ÿ −
¢J
0
3 % ¢ò

8.16.2 Short Answer type

1. What is Lorentz condition?

2. What is electromagnetic field tensor?

3. What is D’Alembertian operator?

4. Write down the current and potential four vectors.

5. Express the covariant form of Maxwell’s equations.

8.16.3 Long Answer type

1. Show that the D’Alembertian operator is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

2. Establish the covariant for of Maxwell’s electromagnetic field equations by four vectors.
Does it represent the covariant formulation of electrodynamics.

one single equation, given by # −= B• , where • is the four vector potential and
3. What is four vector potential? Show that the Maxwell’s field equation can be written in
•
B• is the current four vector. .

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4. Derive an expression for the Lorentz force on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field
in terms of four vector.

Wiechert potential. Define the electromagnetic field tensor »• .

5. Show that the four vector potential of electrodynamics can be expressed as Lienard-

6. Write the Maxwell’s equations in terms of scaler and vector potentials. Show that these
equations are invariant under gauge transformation. Discuss the significance of the
transformation.

7. Discuss the Lorentz invariance of Maxwell’s field equations.

8.16.4 Numerical Answer type

5) Show that the self product of electromagnetic field tensor is given by

»• 2 ô? − õ

6) Prove that the quantities . ” and − ? are invariant under Lorentz transformation.

7) Find the maximum electric field produced at a stationary atom by a 10 BeV proton which
passes it at a distance of 10-7cm., if the rest mass of the proton is equivalent to 1 BeV
energy.

moving along the axis of a linear accelerator in parallel paths separated by 5 × 10u× at
8) Find the force in the laboratory frame as well as in the proper frame for two electrons,

speed 1 0.999 . The line connecting the two charges is perpendicular to the direction of
their motion.

8.17 Answers
8.17.1 Self Assessment Questions (SAQs):
1. ( , , , & 4) (/, & 4)

2. 3 4( . Ñ)
,

3. # . ¤• 0

4. ∇. Ÿ +
¢J
3 % ¢ò
0

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8.17.2 Terminal Questions: Objective type

1. (a), 2. (c), 3. (a), 4. (b), 5. (a), (c), 6. (c),

8.17.3 Terminal Questions: Short Answer type

1. ∇. Ÿ + %
¢J
0
3 ¢ò
2. The electromagnetic field tensor is

−&
0 ? −? "
â

!
» » » »" −&
−? 0 ?â !
» » » »" !
»•¼ ¿ À
» » » »" −& !
»" »" »" »"" ? −?â 0
!
−& −& −& !
0
â

3. #
¢% ¢% ¢% ¢%
+¢ +¢ − 3 % ¢ò %
¢â % % %

4. current four vector is • ( , , , & 4) (/, & 4). vector four vector is ••
(• , • , • , •" ) j•â , • , • , & l (´, & 3 ) with ´ Ñ

¢ÉEÊ ¢ÉËE ¢ÉEÊ

5. ∑"-
¢ÉÊË
= B + + 0
¢âÊ ¢âÊ ¢âË ¢âE
and

8.17.4 Numerical type questions

1.5 × 10
( uy% )
"# ! $% ( uy % LIM% ï)Q/%
3. V/m

4. »′ 9.22 × 10u <, 4.12 × 10u <

UNIT 9 WAVE GUIDE

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objective
9.3 General Theory of Transmission Lines
9.3.1 Distributed Constants
9.3.2 Application of Transmission Lines

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9.4 The Transmission Line, General Solution & the Infinite Line
9.4.1 Symmetrical T Network
9.4.2 General Solution of the Transmission Line
9.5 Wavelength, Velocity of Propagation
9.6 The Distortion Less Line
9.7 Loading and Different Methods of Loading
9.8 Line Not Terminated In Zo
9.9 Reflection Coefficient
9.10 Calculation of Current, Voltage, Power Delivered and Efficiency of Transmission
9.11Wave Propagation in Free Space
9.12Poynting Theorem
9.13Electromagnetic Power Flux
9.14Waveguide
9.15Waveguide’s Equations
9.16 Summary
9.17 Glossary
9.18References
9.19Suggested Readings
9.20 Terminal Questions

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of communication defined as the transmission of information from one place to
another place. In this case modulation is used to encode the information onto a carrier wave
(a wave of higher frequency), and may involve analog or digital methods. The signal will
propagate over any significant distance will determined only by the characteristics of the
carrier wave.

Generally, if the frequency of a signal or a particular band of signals is high, the bandwidth
utilization is high as the signal provides more space for other signals to get accumulated.
However, high frequency signals can't travel longer distances without getting attenuated. We
have studied that transmission lines help the signals to travel longer distances.

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Microwaves propagate through microwave circuits, components and devices, which act as a
part of microwave transmission lines, broadly called as waveguides. A hollow metallic tube
of uniform cross-section for transmitting electromagnetic waves by successive reflections
from the inner walls of the tube is called as a waveguide. A waveguide is generally preferred
in microwave communications. Waveguide is a special form of transmission line, which is a
hollow metal tube. Unlike a transmission line, a waveguide has no center conductor.

Now in following sections, we will discuss the transmission line and waveguide in detail:

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to-
• To introduce the various types of transmission lines and to discuss the losses
associated with it.
• To give through understanding about impedance transformation and matching.
• To impart knowledge on wave guides theories
• To give understanding about characteristics and advantages of waveguide.
• To know about various modes of wave guide.

9.3 GENERAL THEORY OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Transmission line
Transmission line directed electrical energy from one point to another. It is normally used to
transfer the output radio frequency energy of a transmitter to an antenna. This energy will not
travel through normal electrical wire without great losses. Although the antenna can be
connected directly to the transmitter, the antenna is usually located some distance away from
the transmitter. The transmitter and antenna is connected by using transmission line. The
transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna.

Theory of Transmission Line:

The electrical characteristics of a two-wire transmission line depend primarily on the

construction of the line. The two-wire line acts like a long capacitor. The change of its
capacitive reactance is noticeable as the frequency applied to it is changed. Since the long
conductors have a magnetic field about them when electrical energy is being passed through
them, they also exhibit the properties of inductance.

The values of inductance and capacitance presented depend on the various physical factors
are:
For example, the type of line used, the dielectric in the line, and the length of the line must
be considered. The effects of the inductive and capacitive reactance of the line depend on the

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frequency applied. Since no dielectric is perfect, electrons manage to move from one
conductor to the other through the dielectric.

Each type of two-wire transmission line also has a conductance value. This conductance
value represents the value of the current flow that may be expected through the insulation, If
the line is uniform (all values equal at each unit length), then one small section of the line
may represent several feet. This illustration of a two-wire transmission line will be used
throughout the discussion of transmission lines; but, keep in mind that the principles
presented apply to all transmission lines.

A transmission line has the properties of inductance, capacitance, and resistance just as the
more conventional circuits have. Usually, however, the constants in conventional circuits are
lumped into a single device or component. For example, a coil of wire has the property of
inductance. When a certain amount of inductance is needed in a circuit, a coil of the proper
dimensions is inserted.

The inductance of the circuit is lumped into the one component. Two metal plates separated
by a small space, can be used to supply the required capacitance for a circuit. In such a case,
most of the capacitance of the circuit is lumped into this one component. Similarly, a fixed
resistor can be used to supply a certain value of circuit resistance as a lumped sum.

Ideally, a transmission line would also have its constants of inductance, capacitance, and
resistance lumped together. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Transmission line constants
are as described in the following paragraphs.

9.3.1 Distributed Constants

Transmission line constants, called distributed constants, are spread along the entire length of
the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. The amount of inductance,
capacitance, and resistance depends on the length of the line, the size of the conducting wires,
the spacing between the wires, and the dielectric (air or insulating medium) between the
wires.

The electrical lines which are used to transmit the electrical waves along them are represented
as transmission lines. Thedifferent line parameters of a transmission line are: Resistance
(R),Inductance (L), capacitance (C), and conductance (G). The line parameters R, L, C and G
are distributed over the entire length of the transmission line. Hence, transmission line is
called distributed network. They are also called primary constants.

Resistance (R) is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the wire. Its unit is
ohms/km.
Inductance (L) is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the wire. Its unit is
Henries/km.

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Capacitance (C) is defined as the loop capacitance per unit length of the wire. Its unit
is Farad/km.
Conductance (G) is defined as the loop conductance per unit length of the wire.
Its unit is mhos/km.

9.3.2 Application of Transmission Lines

1.They are used to transmit signal i.e. EM waves from one point to another.
2.They can be used for impedance matching purpose.
3.They can be used as circuit elements like inductors, capacitors.
4.They can be used as stubs by properly adjusting their lengths.

Wavelength of a line is the distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is
changing through 2π radians is a wavelength.

Characteristic impedance is the impedance measured at the sending end of the line. It is
given by Z0 = Z/Y,where Z = R + jωL is the series impedance Y = G + jωC is the shunt
admittance.

The secondary constants of a line are:

(i) Characteristic Impedance

(ii) Propagation Constant

Since the line constants R, L, C and G are distributed through the entire length of the line,
they are called as distributed elements. They are also called as primary constants.

9.4 THE TRANSMISSION LINE, GENERAL SOLUTIONS &

THE INFINITE LINE

A finite line is a line having a finite length on the line. It is a line, which is terminated, in its
characteristic impedance (ZR=Z0), so the input impedance of the finite line is equal to the
characteristic impedance (Zs=Z0).

An infinite line is a line in which the length of the transmission line is infinite. A finite line,
which is terminated in its characteristic impedance, is termed as infinite line. Therefore, for
an infinite line, the input impedance is equivalent to the characteristic impedance.

9.4.1 Symmetrical T Network

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Figure 9.1: Symmetrical T Network.

The value of Z0 (image impedance) for a symmetrical network can be easily determined. For
the symmetrical T network of Figure 9.1, terminated in its image impedance Z0, and if Z1 =
Z2 = ZT.

9.4.2 General Solution of the Transmission Line

It is used to find the voltage and current at any points on the transmission line. Transmission
lines behave very oddly at high frequencies. In traditional (low-frequency) circuit theory,
wires connect devices, but have zero resistance. There is no phase delay across wires; and a
short-circuited line always yields zero resistance.

For high-frequency transmission lines, things behave quite differently. For instance, short-
circuits can actually have an infinite impedance; open-circuits can behave like short-circuited
wires. The impedance of some load (ZL=XL+jYL) can be transformed at the terminals of the
transmission line to an impedance much different than ZL.

Let's start by examining a diagram. A sinusoidal voltage source with associated impedance
ZS is attached to a load ZL (which could be an antenna or some other device – in the circuit
diagram we simply view it as an impedance called a load). The load and the source are
connected via a transmission line of length L:

Since antennas are often high-frequency devices, transmission line effects are often very
important. That is, if the length L of the transmission line significantly alters Zin, then the
current into the antenna from the source will be very small. Consequently, we will not be
delivering power properly to the antenna.

The same problems hold true in the receiving mode: a transmission line can skew impedance
of the receiver sufficiently that almost no power is transferred from the antenna. Hence, a
thorough understanding of antenna theory requires an understanding of transmission lines. A
great antenna can be hooked up to a great receiver, but if it is done with a length of
transmission line at high frequencies, the system will not work properly.

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Examples of common transmission lines include the coaxial cable, the microstrip line, which
commonly feeds patch/microstrip antennas, and the two wire line (Figure 9.2):

Figure 9.2 (a): Coaxial Cable (b): Microstrip Line (c): Two-Wire Line

To understand transmission lines, we will set up an equivalent circuit to model and analyze
them. To start, we will take the basic symbol for a transmission line of length L and divide it
into small segments:

Figure 9.3(a): Parallel-wire representation (b): Divided into small sections of length dz.
Then we will model each small segment with a small series resistance, series inductance,
shunt conductance, and shunt capacitance:

Figure 9.4

The parameters in the above figure are defined as follows: R' - resistance per unit length for
the transmission line (Ohms/meter) L' - inductance per unit length for the tx line
(Henries/meter) G' - conductance per unit length for the tx line (Siemans/meter) C' -
capacitance per unit length for the tx line (Farads/meter) We will use this model to
understand the transmission line. All transmission lines will be represented via the above

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circuit diagram. For instance, the model for coaxial cables will differ from microstrip
transmission lines only by their parameters R', L', G' and C'.

To get an idea of the parameters, R' would represent the d.c. resistance of one meter of the
transmission line. The parameter G' represents the isolation between the two conductors of
the transmission line. C' represents the capacitance between the two conductors that make up
the tx line; L' represents the inductance for one meter of the tx line. These parameters can be
derived for each transmission line.

General solutions:

A circuit with distributed parameter requires a method of analysis somewhat different from
that employed in circuits of lumped constants. Since a voltage drop occurs across each series
increment of a line, the voltage applied to each increment of shunt admittance is a variable
and thus the shunted current is a variable along the line.

Hence the line current around the loop is not a constant, as is assumed in lumped constant
circuits, but varies from point to point along the line. Differential circuit equations that
describes that action will be written for the steady state, from which general circuit equation
will be defined as follows.

R= series resistance, ohms per unit length of line(includes both wires)

L= series inductance, henrys per unit length of line
C= capacitance between conductors, faradays per unit length of line
G= shunt leakage conductance between conductors, mhos per unit length of line
ωL = series reactance, ohms per unit length of line
Z = R+jωL
ωL = series susceptance, mhos per unit length of line
Y = G+jωC
S = distance to the point of observation, measured from the receiving end of the line
I = Current in the line at any point
E= voltage between conductors at any point
l = length of line

The below figure illustrates a line that in the limit may be considered as made up of cascaded
infinitesimal T sections, one of which is shown.

This incremental section is of length of ds and carries a current I. The series line impedance
being Z ohms and the voltage drop in the length ds is

dE = IZds (9.1)

s·(9.2)
û
ûî

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The shunt admittance per unit length of line is Y mhos, so that

The admittance of the line is Yds mhos. The current dI that follows across the line or from
one conductor to the other is

Ù
dI = EYds (9.3)
ûØ
ûî
(9.4)
The equation 9.2 and 94 may be differentiated with respect to s

( (s
·
(q (q
( s (
Ù
(q (q
·Ù
û%
ûÚ %
(9.5)

·Ùs
û% Ø
ûÚ %
(9.6)

These are the differential equations of the transmission line, fundamental to circuits of

*
distributed constants.
½Û
+ ?* u DÛ

s * + *u
(9.7)
DÛ DÛÜ
(9.8)

Where A,B,C,D are arbitrary constants of integration.

Since the distance is measured from the receiving end of the line, it is possible to assign
conditions such that at
s=0, I=IR, E=ER
The equation 9.7 and becomes

ER=A+B
I = C+D
(9.9)
A second set of boundary condition is not available, but the same set may be used over again

√·Ù*
if a new set of equations are formed by differentiation of equation 9.7 and 9.8. Thus
û DÛr u DÛr
ûÚ
B√·Ù* u (9.10)
s· √·Ù* DÛr u
B√·Ù* u DÛr
(9.11)

s A * BAD * u
Û DÛr u Û DÛr
D

√·Ù* √·Ù* u
ûØ DÛr u DÛr
ûÚ
(9.12)

A * DAD * u
D DÛr u Û DÛr
Û
(9.13)

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Ù Ù
s¸ = − ?=
· ·

· ·
= − =
¸
Ù Ù

Simultaneous solution of equation 9.9, 9.12 and 9.13, along with the fact that ER = IRZR and
that Z Y has been identified as the Z0 of the line,leads to solution for the constants of the
above equations as

A
ØÝ D D
Ý
+ Û
Ý
+ D!
Ý
(9.14 a)

A
ØÝ D D
? Ý
− Û
Ý
− D!
Ý
(9.14 b)

AD
ØÝ Û ØÝ D
+ Ý
+ DÝ (9.14 c)
!

A
ØÝ Û ØÝ D
− Ý
− DÝ
D
(9.14 d)
!

The solution of the differential equations of the transmission line may be written

A
DÝ Û ØÝ D
Ý
− − DÝ
D
(9.15)
!

s AD
ØÝ DÝ Û ØÝ D
− − DÝ (9.16)
!

The above equations are very useful form for the voltage and current at any point on a
transmission line. After simplifying the above equations, we get the final and very useful
form of equations for voltage and current at any point on a k=line, and are solutions to the

ℎ ·ÙÚ + s¸ · &'ℎ ·ÙÚ

wave equation.
¸ (9.17)
s s¸ ℎ ·ÙÚ + Ý
D
&'ℎ ·ÙÚ (9.18)

This result indicates two solutions, one for the plus sign and the other for the minus sign
before the radical.

9.5 WAVELENGTH, VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION

Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. With respect to the direction of
the oscillation relative to the propagation direction, we can distinguish between longitudinal
wave and transverse waves. For electromagnetic waves, propagation may occur in a vacuum

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as well as in a material medium. Other wave types cannot propagate through a vacuum and
need a transmission medium to exist.

Wavelength

The distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is changed through 2Π
radians is called wavelength. λ =2п/ ß

The change of 2п in phase angle represents one cycle in time and occurs in a distance of one
wavelength, λ= v/f

Velocity

V= f λ
V=ω/ ß

This is the velocity of propagation along the line based on the observation of the change in
the phase angle along the line. It is measured in miles/second if ß is in radians per meter.
We know that

Z = R + j ωL
Y= G+j ωC

Then
γ =α+jβ = √·Ù
α+jβ = Þ − 0 ß + B0(ßÞ + )
On squaring above equation both side
α+2jαβ -β= Þ − 0 ß + B0(ßÞ + )
By equating real and imaginary part:

A¸àu,
%á C (¸àu,% á )% C,% (áàC ¸)
è (9.19)
Therefore, the equation for theβ is:

B A,
%á u¸àC (¸àu,% á )C,% (áàC ¸)
(9.20)

B 0ç
For the perfect line condition, R and G both are 0. Therefore, the above equation would be:

0
The velocity of propagation of such ideal line is given by:
â
B

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Thus the above equation showing that the line parameter values fix the velocity of
propagation.

9.6 THE DISTORTION LESS LINE

It is desirable, however to know the condition on the line parameters that allows propagation
without distortion. The line having parameters satisfy this condition is termed as a distortion
less line.

The condition for a distortion less line was first investigated by Oliver Heaviside. Distortion
less condition can help in designing new lines or modifying old ones to minimize distortion.

A line, which has neither frequency distortion nor phase distortion is called a distortion less
line.

Condition for a distortion less line

The condition for a distortion less line is RC=LG. Also,

a)The attenuation constant should be made independent of frequency. α = RG

b) The phase constant should be made dependent of frequency. β = ω LC

c) The velocity of propagation is independent of frequency.

V=1 / LC

For the telephone cable to be distortion less line, the inductance value should be increased by
placing lumped inductors along the line.

For a perfect line, the resistance and the leakage conductance value were neglected. The
conditions for a perfect line are R=G=0. Smooth line is one in which the load is terminated
by its characteristic impedance and no reflections occur in such a line. It is also called as flat
line.

The distortion Less Line

If a line is to have neither frequency nor delay distortion, then attenuation constant and
velocity of propagation cannot be function of frequency.
Then the phase constant be a direct function of frequency

B A,
%á u¸àC (¸àu,% á )C,% (áàC ¸)
(9.21)

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The above equation shows that if the term under the second radical be reduced to equal

(RG + ω2LC)2(9.22)
Then the required condition for β is obtained. Expanding the term under the internal radical
and forcing the equality gives
R2G2- 2 ω2LCRG+ ω4L2C2+ ω2L2G2+ 2ω2LCRG+ ω2CR2 = (RG+ ω2LC)2(9.23)
This reduces to
2 ω2LCRG+ ω2L2G2+ ω2CR2=0
(LG-CR)2=0(9.24)

Therefore the condition that will make phase constant a direct form is
LG = CR

A hypothetical line might be built to fulfill this condition. The line would then have a value
of ß obtained by use of the above equation.
Already we know that the formula for the phase constant

β = ωLC(9.25)

Then the velocity of propagation will be v = 1/ LC

This is the same for the all frequencies, thus eliminating the delay distortion.

May be made independent of frequency if the term under the internal radical is forced to
reduce to (RG +ωLC)2

Analysis shows that the condition for the distortion less line LG = CR , will produce the
desired result, so that it is possible to make attenuation constant and velocity independent of
frequency simultaneously. Applying the condition LG= RC to the expression for the
attenuation gives α = RG
This is the independent of frequency, thus eliminating frequency distortion on a line. To
achieve

LG = CR

Require a very large value of L, since G is small. If G is intentionally increased, attenuation is

increased, resulting in poor line efficiency.

To reduce R raises the size and cost of the conductors above economic limits, so that the
hypothetical results cannot be achieved.

Propagation constant is as the natural logarithm of the ratio of the sending end current or
voltage to the receiving end current or voltage of the line. It gives the manner in the wave is

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propagated along a line and specifies the variation of voltage and current in the line as a
function of distance. Propagation constant is a complex quantity and is expressed as γ= α + j
β.

The real part is called the attenuation constant, whereas the imaginary part of propagation
constant is called the phase constant.

9.7 LOADING AND DIFFERENT METHODS OF LOADING

In ordinary telephone cables, the wires are insulated with paper and twisted in pairs, therefore
there will not be flux linkage between the wires, which results in negligible inductance, and
conductance. If this is the case, there occurs frequency and phase distortion in the line.

Quarter wave length

For the case where the length of the line is one quarter wavelength long, or an odd multiple of
a quarter wavelength long, the input impedance becomes

·,+
D!%
Dã
(9.26)
Matched load

Another special case is when the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance of
the line (i.e. the line is matched), in which case the impedance reduces to the characteristic
impedance of the line so that

·,+ ·á · (9.27)

For all l and all λ.

Short: For the case of a shorted load (i.e. ZL = 0), the input impedance is purely imaginary
and a periodic function of position and wavelength (frequency)

·,+ (¯) · tan (B¯) (9.28)

Open:For open load case (·á ∞), input impedance is once again imaginary and periodic

·,+ (¯ ) − · cot (B¯) (9.29)

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9.8 LINE NOT TERMINATED IN ZO

The insertion loss of a line or network is defined as the number of decibels by which the
current in the load is changed by the insertion. Insertion loss=Current flowing in the load
without insertion of the Network Current flowing in the load with insertion of the network.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial lines confine the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable, between the
center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line occurs totally through
the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and
twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive
supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.

In radio-frequency applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates in the transverse

electric and magnetic mode (TEM) only, which means that the electric and magnetic fields
are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation (the electric field is radial, and the
magnetic field is circumferential). However, at frequencies for which the wavelength (in the
dielectric) is significantly shorter than the circumference of the cable, transverse electric (TE)
and transverse magnetic (TM) waveguide modes can also propagate.

When more than one mode can exist, bends and other irregularities in the cable geometry can
cause power to be transferred from one mode to another.

The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of
multiple megahertz. In the middle 20th century they carried long distance telephone
connections.

Microstrip

A microstrip circuit uses a thin flat conductor, which is parallel to a ground plane. Microstrip
can be made by having a strip of copper on one side of a printed circuit board (PCB) or
ceramic substrate while the other side is a continuous ground plane. The width of the strip,
the thickness of the insulating layer (PCB or ceramic) and the dielectric constant of the
insulating layer determine the characteristic impedance. Microstrip is an open structure
whereas coaxial cable is a closed structure.

Stripline

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A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground
planes. The insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the
thickness of the substrate and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine the
characteristic impedance of the strip which is a transmission line.

Balanced lines

A balanced line is a transmission line consisting of two conductors of the same type, and
equal impedance to ground and other circuits. There are many formats of balanced lines,
amongst the most common are twisted pair, star quad and twin-lead.

Twisted pair

Twisted pairs are commonly used for terrestrial telephone communications. In such cables,
many pairs are grouped together in a single cable, from two to several thousand.
The format is also used for data network distribution inside buildings, but in this case the
cable used is more expensive with much tighter controlled parameters and either two or four
pairs per cable.

Single-wire line

Unbalanced lines were formerly much used for telegraph transmission, but this form of
communication has now fallen into disuse. Cables are similar to twisted pair in that many
cores are bundled into the same cable but only one conductor is provided per circuit and there
is no twisting. All the circuits on the same route use a common path for the return current
(earth return). There is a power transmission version of single-wire earth return in use in
many locations.

Waveguide

Waveguides are rectangular or circular metallic tubes inside which an electromagnetic wave
is propagated and is confined by the tube. Waveguides are not capable of transmitting the
transverse electromagnetic mode found in copper lines and must use some other mode.
Consequently, they cannot be directly connected to cable and a mechanism for launching the
waveguide mode must be provided at the interface.

9.9 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

The reflection coefficient is used in physics and electrical engineering when wave
propagation in a medium containing discontinuities is considered. A reflection coefficient
describes either the amplitude or the intensity of a reflected wave relative to an incident
wave. The reflection coefficient is closely related to the transmission coefficient.

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Reflection occurs because of the following cases:

1) When the load end is open circuited

2) When the load end is short-circuited

3) When the line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance.

When the line is either open or short circuited, then there is not resistance at the
receiving end to absorb all the power transmitted from the source end. Hence all the power
incident on the load gets completely reflected back to the source causing reflections in the
line. When the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the load will absorb some
power and some will be reflected back thus producing reflections.

Reflection Coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the reflected voltage to the
incident voltage at the receiving end of the line Reflection Coefficient K=Reflected Voltage
at load /Incident voltage at the load.
H$
t
H,

In telecommunications, the reflection coefficient is the ratio of the amplitude of the

reflected wave to the amplitude of the incident wave. In particular, at a discontinuity in a

(E−) to that of the incident wave (E+). This is typically represented with a å (capital gamma)
transmission line, it is the complex ratio of the electric field strength of the reflected wave

and can be written as

Eu
Γ
EC

The reflection coefficient may also be established using other field or circuit quantities.

The reflection coefficient can be given by the equations below, where ZS is the
impedance toward the source, ZL is the impedance toward the load:

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Figure 9.5
Simple circuit configuration showing measurement location of reflection coefficient.

Γ
çè uçé
çè Cçé
(9.30)

Notice that a negative reflection coefficient means that the reflected wave receives a
180°, or π, phase shift.

The absolute magnitude (designated by vertical bars) of the reflection coefficient can be
calculated from the standing wave ratio,

SWR:

|Γ|
•aêu
•aêC
(9.31)

9.10 CALCULATION OF CURRENT, VOLTAGE, POWER

DELIVERED AND EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION

Voltage and Current ratios

In order to simplify calculations, sinusoidal voltage and current waves are commonly
represented as complex-valued functions of time denoted as v and I

H H * +(,òC}J)
s s * +(,òC}Ø)

H
Impedance is defined as the ratio of these quantities
·
s

H* +(,òC}J) s * +(,òC}Ø) Z* +ë
Substituting these into Ohm's law we have

s Z* +(,òC}ØCë)

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Noting that this must hold for all t, we may equate the magnitudes and phases to obtain

H -s·
|J |J + í

The magnitude equation is the familiar Ohm's law applied to the voltage and current
amplitudes, while the second equation defines the phase relationship.

Validity of complex representation

This representation using complex exponentials may be justified by noting that (by Euler's
formula):

1 +(,òC})
(0A + |) [* + * u+(,òC}) Ý
2
i.e. a real-valued sinusoidal function (which may represent our voltage or current waveform)
may be broken into two complex-valued functions.

By the principle of superposition, we may analyze the behavior of the sinusoid on the left-
hand side by analyzing the behavior of the two complex terms on the right-hand side. Given
the symmetry, we only need to perform the analysis for one right-hand term; the results will
be identical for the other. At the end of any calculation, we may return to real-valued
sinusoids by further noting that

(0A + |) [* +(,òC}) Ý
Phasors

A phasor is a constant complex number, usually expressed in exponential form, representing

the complex amplitude (magnitude and phase) of a sinusoidal function of time. Phasors are
used by electrical engineers to simplify computations involving sinusoids, where they can
often reduce a differential equation problem to an algebraic one.

The impedance of a circuit element can be defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage across
the element to the phasor current through the element, as determined by the relative
amplitudes and phases of the voltage and current. This is identical to the definition from
Ohm's law given above, recognizing that the factors of cancel.

Power quantities

When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a ratio can be expressed in decibels by

evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to the

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reference level. Thus, if L represents the ratio of a power value P1 to another power value P0,

‘
then LdB represents that ratio expressed in decibels and is calculated using the formula:
ßû 10¯ ¶ ( )
‘

P1 and P0 must have the same dimension, i.e. they must measure the same type of quantity,
and the same units before calculating the ratio: however, the choice of scale for this common
unit is irrelevant, as it changes both quantities by the same factor, and thus cancels in the
ratio—the ratio of two quantities is scale-invariant. Note that if P1 = P0 in the above
equation, then LdB = 0. If P1 is greater than P0 then LdB is positive; if P1 is less than P0
then LdB is negative.

Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for P1 in terms of P0 and LdB:
áîï
‘ 10 ‘

Since a bel is equal to ten decibels, the corresponding formulae for measurement in bels (LB)
are

‘
ß ¯ ¶ ( )
‘

‘ 10áï ‘

9.11 WAVE PROPAGATION IN FREE SPACE

Free space is a region where these are nothing - the vacuum of outer space is a fair
approximation for most purposes. There are no obstacles to get in the way, no gases to absorb
energy, nothing to scatter the radio waves. Unless you are into space communications, free
space is not something you are likely to encounter, but it is important to understand what
happens to a radio wave when there is nothing to disturb it.

In free space, a radio wave launched from a point in any given direction will propagate
outwards from that point at the speed of light. The energy, carried by photons, will travel in a
straight line, as there is nothing to prevent them doing so. For all practical purposes, a radio
wave when launched carries on in a straight line forever traveling at the speed of light.

Free space loss is not really a loss at all. It relates to the intensity of the wave at a distance
from the source measured by some standard collector, like an antenna or a telescope. As the
wave spreads out, the intensity becomes lower.

Consider a radio wave source that radiates in all directions with equal intensity from a single
point (like a light bulb).

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All the points at a given radius r from a single point form the surface of a sphere and the total
energy is uniformly spread out over the area of this sphere (remember our source is radiating
equally in all directions). So the amount of energy that can be collected over the section of
the total area represented by our collector is proportional to the ratio of the "capture area" of
our collector to the total area.

The area of this sphere is proportional to the radius: Area = 4πr2

The power per unit area is simply the total power divided by the total area. If the power is
measured in watts this is: Watts / m2 = Total watts / total area in m2

ð
"П$%
This power is usually referred to as the power flux density: Power flux density =

The amount of power collected by an ideal antenna is simply the power flux density
multiplied by the effective capture area of the antenna Ae.

‘$ò 2 × ‘ 3* »¯;ê *' &Aç (36AA )‘$ò 2 ‘$ò /4æ 36AA (9.32)

The effective capture area of an antenna is related to the gain of the antenna. If the Gain of
the receiving antenna is Grx the following holds:

2 (Þ$ò )á /4æ
‘$â ‘òâ (á/4æ ) 36AA (9.33)

Normalizing this to a receiver antenna of unity gain so Grx =1, the ratio of the received power
to the transmitted power which is the proportion we "lose" on the path is called the free space

» ** •6 * ¯
loss represented by:
ðx€
(á/4æ ) (9.34)
ðp€

The electromagnetic waves that are guided along or over conducting or dielectric surface are
called guided waves.

Examples: Parallel wire, transmission lines

Cut off frequency is the wavelength below which there is wave propagation and above which
there is no wave propagation.

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9.12 POYNTING’S THEOREM

Poynting’s theorem is a hugely important mathematical statement in electromagnetic that

concerns the flow of power through space. Poynting's theorem is a statement of
conservation of energy for the electromagnetic field, in the form of a partial differential
equation. Poynting's theorem is analogous to the work-energy theorem in classical
mechanics, and mathematically similar to the continuity equation, because it relates the
energy stored in the electromagnetic field to the work done on a charge distribution (i.e. an
electrically charged object), through energy flux.

∇. ( × ú)= − ( =ó#úó# + ó# ó# ) − %ó# ó# (9.35)

¢
¢ò

The wave polarization is defined by the time behavior of the electric field of a TEM wave at a
given point in space. In other words, the state of polarization of a wave is describe d by the
geometricalshape which the tip of the electric field vector draws as a function of time at a
given point in space. Polarization is a fundamental characteristic of a wave, and every wave
has a definite state of polarization.

9.13 ELECTROMAGNETIC POWER FLUX

Consider the propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a conducting medium which

%
obeys Oh m's law:

∇. 0,
Here, σ is the conductivity of the medium. Maxwell's equations for the wave take the form:

∇. ? 0,
¢
∇×
¢ò
@
,

∇×? = + =
@A

It can be seen that the skin-depth for a good conductor decreases with increasing wave

[= % +
¢∇× ¢ ¢
∇×∇× −∇ E − ¢ò ¢ò
= ¢ò
]

* ,(-
Looking for a wave like solution of the form
u,ò)
,
We obtained the dispersion relation

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= 0( 0 + &%)

Let us consider the case for poor conductor for which % ≪ „ 0. Applying this the
dispersion relation becomes
0 % =
≅' +& =
2
Where n is the refractive index having value' √„. Substituting this in equation results.
* u
î * ,(-x u,ò)
,
Where ( A • and
! +,
@ $ 3
!

From the above equation, we can conclude that the propagation of electromagnetic wave
through a conductor decays exponentially on the length scale of “d”, which is known as “skin
depth”.

Let us consider the case for good conductor for which % ≫ „ 0. Applying this the

≅ &= %0
dispersion relation becomes

And (
-x
A•
! @,

It can be seen that the skin-depth for a good conductor decreases with increasing wave
frequency. The fact that k,d=1 indicates that the wave only penetrates a few wave-lengths
into the conductor before decaying away. Now the power per unit volume dissipate d via

‘ . %
ohmic heating in a conducting medium takes the form

Consider an electromagnetic wave of the form. The mean power dissipated per unit area in
the region z> 0 is written

〈#‘〉 # % *u î ( A
7 %
û@ @
" •! ,
,

For a good conductor. Now, the mean electromagnetic power flux into the region z>0 takes
the form
× ?. ̂ # 1 %
〈#;〉 〈# 〉 # =
$
= -
2= 0 8= 0

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The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave propagating through a

conductor decays exponentially on some length-scale, which is termed the skin-depth. The
skin-depth for a poor conductor is independent of the frequency of the wave. For a poor
conductor, indicating that the wave penetrates many wave-lengths into the conductor before
decaying away.

9.14 WAVEGUIDE

Wave guide is normally an enclosed conductor and may be rectangular, circular, etc. in
shape. It was invented by “George C Southworth”.Waveguide played an important role in
Radar Systems during World War II. To honor his work in Wave-guide, he was bestowed
with the Morris N. Liebmann award of the IRE in 1938 and the Stuart Ballantine Medal of
the Franklin Institute, in 1947. He also received the Louis Levy Medal of the Franklin
Institute for his work on Microwave Radiation from the sun.
Waveguides are used to direct and propagate Electromagnetic waves from one point to
another. They are generally used to transmit high frequency waves such as Microwaves,
Radio waves, Infrared waves etc. For low frequency waves which are less than 1 MHz,
parallel transmission lines or co-axial cables are used.
Wave-guide is represented by its dispersion characteristics that has a certain cut-off
frequency. The signals having frequencies above this cut-off frequency are allowed to
propagate through the Wave-guide and the signals having frequencies below this frequency
will face a high reflection. A Waveguide acts like a high pass filter due to this characteristic.
The dispersion characteristics can be altered by loading the Wave-guide with metal or di-
electric medium.

Some of the components of waveguide are:

• Load – This is responsible for absorbing microwave energy from the system
• Tuner – This component is used to match the load impedance with the source
impedance.
• Isolator – They are circulators which have three ports and are responsible for
transmitting microwave energy between the different ports while directing and
reflecting energy to a port with an attached load.
• Power Measuring (couplers)– These are the devices made to couple power taken from
the waveguide system which helps in measuring power, frequency, and other
parameters to ensure proper flow of energy.

Classification of Waveguide

Waveguides are classified into two types:

• Metal Waveguides

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• Dielectric Waveguides

Metal Waveguide

Metal Waveguides consists of an enclosed conducting metal pipe and the wave guiding
principle works on the total internal reflection from the conducting walls. They are of two
types:

I. Rectangular Waveguides
II. Circular Waveguides

Dielectric Waveguide

Dielectric Waveguides consists of dielectrics and the reflection from dielectric interfaces
helps in the propagation of electromagnetic waves along the Waveguide. They are of two
types:
I. Dielectric Slab Waveguides
II. Optical Fiber

Figure 9.6

• Coaxial cables are widely used to connect RF components. Their operation is practical
for frequencies below 3 GHz. Above that the losses are too excessive. For example, the
attenuation might be 3 dB per 100 m at 100 MHz, but 10 dB/100 m at 1GHz, and50 dB/100
m at 10 GHz.

• Their power rating is typically of the order of one kilowatt at100 MHz, but only 200 W
at 2 GHz, being limited primarily because of the heating of the coaxial conductors and of the
dielectric between the conductors (dielectric voltage breakdown is usually a secondary
factor.) However, special short-length coaxial cables do exist that operate in the 40 GHz
range.

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• Another issue is the single-mode operation of the line. At higher frequencies, in order to
prevent higher modes from being launched, the diameters of the coaxial conductors must be
reduced, diminishing the amount of power that can be transmitted. Two-wire lines are not
used at microwave frequencies because they are not shielded and can radiate. One typical use
is for connecting indoor antennas to TV sets. Micro strip lines are used widely in microwave
integrated circuits.

• Rectangular waveguides next, we discuss in detail the case of a rectangular hollow

waveguide with conducting walls, as shown in Fig. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that the lengths a, b of the inner sides satisfy b ≤ a. The guide is typically filled with
air, but any other dielectric material ε, µ may be assumed.

The main characteristics of a Waveguide are:

• The tube wall provides distributed inductance.

• The empty space between the tubes walls provide distributed capacitance.
• These are bulky and expensive.

Advantages of Waveguides

Some advantages of waveguides are mentioned below:

• Waveguides are easy to manufacture.

• They can handle very large power in kilowatts.
• Power loss is very negligible in waveguides.
• They offer very low loss
• Low value of attenuation
• When microwave energy travels through waveguide, it experiences lower losses than
a coaxial cable.

Waveguide Modes

The two types of Wave-guide Modes that is necessary for propagation of Electromagnetic
waves in the Waveguides are:

• TE (Transverse Electric) Mode

• TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode

TE (Transverse Electric) Mode

In TE (Transverse Electric) Mode, Electric Field vector is transverse or perpendicular to the

Waveguide’s axis.

TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode

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In TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode, Magnetic Field (E) vector is transverse or perpendicular

to the Waveguide’s axis.

9.15 WAVEGUIDE’S EQUATIONS

1 @ú @ 1 @ú @
According to Ampere’s law and Faraday’s law, we obtain

úâ − ô: − 0 õ, ú − ô: + 0 õ
ℎ @ê @ç ℎ @ç @ê
1 @ @ú 1 @ @ú
− ô: + 0= õ, ú − ô: − 0= õ
â
ℎ @ê @ç ℎ @ç @ê

Where ℎ : +

and ∇ E + k E 0
∇ H+k H 0

∇ò + (: + 0 [∇ò + ℎ Ý
∇ò ú + (: + 0 [∇ò + ℎ Ýú
)
)ú

0,ú 0
ℎ 0 :ô + → :ô 0√=„ , 1¡
Case I TEM mode:
õ õ
√•ƒ
0= :ô õ = 1
·ô A I 6'( ú ̂× ð
â
õ
ú :ô õ 0„ „ ·ô õ
It is important to note that all the frequencies make :ô õ is pure imaginary, which shows that
TEM wave can propagate at any frequency, there is no cut off.

Case I TM mode: 0, ≠ 0 and ∇‰ Eö + h Eö 0

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Case 3 TE mode: 0,ú ≠ 0 and ∇‰ Hö + h Hö 0

< ¢ < ¢ +•, ¢ +•, ¢ !
úâ − u% , ú − u% − −
! ! !

¢â ¢
, â u% ¢
,
u% ¢â
So,
·ô −
+,• <
f≠ +, g and ñ)
−·ô ( ̂ × ú
! !
€ •
!
€
!
€ <

Difference between TE and TM waves:

TE TM

Electric field strength E is entirely transverse. Magnetic field strength is entirely transverse.

It has z component of magnetic field (Hz). It has z component of electric field (Ez).

It has no z component of electric field (Ez). It has no z component of magnetic field (Hz).

μ 1
Mode Wave impedance, Z Guide Wavelength
I A á
Ô √μ
TEM

á
I A1 − (Ô3 ⁄Ô)
TM

ÔA1 − (Ô3 ⁄Ô)

TE I á
A1 − (Ô3 ⁄Ô) A1 − (Ô3 ⁄Ô)

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Figure: Impedances and Guide wavelengths for Ó>Ó² .

General Guided Wave Solutions:

General solutions to the fields associated with the waves that propagate on a guiding structure
using Maxwell’s equations.

Assume the following about the guiding structure:

(1) Guiding structure is infinitely long, oriented along the zaxis, and uniform along its length.

(2) Guiding structure is constructed from ideal materials (conductors are PEC and insulators
are lossless).

(3) Fields are time-harmonic. The fields of the guiding structure must satisfy the source free

∇× − 0=ú
Maxwell’s equations given by

∇×ú 0„

For a wave propagating along the guiding structure in the z-direction, the associated electric

E(x, y, z) [e(x, y) + eç (x, y)aö Ýeu»øç

and magnetic fields may be written as

H(x, y, z) [h(x, y) + hç (x, y)aö Ýeu»øç

The vectors e(x,y) and h(x,y) represent the transverse field components of the wave while
vectors ez(x,y)az and hz(x,y)az are the longitudinal components of the wave. By expanding
the curl operator in rectangular coordinates, and noting that the derivatives of the transverse

@ â
components with respect to z can be evaluated as

B â
@

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@
B
@
@úâ
Búâ
@
@ú
Bú
@

Equate the vector components on each side of the equation to write the six components of the

0 + Bú
electric and magnetic field as
¢ €
â ¢
(9.36 a)

0 − Búâ −
¢
¢
(9.36 b)

0
¢ • ¢ €
¢â
− ¢
(9.36 c)

− 0=úâ + B
¢ €
¢
(9.37 a)

− 0=ú −B
¢
â − ¢â
(9.37 b)
− 0=ú
¢ • ¢ €
¢â
− ¢
(9.37 c)

Equations (9.36) and (9.37) are valid for any wave (guided or unguided) propagating in the z-
direction in a source-free region with a propagation constant of jâ. We may use Equations
(9.36) and (9.37) to solve for the longitudinal field components in terms of the transverse
field components.

+ 0=
¢ ¢
By solving equation (9.36 a) and (9.37 b) for ú (B )
u+
â -% ¢â ¢

+ 0=
+ ¢ ¢
By solving equation (9.36 b) and (9.37 a) for úâ (−B )
-% ¢ ¢â

−B
+ ¢ ¢
úâ (0 )
-% ¢ ¢â
By solving equation (9.36 b) and (9.37 a) for

+B
¢ ¢
âú (0 )
u+
-% ¢â ¢
By solving equation (9.36 a) and (9.37 b) for

3
−B
Where is the cut off wave number and defined as:
3

The cutoff wavenumber for the wave guiding structure is determined by the wavenumber of
the insulating medium through which the wave propagates and the propagation constant for
the structure. The equations for the transverse components of the fields are valid for all of the
modes defined previously. These transverse field component equations can be specialized for
each one of these guided structure modes.

TEM Mode:

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Using the general equations for the transverse fields of guided waves [Equation (9.38)], we
see that the transverse fields of a TEM mode (defined by Ez = Hz = 0) are non-zero only
when kc = 0. When the cutoff wavenumber of the TEM mode is zero, an indeterminant form

+ 0=
of (0/0) results for each of the transverse field equations
¢ ¢
(B )
u+
â -% ¢â ¢
(9.38 a)

+ 0=
+ ¢ ¢
f−B g (9.38 b)
-% ¢ ¢â

−B
+ ¢ ¢
úâ -%
f0 ¢ ¢â
g (9.38 c)

+B
¢ ¢
ú (0 )
u+
-% ¢â ¢
(9.38 d)

−B 0
Zero valued cutoff wave number yields the following:
3
B 0 =
3 03 = 2æÔ3 = 0
Ô3 0

The first equation above shows that the phase constant â of the TEM mode on a guiding
structure is equivalent to the phase constant of a plane wave propagating in a region
characterized by the same medium between the conductors of the guiding structure. The
second equation shows that the cutoff frequency of a TEM mode is 0 Hz. This means that
TEM modes can be propagated at any non-zero frequency assuming the guiding structure can
support a TEM mode.

Relationships between the transverse fields of the TEM mode can be determined by returning
to the source-free Maxwell’s equation results for guided waves [Equations (9.36) and (9.37)]
and setting Ez = Hz = 0 and â = k.

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ú
â
0„
− ú
0„ â
@ú @úâ
@ê @ç
úâ −
0=
ú
0= â
@ @ â
@ê @ç

Note that the ratios of the TEM electric and magnetic field components define wave
impedances which are equal to those of equivalent plane waves.

0= =
A I ·ô → ·ô õú
â
úÛ 0„ õ â

− 0= =
A I ·ô → −·ô õ úâ
úâ 0„ õ

The previous results can combine to yield

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1
ℎ(ê, ç) 6 × *(ê, ç)
·ô õ

∇ + 0
The fields of the TEM mode must also satisfy the respective wave equation:

∇ ú+ ú 0

(ê, ç, ) *(ê, ç)* u+y

Where

ú(ê, ç, ) ℎ(ê, ç)* u+y

In rectangular coordinates, the vector Laplacian operator is

∇ » ∇ »â 6â +∇ » 6 + ∇ » 6
@ ȉ @ ȉ @ ȉ
( + + )6â
@ê @ç @
@ » @ » @ »
+( + + )6
@ê @ç @
@ » @ » @ »
+( + + )6
@ê @ç @

By separating the rectangular coordinate components in the wave equation, we find that each
of the field components F 0 (Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy) must then satisfy the same equation [Helmholtz
equation].

@ » @ » @ »
+ + + » 0
@ê @ç @
@ » @ »
+ −B »+ » 0
@ê @ç
@ » @ »
+ + 3» 0
@ê @ç
@ » @ »
+ 0
@ê @ç

So that the TEM field components must satisfy:

@ â @ â
+ 0
@ê @ç
@ úâ @ úâ
+ 0
@ê @ç
@ @
+ 0
@ê @ç

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@ ú @ ú
+ 0
@ê @ç

This result can be written in compact form as

∇ò *(ê, ç) 0
∇ò ℎ(ê, ç) 0

where Lt defines the transverse Laplacian operator which in rectangular 2 coordinates is

∇ò » ∇ »â 6â + ∇ » 6

According to the previous result, the transverse fields of the TEM mode must satisfy
Laplace’s equation with boundary conditions defined by the conductor geometry of the
guiding structure, just like the static fields which would exist on the guiding structure for f =
0. Thus, the TEM transverse field vectors e( x,y) and h( x,y) are identical to the static fields
for the transmission line. This allows us to solve for the static fields of a given guiding
structure geometry (Laplace’s equation) to determine the fields of the TEM mode.

TE Modes:

The transverse fields of TE modes are found by simplifying the general guided wave
equations in (9.38) with Ez = 0. The resulting transverse fields for TE modes are
+,• ¢
â −
-% ¢
(9.39 a)
+,• ¢
- % ¢â
(9.39 b)
u+y ¢
úâ
- % ¢â
(9.39 c)
u+y ¢
ú
-% ¢
(9.39 d)

The cutoff wavenumber kc must be non-zero to yield bounded solutions for the transverse
field components of TE modes. This means that we must operate the guiding structure above
the corresponding cutoff frequency for the particular TE mode to propagate. Note that all of
the transverse field components of the TE modes can be determined once the single
longitudinal component (Hz) is found. The longitudinal field component Hz must satisfy the

@ úD @ úD @ úD
wave equation so that

+ + + ú 0
@ê @ç @
@ úD @ úD
+ −B ú + ú 0
@ê @ç
@ úD @ úD
+ + 3ú 0
@ê @ç
Given the basic form of the guided wave magnetic field

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ú (ê, ç, ) [ℎ(ê, ç) + ℎ (ê, ç)6 Ý* u+y

ú (ê, ç, ) ℎ (ê, ç)* u+y

@ ℎD (ê, ç) @ ℎD (ê, ç)
we may write

+ + 3ℎ (ê, ç) 0
@ê @ç

The equation above represents a reduced Helmholtz equation which can be solved for hz(x,y)
based on the boundary conditions of the guiding structure geometry. Once hz(x,y) is found,
the longitudinal magnetic field is known, and all of the transverse field components are found
by evaluating the derivatives in Equation (9.39).

− 0= I
The wave impedance for TE modes is found from Equation (9.39):
·ô
â
ú úâ B B

Note that the TE wave impedance is a function of frequency.

TM Modes

The transverse fields of TM modes are found by simplifying the general guided wave
equations in (9.38) with Hz = 0. The resulting transverse fields for TM modes are
+y ¢ €
â − -%
¢â
(9.40 a)
+y ¢
− -% ¢
(9.40 b)
+, ¢
úâ -% ¢
(9.40 c)
+, ¢
ú − - % ¢â
(9.40 d)

The cutoff wavenumber kc must also be non-zero to yield bounded solutions for the transverse
field components of TM modes so that we must operate the guiding structure above the
corresponding cutoff frequency for the particular TMmode to propagate. Note that all of the
transverse field components of the TMmodes can be determined once the single longitudinal
component (Ez) is found. The longitudinal field component Ez must satisfy the wave equation

@ D @ D @ D
so that

+ + + 0
@ê @ç @
@ D @ D
+ −B + 0
@ê @ç
@ D @ D
+ + 3 0
@ê @ç

(ê, ç, ) [*(ê, ç) + * (ê, ç)6 Ý* u+y

Given the basic form of the guided wave electric field

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(ê, ç, ) * (ê, ç)* u+y

@ *D (ê, ç) @ *D (ê, ç)
We may write it as:

+ + 3* (ê, ç) 0
@ê @ç

The equation above represents a reduced Helmholtz equation which can be solved for ez(x,y)
based on the boundary conditions of the guiding structure geometry. Once ez(x,y) is found,
the longitudinal magnetic field is known, and all of the transverse field components are found
by evaluating the derivatives in Equation (9.40).

The wave impedance for TM modes is found from Equation (9.40):

− B BI
·ôõ
â
ú úâ 0„

Note that the TM wave impedance is also a function of frequency.

9.16 SUMMARY

In the present unit, you have studied about transmission line and waveguide. Along this you
have also studied, the distributed constants and application of transmission lines. You have
seenthe Transmission line, general solution & the infinite line. Wavelength, velocity of
propagation and the distortion less line, reflection coefficienthave been discussed in detail.
Waveguide and mode of propagation have been also discussed in detail. To present the clear
understanding and to make the concepts of the unit clear, many solved examples are given in
the unit. To check your progress, terminal questions are given place to place.

9.17 GLOSSARY

Waveguide A metal tube or other device confining and conveying microwaves

Mode When light travels in a waveguide, we can have electromagnetic field pattern
that does not change as a function of distance.
Propagation loss The loss in power as an optical wave travels in space.
Waveguide loss The optical propagation loss in an optical waveguide. Typically expressed in
dB/cm
Transmission line Conductor for transmitting electrical or optical signals or electric power.
Decibel Logarithmic measure of power.

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Attenuation The magnitude of ratio between input and output quantities of the network.
constant (α)
Cutoff frequency Frequency at which the network changes from a pass band region to a stop band
region or vice versa

9.18 REFERENCES

1. Transmission and Wave guide, IGNOU, New Delhi

2. Transmission Lines And Waveguide, A.V.Bakshi U.A.Bakshi,Technical Publication
3. Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, Y.M. Reddy, Orient Blackswan
Private Limited - New Delhi
4. Transmission Lines & Waveguide, Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education

9.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Modern Physics, Beiser, Tata McGraw Hill
2. Transmission Lines And Waveguide, A.V.Bakshi U.A.Bakshi,Technical Publication
3. Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, Y.M. Reddy, Orient Blackswan
Private Limited - New Delhi
4. Transmission Lines & Waveguide, Ganesan, Tata McGraw-Hill Education
5. E.C.Jordan and K.G.Balmain, “Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems”,
Prentice Hall of Inda 2006
6. G.S.N. Raju, “Electromagnetic Field Theory and Transmission Lines”, Pearson
Education First Edition 2005

9.20 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Short Answer type

1. What do you mean by Characteristic Impedance?

2.Define the line parameters of a transmission line.
3. Why the line parameters are called distributed elements?
4. What do you mean by propagation constant?
5. What is a distortion less line?
6. What is the condition for the distortion less line?
7. What do you understand by loading?
8. Define Reflection coefficient?
9. What is called dominant mode?

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10. What is called cutoff frequency?

11. Distinguish between TE and TM waves.
12. Define resonant cavity?
13. Define the quality factor of the cavity resonator?
14. What is dominant mode? Name the dominant mode in TE and TM waves?

Long Answer type

1. Derive the general transmission line equations for voltage and current at any point on a
line.
2.Derive an expression for the attenuation constant and phase constant of a transmission line
in terms of the line constants R, L, G and C.
3.Derive the conditions required for a distortion less line.
4. Derive the expressions for the field components of TEM waves between parallel planes.
Discuss the properties of TEM waves.
5. Distinguish between the characteristics of TE and TM waves.
6. What is meant by cavity resonator? Derive the expression for the resonant frequency of the
rectangular cavity resonator?
7. Derive the expression for the resonant frequency of the circular cavity resonator?

Numerical type

1. A line has the following primary constants: R = 100 Ω/km, L = 0.001 H/km, G = 1.5
μmho/km, C = 0.062 μF/km.
Find the characteristic impedance, propagation constant, velocity of propagation and
wavelength.

2. A generator of 1V, 1 kHz supplies power to a 100 km open wire line terminated in 200 Ω
resistance. The line parameters are R = 10 Ω/km, L = 3.8 mH/km, G = 1x10-6 mho/km, C =
0.0085 μF/km. Calculate the input impedance, reflection coefficient, the input power, and the
output power.

3. For a frequency of 15 GHz and plane separation of 8 cm in air, find the following for TM1
mode.

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a) Cut-off wavelength
b) Characteristic impedance
c) Phase constant

4. For a frequency of 20 GHz and plane separation of 5cm in air, find the following:
a) Cu-off wavelength
b) Phase velocity
c) Group velocity

Multiple choice type questions

1. The waveguide is employed in the transmission lines, when operated at the range of:
a) Hz
b) KHz
c) MHz
d) GHz

2. The cut off frequency for a waveguide to operate is:

a. 3 MHz
b. 3 GHz
c. 6 MHz
d. 6 GHz

3. In rectangular waveguides, the dimensions a and b represent the:

a. Broad wall dimensions
b. Broad wall and side wall dimension respectively
c. Side wall and broad wall dimension respectively
d. Side wall dimensions

4. When electromagnetic waves are propagated in a waveguide:

a. they travel along a broader walls of the guide
b. they are reflected from the walls but do not travel along them
c. they travel through the dielectric without touching the walls
d. they travel along all four walls of the waveguide

5. Waveguides are used mainly for microwave signals because:

a. they depend on straight-line propagation which applies to microwaves only
b. losses would be too heavy at lower frequencies
c. there are no generators powerful enough to excite them at lower frequencies
d. they would be too bulky at lower frequencies

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6. The wavelength of a wave in a waveguide

a. is greater than of free space
b. depends only on the waveguide dimensions and the free-space wavelength
c. is inversely proportional to the phase velocity
d. is directly proportional to the group velocity

7. The main difference between the operation of transmission lines and waveguides is
that
a. the latter are not distributed, like transmission lines
b. the former can use stubs and quarter-wave transformers, unlike the latter
c. transmission lines use the principal mode of propagation, and therefore do not suffer from
low-frequency cut-off
d. terms such as impedance matching and standing-wave ratio cannot be applied to
waveguides

8. When a particular mode is excited in a waveguide, three appears an extra electric

component, in the direction of propagation. The resulting mode is
a. transverse-electric
b. transverse-magnetic
c. longitudinal
d. transverse-electromagnetic

9. A signal propagation in a waveguide has a full wave of electric intensity change

between the two further walls, and no component of the electric field in the direction of
propagation. The mode is
a. TE1,1
b. TE1,0
c. TM2,2
d. TE2,0

Answer: 1: d, 2: d, 3: b, 4: b, 5: d, 6: a, 7: c, 8: b, 9: d

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