Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

EXERCISE 1
STUDY OF OSTEOLOGY OF
FROG: DISARTICULATED
SKELETON

Structure
1.1 Introduction Features of Eighth Vertebra
Objectives Features of Ninth Vertebra
1.2 Material Required Features of Urostyle
1.3 Study Guide 1.7 Features of Sternum and
1.4 Study of Framework of Ribs
Skeleton of Frog 1.8 Study of Girdles
1.5 Study of Frog Skull Features of Pectoral Girdle
Features of Identification of Skull Features of Pelvic Girdle
at Level of Class Amphibia 1.9 Study of Limbs of Frog
Features of Skull and Jaw Study of Forelimb of Frog
Bones of Frog
Study of Hind Limb Bones of
1.6 Study of Vertebrae Frog
Features of Atlas Vertebra 1.10 Terminal Questions
Features of Typical Vertebrae
(Second to Seventh)

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The skeleton forms the frame-work of the animal body, and so is extremely
important for the organism as you have read earlier in the Zoology theory
courses BZYCT-131 and BZYCT-133. As you will recall from the earlier units
the skeleton may be: 1) an external skeleton as found in a number of non-
chordates, especially in the insect group of Phylum Arthropoda; or 2) an
internal skeleton which is found in all chordates and forms an internal
framework of cartilages and bones. This skeleton is also referred to as
endoskeleton. You will also recall from the earlier courses that the absence or
presence of the endoskeleton in animals has been used to divide them into
two distinct divisions of the animal kingdom: i) the non -chordates in which the
endoskeleton is absent, and ii) the chordates in which the notochord which is a
part of the endoskeleton is present. 5
BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

In this laboratory exercise you will study the skeletal system of a frog
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (synonym-Rana tigrina) which belongs to Class
Amphibia of Phylum chordata (vertebrates).You will realize when you
undertake this laboratory exercise that the skeleton of frog is similar to
members of other classes of amniotic vertebrates and so a detailed study of
the skeleton of frog will enable you to become familiar to some extent with the
skeletal system of other amniotic vertebrates.

Objectives
After completing this laboratory exercise you will be able to:

Identify and distinguish the bones present in both dorsal and ventral
parts of the articulated skull of frog;

draw the labelled diagrams of the articulated skull of frog in dorsal and
ventral view;

identify, distinguish and draw labelled diagrams of the disarticulated

bones of the vertebral column and appendicular skeleton of frog;

describe and mention special features if any of each bone and explain
the interrelationship of bones of the girdles and limbs of frog; and

explain the interrelationships of the fore and hind-limb bones in frog.

1.2 MATERIAL REQUIRED

1. Laboratory manual of the laboratory course BZYCL-134,

2. Complete articulated skeleton of frog,

3. Dorsal and ventral parts of the skull of frog,

4. Disarticulated vertebral of the vertebral column of frog,

5. Disarticulated bones of appendicular skeleton of frog,

6. Pen, pencil, sharpener, eraser and measuring scale,

7. Hand lens,

8. Notebook.

1.3 STUDY GUIDE

In order to perform your experiments satisfactorily you should go through
Unit-2 (Skeletal system) of the theory course BZYCT-133: “Comparative
Anatomy and Developmental Biology of Vertebrates”, before coming to the
lab. You should also read in advance the present laboratory exercises given in
the lab manual of the course BZYL-134.

In the lab present exercise you will study the salient morphological features of
the skeleton of frog by observing:

1. the articulated or composite skull of frog in both dorsal and ventral view;

6 2. disarticulated vertebral bones of the vertebral column of frog;

Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

3. the disarticulated bones of the appendicular skeleton of frog; and

4. you are also expected to draw in your practical file the labelled diagrams
of the various skeletal structures of the frog which you have studied
during the course of this lab exercise. You are required to consult the
Laboratory manual while doing your lab exercise.

1.4 STUDY OF FRAMEWORK OF SKELETON OF

FROG
The endoskeleton of frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, (synonym: Rana
tigrina) commonly known as the Indus Valley bullfrog or Indian
bullfrog, or Asia bullfrog is made partly of cartilage and partly of bones. In
tadpole, the skeleton is solely cartilaginous, but in the adult frog it is largely
replaced by bones called cartilage bones. In some parts of the body where no
cartilage was present in the larval stage, certain bones develop from the
dermis which are called membrane bones.

The frog is specialized for jumping and swimming, due to which its vertebral
column has lost its flexibility and together with the enlarged pelvic girdle has
become a rigid frame for transmitting force from hind limbs to the body.

We will begin this exercise by studying with the help of figure 1.1 the complete
articulated skeleton of a frog which will provide you with the location and
arrangement of the axial and appendicular bones of the skeleton of frog.

For this study, observe the dorsal view of the articulated skeleton of frog and
compare it with the given Fig 1.1. Note the complete skeleton of frog with the
various skeletal components. Start from the anterior end, note and list the
various parts of the frog skeleton in sequence.

Note the single, composite skull structure and the main bones present in it.
Observe also the single vertebral column which encloses the spinal cord and
is formed of several small bones the vertebrae (sing: vertebra). Observe the
paired forelimbs and the pectoral girdle with which the humerus bones of the
upper arm of the forelimbs articulates. Note also the paired hindlimb. Also note
the pelvic girdle and its articulation with the head of femur which is the upper
bone of the hindlimb. Observe the structural plan of the forelimb and hindlimb
bones of the frog skeleton that constitute part of the appendicular skeleton.

The skeleton of frog shows that it is a tetrapod and that it can be divided into
two parts the:

(1) Axial skeleton which comprises of: i) bones of the head (skull); and
ii) bones of the trunk, which include the vertebral column, and thorax;
and

(2) Appendicular skeleton which comprises: i) the bones of the paired

limbs, namely the forelimbs and the hind limbs; and ii) the pectoral
(shoulder) and pelvic girdles. 7
BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

In your notebook draw a well labeled diagram of the skeleton of frog.

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 1.1: a) Photograph of frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, and complete skeleton

of frog; b) Dorsal view; and c) Lateral view.

1.5 STUDY OF FROG SKULL

You will recall from the theory course BZYCT-131, that the skull of vertebrates
(chordates) is used for identification of members of different classes.

The main differentiating features used in identification of the skull of different

classes of vertebrate animal consists of the cranium, sensory capsules,
8 foramen magnum and jaws as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

VERTEBRATE SKULL FEATURES

1. Monocondylic 2. Dicondylic

single occipital condyle Double occipital condyle

Class: Reptilia Class: Aves

1. Secondary palate absent. 1. Secondary palate present

2. Teeth present in most cases. 2. Teeth absent.

(Lizard, Crocodile, etc.) (Pigeon, Duck, etc.)

Class: Amphibia Class: Mammalia

1. Tympanic bulla is absent. 1. Tympanic bulla is present.

2. Absence of supra and basioccipital 2. Presence of supra and

bones basioccipital.

3. Dentition absent in toad or as in frog homodont; 3. Dentition thecodont, and with

heterodont teeth on premaxilla,
maxilla and vomer.
Fig. 1.2: A chart listing the differentiating features of skull of different vertebrate classes for
ready identification.

1.5.1 Features for Identification of Skull at Level of

Class Amphibia

1. Ossification incomplete. Cranium bony.

2. Skull triangular.

3. Two occipital condyles present.

4. Supra or basioccipital bones are absent.

5. Quadrate and jugal bones are fused.

6. Frontal and parietal bones are fused.

7. An unpaired sphenethmoid is present.

8. Parasphenoid dagger-shaped, located on the floor and the ends of the

handles reach the pro-otics.

9. Squamosal bone is hammer-shaped.

1.5.2 Features of Skull and Jaw Bones of Frog 9

BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

The skull and jaws of frogs serve to protect the brain and the special sense
organs. Observe the skull bones carefully by comparing them with those
shown in Fig. 1.3 a & Fig. 1.3 b.

1. Skull is formed mostly of bony tissues but tadpole skull is cartilaginous.

2. Skull consists of cranium, sense capsules, jaws and hyoid apparatus.

3. The frog skull includes three regions i.e. cranium (brain box), sense
capsules and jaws.

4. The skull is divided into auditory, olfactory and occipital regions.

5. The ethmoidal region is absent.

6. In frog the skull is triangular in shape, broad and dorsoventrally flattened.

7. The front part of the cranium which houses the eyes, nose and the brain
is much better developed whereas the back portion is much reduced.

8. The neurocranium or simply called cranium or brain box which encloses

the brain is much smaller than the mammals due to the smaller size of
brain.

9. The dorsal part of the cranium is formed by the frontoparietal bone. The
ventral part of the cranium is formed by the parasphenoid bone while the
lateral sides are formed by paired sphenethmoid bones.

10. Floor of cranium is formed by paraphenoid bones and the roof by

frontopareital bones.

11. Posterior most part of the cranium is the occipital segment, and is mainly
made up of a pair of occipital condyles called exoccipitals on the lateral
side which enclose posteriorly an opening called foramen magnum.
The frog skull is thus, dicondylic skull due to the presence of paired
occipital condyles.

12. The interorbital septum is absent in the skull so the cranium extends
beyond the eye orbits.

13. The paired eye orbits are dorsally placed and they are not fused with the
skull.

14. A pair of olfactory capsules is present. The olfactory capsules are

separated, from each other by the mesethmoid both. Each capsule is
formed by a large triangular nasal bone on the dorsal side and smaller
triradiate vomer bones on the ventral side. The vomers possess
vomerine teeth.

15. Paired auditory capsules are present, each enclosing an internal ear.
The anterior wall and partly the roof and floor of each auditory capsule
is formed by the irregular cartilage pro-otic bone and squamosal.

16. Branchial arches are absent in the skull.

10
Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

17. The upper and lower jaws are present which support the borders of the
mouth.

18. The upper jaw is formed by union of two similar halves. Each half is
formed by the pre-maxilla, maxilla and quadratojugal bones. The
inner set of the jaw has palatine, pterygoid and squamosal bones.

19. The maxilla bones of the upper jaw is provided along its whole length
with numerous sharp, pointed and backwardly directed conical teeth
(homodont dentition).

20. The lower jaw or mandible consists of two halves which are united
anteriorly by mento-meckelian cartilage. Each half of the lower jaw
consists of a core of Meckel's cartilage surrounded by three bones i.e.
Mentomeckelian, angulosplenial and dentary.

21. The lower jaw on mandible is devoid of teeth.

22. Jaw suspensorium is autostylic, in which the lower jaw is attached to

skull through a rod like cartilaginous quadrate bone

(a)

(b)
Fig. 1.3: Structure of frog skull: a) dorsal view; and b) ventral view. 11
BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

1.6 STUDY OF VERTEBRAE

The vertebral column of frog is remarkable for its extreme shortness due to its
inflexibility and the absence of tail. It consists of only nine vertebrae, the last
one followed by a slender bony rod, the urostyle. The 1st, 8th and 9th vertebrae
are not typical and also differ from each other. The first vertebra that
articulates at its proximal end with skull is termed as the Atlas vertebra
(Fig1.4). The 2nd to 7th vertebrae (Fig 1.5) have similar structure and hence
are called as typical vertebrae. Let us first study the vertebrae of the frog in a
sequential manner.

Hold the vertebra in hand one by one and verify the features as described
below. You can use a hand lens for studying finer details.

1.6.1 Features of Atlas Vertebra

1. The atlas vertebra (Fig. 1.4) is the first vertebra of the vertebral column.
It is simply in the form of a bony ring in which the centrum and neural
spines are reduced.

2. The transverse processes and prezygapophyses are absent.

3. Anteriorly the centrum has a pair of large concave facets in order to

articulate proximally with the occiptal condyles of the skull.

4. Postzygapophyses are present on the posterior margins of the neural

arch.

Fig. 1.4: Atlas vertebra of frog: a) dorsal view; and b) ventral view.

1.6.2 Features of Typical Vertebrae (Second to Seventh)

1. The structure of 2nd to the 7th vertebrae of frogs is similar or typical (Fig.
1.5).

2. Each typical vertebrae has a ring-like form with a large passage called
the neural canal through which the spinal cord passes.

3. In all typical vertebrae, the centrum is procoelus (pro: front, coelous:

cavity) and so its anterior side is concave and the posterior face is
convex (to fit into the concavity of the centrum of the next vertebra).

4. Neural arch is present and bears a small and blunt middorsal neural
12 spine which is directed obliquely backwards.
Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

5. At the base of neural spine on either side the neural arch bears
anteriorly, the upwardly and inwardly directed articular surfaces called
prezygapophyses.

6. The postzygapophyses are present at the posterior margins of the

neural arch and are directed downwards and upwards (to fit into the
prezygapophyses present on the next vertebra).

7. Prominent, tapering processes directed sidewards arise from the neural

arches and are called the transverse processes.

Fig. 1.5: A typical vertebra of the frog posterior view.

8. Now look at the second and fourth vertebra in particular. The second
vertebra (Fig 1.6 a) is like the other typical vertebrae except that its
neural spine is short and conical and its transverse processes are broad
and flat.

9. The fourth vertebra (Fig 1.6 b) is also like all the other typical vertebrae
except that the transverse processes are broader.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.6: a) second vertebra; and b) fourth vertebra.

1.6.3 Features of Eighth Vertebra

(i) The eighth vertebra closely resembles a typical vertebra but its centrum
is amphicoelus or biconcave (Fig. 1.7).

(ii) Its anterior concavity receives the posterior convexity of the 7th vertebra
while its posterior concavity receives the anterior convexity of the 9th
vertebra. 13
BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

Fig. 1.7: Vental view of Eighth vertebra of frog.

1.6.4 Features of Ninth Vertebra

1. The ninth vertebra (Fig. 1.8 a & b) is also called the sacral vertebra and
is different in many respect from the other vertebrae present in the
vertebral column of frog.

2. Its centrum is biconvex and bears one anterior and two posterior
convexities.

3. The two posterior convexities fit into the corresponding two anterior
concavities of the urostyle distally.

4. Large cylindrical and stout transverse processes which are directed

backwards are present on the sacral vertebra.

5. The distal ends of these transverse process support the iliac bones of
the pelvic girdle.

Fig. 1.8: Ninth vertebra of frog: a) dorsal view; and b) ventral view.

1.6.5 Features of Urostyle

1. The urostyle (Gr. Oura,Tail + Stylos, Pillar) (Fig. 1.9) is the posterior,
unsegmented part of the vertebral column representing the fusion of the
caudal vertebrates. It is half of the total length of vertebral column of
frog.

2. The urostyle is somewhat triangular in outline, with a pointed apex

directed backwards.

3. Its centrum is rod-like with a broad anterior face bearing two concavities
14 for articulating proximally with the distal end of the ninth vertebra.
Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

4. The dorsal surface of the urostyle is raised up in the form of a vertical

ridge which gradually tapers posteriorly.

5. The anterior side of the ridge of the urostyle contains a short narrow
neural canal which encloses the terminal part of spinal cord.

Fig. 1.9: Lateral view of Urostyle of frog.

1.7 FEATURES OF STERNUM AND RIBS

1. The sternum (Fig. 1.10) lies in the midventral line and is connected
intimately with the two halves of the pectoral girdle.

2. The sternum provides ventral protection for the heart and lungs and
includes four parts: (a) episternum, (b) omosternum, (c) mesosternum
and (d) xiphisternum.

The episternum is a flat circular and cartilaginous disclike bone, and is

anterior most in position.

The ornosternum is a bony rod that connects the episternum with the
clavicles.

The mesosternum is a cartilaginous rod that projects behind the epicoracoid.

The xiphisternum is thc terminal, broad, cartilaginous plate.

3. Ribs are absent in frogs of family Ranidae both in larva and adults.

Fig. 1.10: Ventral view of sternum and pectoral girdle of frog showing, their
close connection. 15
BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

1.8 STUDY OF GIRDLES

Two girdles are present in the frog skeleton the anterior pectoral girdle and the
posterior pelvic girdle. Let us study their main features.

1.8.1 Features of Pectoral Girdle

1. The pectoral girdle (Fig. 1.11) protects the inner softer parts of the chest
region as there are no ribs. The pectoral girdle also provides support and
attachment to the forelimb bones and muscles.

2. The pectoral girdle is formed of both bones and cartilages.

3. The two similar halves of pectoral girdle are united midventrally with the
sternum but are separated dorsally.

4. Each half is made up of four bones: (a) supra-scapula, (b) scapula, (c)
coracoid and (d) clavicle bones.

5. Supra-scapula is a broad, flat, almost rectangular bone in which the

calcified cartilage is absent from its upper margin.

6. The scapula is a stout, flat bone which is broader towards tail end and is
constricted in the middle.

7. Posteriorly, the scapula forms the upper half of glenoid cavity. The head
of the humerous of the forelimb articulates with glenoid cavity of the
pectoral girdle.

8. The clavicles and coracoids of both sides unite with each other
midventrally and with sternum through a cartilaginous strip called
epicoracoid.

9. The clavicle is a slender rod-like bone separated from the coracoid by a

wide gap called coracoid foramen.

10. A narrow strip of cartilage called the precoracoid, lies attached to each
clavicle posteriorly.

11. The coracoid is a dumb-bell shaped bone with its inner end broader than
the outer end.

12. The outer end of the coracoid forms the lower half of the glenoid cavity
which receives the head of humerus bone of the forelimb.

16 Fig. 1.11: Lateral view of Pectoral girdle of frog.

Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

1.8.2 Features of Pelvic Girdle

1. The frog pelvic girdle is a 'V' shaped structure (Fig. 1.12) present in the
posterior region of the body and is composed of two similar halves. The
pelvic girdle provides support to the pelvic region and the hind limbs.

2. Each half of the pelvic girdle is called as os-innominatum and is

composed of three bones: (a) ilium, (b) ischium and (c) pubis:

3. The long ilium meets with the transverse processes of the ninth vertebra.

4. The two ilia meet posteriorly at an iliac symphysis. The two ilia bear a
prominent, dorsal vertical ridge called the iliac crest.

5. The pubis is much reduced. It is a triangular piece of calcified cartilage

which forms the central disc of pelvic girdle and a small part of the
acetabulum cavity in which the head of femur of the hind limb is lodged.
Both the pubic bones are completely fused together.

6. The two ischia are larger and slightly central oval bones. Both the ischia
fuse in the middle and form one third of the disc and acetabulum.

7. The disc of the pelvic girdle is thus formed by the union of three bones :
ileum, ischium and pubis and contain a cup-shaped cavity called the
acetabulum.

Fig. 1.12: Lateral view of Pelvic girdle of frog.

1.9 STUDY OF LIMBS OF FROG

The limbs of frogs as in most vertebrates form a part of the appendicular
skeleton. The basic plan of the paired anterior forelimbs and the paired
posterior hindlimbs are very similar.

1.9.1 Study of Forelimbs of Frog

The humerus, radio-ulna and hand bones constitute the bones of the forelimb
of each side (Fig. 1.13).

A. FEATURES OF THE HUMERUS BONE (Fig. 1.13 a)

1. It is a short cylindrical bone of the upper arm.

2. The shaft of the humerus is slightly curved. 17

BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

3. At the proximal end the round head of the humerus bone is

present which fits into the glenoid cavity of the pectoral girdle.

4. The head of the humerus is covered by calcified cartilage. A

deltoid ridge for the attachment of muscles is present below the
head of the humerus bone.

5. The distal end of the humerus has a well developed prominent

trochlea or capitulum and a condylar ridge for articulation with
radio-ulna.

B. FEATUERES OF THE RADIO-ULNA BONE (Fig. 1.13 b)

1. The radio-ulna bone forms the lower arm of the forelimb. It is a

compound bone formed by the fusion of two bones namely, radius
and ulna.

2. A concavity is present at the proximal end of the radio-ulna bone to

receive the rounded trochlea of the humerus.

3. The proximal portion of ulna has a projection called the olecranon

process which forms the elbow joint.

4. Distally the division of the radio-ulna into radius and ulna bones is
well marked due to the presence of a groove.

5. Each of these bones of the lower arm terminate distally into a facet
to articulate with the carpal bones of the hand.

(C) FEATURES OF BONES OF THE HAND OF THE FORELIMB

(Fig. 1.13 c)

1. The wrist bones called the carpals are 6 in number and are arranged into
two rows

2. The proximal row of carpals has three carpal bones : radiale,

intermedium and ulnare which articulate at the proximal end with the
distal end of the radio-ulna bone

3. The distal row of carpals is formed of three other bones called

trapezium, trapezoid and capitohematum which articulate distally with
the metacarpal bones.

4. Five, slender, rod-like bones the metacarpals form and support the hand
of frog and articulate proximally with the distal end of the second row of
carpal bone. The first metacarpal bone is rudimentary.

5. There are only four digits in the hand of the frog as the pollex or thumb is
absent

6. All the four digits are internally supported by short rod-like bones called
phalanges.

7. Two phalanges are present in each of the first and second digits and
18 three phalanges are present in each of third and fourth digit.
Exercise 1 Study of Osteology of Frog: Disarticulated Skeleton

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.13: Forelimb bones of frog: a) anterior and posterior view of the humerus
bone of the upper arm; b) Radio-ulna of the lower arm of the forelimb;
and c) bones of hand.

1.9.2 Study of Hind Limb Bones of Frog

Femur, tibio-fibula, astragalus-calcaneum and foot bones constitute the hind
limb of the frog (Fig. 1.14).

(A) FEATURES OF THE FEMUR BONE (Fig. 1.14a)

1. Femur or the thigh bone is the first bone of the hindlimb.

2. It has a slightly curved shaft and has expanded ends that are
covered by calcified cartilage.

3. The proximal end of the femur has a rounded head which

articulates with acetabular cavity of pelvic girdle.

4. The distal end of the femur articulates with the proximal end of the
tibio-fibula which is the shank bone and forms the lower part of the
hind limb.

(B) FEATURES OF TIBIO-FIBULA (Fig. 1.14b)

1. This is a large compound bone of the shank, and is the longest

bone in the frog skeleton.

2. Its shaft is slightly curved while the two ends are expanded and
are covered by cartilage.

3. As indicated by the median longitudinal groove, this bone is made

up of two bones i.e. inner tibia and outer fibula.

4. The proximal end of tibia contains a tibial crest.

5. The tibio- fibula bone articulates proximally with femur and distally
with astragalus calcaneum.

(C) FEATURES OF TARSAL BONES: ASTRAGALUS-CALCANEUM

(Fig. 1.14 c)

(i) Astragalus and calcaneum together constitute a compound tarsal

bone. 19
BZYCL-134 Laboratory of Comparative Anatomy and Development Biology of Vertebrates

(ii) The astragalus-calcaneum tarsal bones are greatly elongated and

represent two rows of tarsals that are fused together at proximal
and distal ends but have a wide gap at the middle.

(iii) The outer thicker and straight bone is called calcaneum while the
inner, thinner and slightly curved bone is the astragalus (or tibiale).

(iv) Both ends of the astragalus-calcaneum tarsal bone are covered by

epiphysis or calcified cartilage.

(v) The distal row of tarsals bears two very small tarsal bones.

(D) FEATURES OF BONES OF FOOT (Fig. 1.14d)

(i) The foot of frog is supported by five long slender metatarsals.

(ii) These metatarsals have 5 true digits (toes) and in addition a very
small pre-axial sixth toe, which is present on the inner side of the
1st toe or hallux.

(iii) This supplementary small pre-axial sixth toe is called calcar or

prehallux or false toe. It is made of 2-3 small bones and does not
project from the foot.

(iv) The true toes have 2, 2, 3, 4 and 3 phalanges respectively.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1.14: Hind limb bones of frog: a) Femur bone; b) Tibio-fibula bone;
c) Astragalus-calcancum and d) bones of foot.

1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the Urostyle?

2. What is very peculiar in the following?

i) Ninth vertebra of frog.

ii) Ribs of frog.

20