LIST OF PRACTICALS

CLASS – X
FIRST TERM

1. To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator :

* Dilute Hydrochloric acid
* Dilute NaOH solution
* Dilute ethanoic acid solution
* Lemon juice
* Water
* Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution.

2. To study the properties of acids and bases HCl & NaOH by their reaction with :
* Litmus solution (Blue/Red)
* Zinc metal
* Solid sodium carbonate.

3. To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current
(I) passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

4. To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

5. To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

6. To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

7. To show experimentally that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

8. To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

9. To perform and observe the following reactions and classify them into Combination
reaction, Decomposition reaction, Displacement reaction and Double displacement
reaction :
* Action of water on Quick lime.
* Action of heat on Ferrous sulphate crystals.
* Iron nails kept in Copper sulphate solution.
* Reaction between Sodium sulphate and Barium chloride solutions.

10. (a) To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt
solutions : *ZnSO4 (aq.) *FeSO4 (aq.) *CuSO4 (aq.) *Al2(SO4)3 (aq.)
(b) Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing order of reactivity
based on the above result.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 01

Aim : To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator.

 Dilute hydrochloric acid solution (HCl)
 Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)
 Dilute ethanoic acid solution (CH3COOH)
 Lemon juice
 Water (H2O)
 Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution (NaHCO3)
Materials required : Dilute HCl, Dilute NaOH, Dilute CH3COOH, Lemon juice, Distilled water,
Dilute NaHCO3 solution, pH paper, Standard colour chart, Dropper or Glass rod, Glazed tile etc.

Theory :
 The nature of a solution (acidity or basicity) is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions
[H+] or hydroxide ions [OH-] in aqueous solutions.
 If a solution has more hydrogen ions in it, it is said to be acidic and if a solution has more
hydroxide ions in it, it is said to be basic.
 The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion
concentration in moles per litre.
pH = - log10[H+]
 A neutral solution has pH value 7, an acidic solution has pH less than 7 and a basic solution has
pH more than 7.
 The pH of a solution increases as the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] decreases and the pH of
a solution decreases as the concentration of the [H+] increases.
 pH scale is a scale used to determine the pH of a solution. It has a range from 0 to 14.
 The pH of a solution can be determined by using a pH paper or an indicator called universal
indicator.
Procedure :
 Take six strips of pH paper and place them on a glazed tile.
 Take the test solutions in separate test tubes and label the test tubes.
 Put a drop of the test solution with a fine dropper or a glass rod on one strip of the pH paper and
note the colour produced.
 Compare the colour produced and match it with the colour in the standard colour chart and note
its pH value.
 Similarly determine the pH value of the other solutions.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Sample solution Colour produced on Approximate pH Inference
No. pH paper
1 Dilute HCl
2 Dilute NaOH
3 Dilute ethanoic acid
4 Lemon juice
5 Distilled water
6 Dilute NaHCO3
Result :
Samples which are acidic in nature are -
Samples which are basic in nature are -
Sample which is neutral is –
Precautions :
 Match the colours carefully with the standard colour chart.
 pH paper should be handled with clean dry hands.
 Wash the fine dropper or glass rod every time after use.
pH scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

pH
Neutral
Increasing acidic nature Increasing basic nature

Increase in [H+] ion concentration Decrease in [H+] ion concentration

Decrease in [OH-] ion concentration Increase in [OH-] ion concentration

Colours of pH paper/universal indicator at different pH Values

pH Colour
3.0 Red
5.0 Orange red
5.5 Orange
6.0 Orange yellow
7.0 – 7.5 Greenish yellow
8.0 Green
9.5 Blue
10.0 Violet
10.5 Reddish violet
11.0 Deep reddish violet
Approximate pH of some common substances
Substance pH
Hydrochloric acid 1.0
Sulphuric acid 1.2
Lemon juice 2.2
Vinegar (dil. Acetic acid) 3.0
Orange juice 3.5
Tomato juice 4.2
Human urine 5.5 – 7.5
Milk 6.6
Pure water 7.0
Human blood 7.4
Sodium bicarbonate 8.5
Milk of magnesia 10.0
Sodium hydroxide 13.0
 EXPERIMENT No. - 02

Aim : To study the properties of acids and bases (dil. HCl and dil. NaOH) by their reactions with
 Litmus solution (blue and red).
 Zinc metal.
 Solid sodium carbonate.

Materials required : dil. HCl, dil. NaOH, Litmus solutions blue and red, Zinc granules, solid
Sodium carbonate, Lime water, Test tubes, Test tube holder, Test tube stand, Bunsen burner etc.

Theory for properties of dil. HCl :

 Acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions H+ when dissolved in water.
E.g. - HCl  H+ + Cl-
 HCl is an acid and it turns blue litmus to red.
 HCl reacts with zinc metal to form zinc chloride and hydrogen. The hydrogen burns with a pop
sound.
Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
H2 + O2  H2O
 HCl reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium chloride, water and carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide turns milky lime water into colourless solution.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
Lime water

Procedure :
 Take some dil. HCl in two test tubes. Add a few drops of blue litmus solution in one test tube
and a few drops of red litmus solution in the other test tube and observe the changes.
 Take some Zinc granules in a test tube and some dil. HCl into it and observe the change. Test
the gas with a burning splinter.
 Take some solid sodium carbonate in a test tube. Add some dil. HCl to it. Observe the change.
Pass the gas into some Lime water and observe the change.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Experiment Observations Inference
No.
1 Test with litmus solutions HCl turns blue litmus to HCl is acidic in nature.
blue and red. red.
Gas bubbles are formed The gas produced is
2 Reaction with Zinc granules. and the gas burns with a hydrogen.
pop sound. Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
Gas bubbles are produced The gas produced is carbon
3 Reaction with solid sodium and the gas turns dioxide. Na2CO3 + 2HCl 
carbonate limewater into milky 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
solution.
Theory for properties of dil. NaOH :
 Bases are substances which produce hydroxide ions OH- when dissolved in water.
Eg- NaOH  Na+ + OH-
 NaOH is a base and it turns red litmus to blue.
 NaOH reacts with Zinc metal to form sodium zincate and hydrogen. The hydrogen burns with
a pop sound. NaOH + Zn  Na2ZnO2 + H2
 NaOH does not react with sodium carbonate because both are basic in nature.

Procedure :
 Take some dil. NaOH in two test tubes. Add a few drops of blue litmus solution in one test tube
and a few drops of red litmus solution in the other test tube and observe the changes.
 Take some Zinc granules in a test tube and some dil. NaOH into it and observe the change. Test
the gas with a burning splinter.
 Take some solid Sodium carbonate in a test tube. Add some dil. NaOH to it. Observe the
change.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Experiment Observations Inference
No.
1 Test with litmus solutions NaOH turns red litmus to NaOH is basic in nature.
blue and red. blue.
Gas bubbles are formed The gas produced is hydrogen.
2 Reaction with zinc granules. and the gas burns with a Zn + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 +
pop sound. H2
Both NaOH and Na2CO3 are
3 Reaction with solid Sodium No reaction. alkali so they do not react but
carbonate. forms an alkaline solution.

Precautions :
 Use test tube holders while adding NaOH and HCl into the test tubes.
 Take small quantities of Zn, HCl and NaOH for their reactions otherwise large amount of
produced H2 may cause explosion.
 NaOH and HCl are injurious and they should be handled carefully.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 03

Aim : To study the dependence of current (I) on the potential difference (V) across a resistor and to
determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

Materials required : An unknown resistance, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Plug key, Rheostat, Battery,
connecting wires etc.
Theory : Electric current is expressed as the rate of flow of charges through a conductor or the
quantity of charges flowing through a conductor in unit time. I =Q/t
 The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
 The SI unit of current is called ampere (A). Current is measured by an Ammeter. Ammeter
should be connected in series in a circuit.
 The potential difference between two points of a conductor is the amount of work done to move
a unit positive charge between the two points of the conductor.
Potential difference = Work done/Charge i.e. V = W/Q
The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V). Potential difference is measured by a Voltmeter.
Voltmeter should be connected in parallel across the resistor.
 The resistance of a conductor is the property by which it opposes the flow of current through it.
Resistance = Potential difference/Current i.e. R = V/I
The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).
 Ohms’s law gives the relationship between current and potential difference.
Ohms’s law states that at constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends i.e.
I α V or, V α I
V = IR or, V/I = R
Where R is a constant called the ‘Resistance’ of the conductor.
 If a graph is drawn between the potential difference (V) and the corresponding current (I), the
graph is found to be a straight line passing from the origin. This is in accordance with Ohm’s
law which states that V α I.
Procedure :
 Connect the components in the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram keeping the key open.
The voltmeter should be connected in parallel across the resistor.
 Plug the key and slide the rheostat to the maximum resistance. The ammeter and voltmeter
reading will be at the minimum in this position.
 Then slide the rheostat for a minimum reading in the ammeter say 0.1A and note the current I
and voltage V. Adjust the rheostat to increase the current to 0.2A, 0.3A, 0.4A, 0.5A and 0.6A
and record the I and V readings in the table.
 Plot a graph between the voltage and current with voltage on Y - axis and current on X - axis.
Observations and calculations :
Sl. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading Resistance Mean resistance
No. (I) (V) (R = V / I) (Rm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Inferences :
 The graph between potential difference and current is a straight line passing through the
origin showing that V α I.
 The ratio of V / I is constant and is the resistance of the resistor.
 The resistance of the resistor R = …… Ω.

Precautions :
 All connections should be tight.
 Current should not be allowed to flow for a long time otherwise the resistance wire becomes hot
and increases the resistance.
 The battery and meters should be connected with proper polarity.

Battery
+ _ Key
﴾ ﴿
Rheostat
+
A
_ R

+ _
V

Fig : Circuit diagram for verification of Ohm’s law

 EXPERIMENT No. - 04

Aim : To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series.

Materials required : Two resistors of unknown resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Plug key,
Rheostat, Battery, Connecting wires etc.

Theory : Resistors are said to be connected in series if they are connected end to end.
When resistors are connected in series :
 The current in all the resistors is the same.
 The total voltage (P.D.) across the resistors is equal to the sum of the voltage across each
resistor i.e. V = V1 + V2 + V3 . . . . . .
 The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is the sum of the resistances of each
resistor i.e. RS = R1 + R2 + R3 . . . . .
Procedure :
 Determine the resistance of each resistor by Ohm’s law method.
 Connect the two resistors R1 and R2 in series as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Plug the key and slide the rheostat to the maximum resistance. The ammeter and voltmeter
reading will be minimum in this position.
 Then slide the rheostat for a minimum reading in the ammeter say 0.1A and note the current I
and voltage V. Adjust the rheostat to increase the current to 0.2A, 0.3A and record the I and
V readings in the table.
Observations and calculations :
 For resistance R1 :
Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance Mean resistance
No reading reading (R = V/I) (R1)
. (I) (V)
1
2
3

 For resistance R2 :
Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance Mean
No. reading reading (R = V/I) resistance
(I) (V) (R2)
1
2
3

 For series connection of resistances R1 and R2 :

Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance Mean
No. reading reading (R = V/I) resistance
(I) (V) (RS)
1
2
3
Result :
Experimental value of Rs = …… Ω.
Value of Rs by calculation, Rs = R1 + R2 = …… Ω.

Precautions :
 All connections should be tight.
 Current should not be allowed to flow for a long time otherwise the resistance wire becomes hot
and increases the resistance.
 The battery and meters should be connected with proper polarity.

Battery
+ _ Key
﴾ ﴿
Rheostat
+
A
_
R1 R2

_
+ V

Fig : Circuit diagram for series connection of two resistors

 EXPERIMENT No. – 05

Aim : To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel.

Materials required : Two resistors of unknown resistances, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Plug key,
Rheostat, Battery, Connecting wires etc.

Theory : Resistors are said to be connected in parallel if one end of each resistor is connected to a
first common point and the other end of each resistor is connected to another common point.
When resistors are connected in parallel :
 The potential difference (V) across each resistor is the same.
 The total current in all the resistors is the sum of the current in each resistor.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 . . .
 The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of each resistor.
1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ….
Procedure :
 Determine the resistance of each resistor by Ohm’s law method.
 Connect the two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Plug the key and slide the rheostat to the maximum resistance. The ammeter and voltmeter
reading will be at the minimum in this position.
 Then slide the rheostat for a minimum reading in the ammeter say 0.1A and note the current I
and voltage V. Adjust the rheostat to increase the current to 0.2A, 0.3A and record the I and
V readings in the table.

Observations and calculations :

 For resistance R1 :
Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance Mean
No. reading reading (R = V/I) resistance
(I) (V) (R1)
1
2
3
 For resistance R2 :

Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance Mean

No. reading reading (R = V/I) resistance
(I) (V) (R2)
1
2
3

 For parallel connection of resistances R1 and R2 :

Sl. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance Mean

No. reading reading (R = V/I) resistance
 (I) (V) (Rp)
1
2
3

Result :
Experimental value of Rp = …. Ω.
Value of Rp by calculation, 1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 or, RP = R1R2/(R1+R2) = ….. Ω.

Precautions :
 All connections should be tight.
 Current should not be allowed to flow for a long time otherwise the resistance wire becomes hot
and increases the resistance.
 The battery and meters should be connected with proper polarity.

Battery
+ _ Key
﴾ ﴿ Rheostat

+
A R1
_

R2

+ V _

Fig : Circuit diagram for parallel connection of two resistors

 EXPERIMENT No. – 06

Aim : To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

Materials required : Fresh leaves of plant, Compound microscope, Glass slides, Cover slips,
Water, Glycerin, Safranine, Blotting paper, Needles, Brush etc.

Theory :
 Stomata are minute pore present on the surface of the leaves.
 Though they are found on both the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf, they are more in
number on the lower epidermis.
 Each stoma has two bean shaped cells called guard cells surrounded by epidermal cells.
 Each guard cell has a nucleus and a number of chloroplasts. The inner wall of the guard cell is
thicker than the outer wall.
 The guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomatal pore.
 The opening and closing of the stomatal pore is controlled by the entry and exit of water to and
from the guard cells.
 The function of the stomata is the exchange of gases and water vapour between the atmosphere
and the leaf.

Procedure :
 Take a thin peel of the leaf by tearing it tangentially from its lower surface.
 Put the leaf in a watch glass containing water.
 Add a few drops of safranine into the watch glass to stain the peel.
 Take a clean glass slide and with the help of a fine brush transfer the peel on to the glass slide.
 Remove the excess water and stain by using blotting paper.
 Put a drop of glycerin over the peel and gently place a cover slip over it with the help of a
needle avoiding any air bubbles.
 Observe the peel first under the low power and then under the high power of a microscope.

Observations and inference :

 Several stomata are observed surrounded by a layer of epidermal cells.
 Each stoma has a stomatal pore and two bean shaped guard cells containing a nucleus and
chloroplasts.

Precautions :
 Select only fresh turgid leaves from a plant.
 Carefully remove the peel from the lower epidermis.
 Do not over stain the peel.
 Mount the peel at the centre of the slide.
 While putting the cover slip, avoid the presence of any air bubbles.
 Epidermal cells stomata

Fig : Leaf peel showing stomata

Fig : Open stoma Closed stoma

 EXPERIMENT No. – 07

Aim : To show experimentally that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Materials required : Potted plant, Black paper strips, Paper clips, Beakers, Petri dish, Water,
Alcohol or Spirit, Iodine solution, Forceps, Bunsen burner etc.

Theory : Photosynthesis is a biochemical process by which green plants prepare food in the form of
carbohydrates with the help of inorganic materials like water and carbon dioxide in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll. Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
The main steps involved in photosynthesis are :
 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.
 Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen into carbohydrates.
 Equation of photosynthesis is :
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Procedure :
 Take a potted plant and remove the starch of leaves by keeping it in a dark room for 2 to 3
days.
 Fix a black paper strip above and a black paper strip below a leaf with the help of paper clips.
 Replace the potted plant in sunlight for 3 to 4 hours.
 Detach the leaf and remove the black paper strips.
 Boil the leaf in water to deactivate the enzymes.
 Dip the leaf in alcohol or spirit and boil it in a water bath to decolourise it and to remove the
chlorophyll.
 Remove the leaf and wash it in water.
 Dip the leaf in dilute iodine solution in a Petri dish and observe the leaf and record the
observations.

Observations :
 The part of the leaf which was covered with the black paper strips and not exposed to sunlight
does not show any change in colour.
 The part of the leaf which was not covered with the black paper strips and exposed to sunlight
turns blue-black showing the presence of starch.

Inference : Light is essential for the formation of starch by photosynthesis.

Precautions :
 Use starch lacked plant only.
 Wash the leaf thoroughly in water before iodine test.
 Do not boil alcohol directly as it is highly inflammable.
 Use water bath to boil alcohol.
 Alcohol

Water

Leaf in boiling water Leaf in alcohol Leaf in water

(Heated in water bath)

Leaf in iodine solution

Leaf Leaf

Blue-black colour

Black paper strip No change in colour

Fig : Test for the presence of starch in leaf

 EXPERIMENT No. – 08

Aim : To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

Materials required : Conical flask, Beaker, a small Test tube, Delivery tube, Potassium
hydroxide solution, Germinating seeds, Cork, Thread, Water, Vaseline or Grease etc.

Theory : Respiration is the process by which complex food materials mainly glucose is oxidized into
simpler substances like carbon dioxide and water to release energy.
 In aerobic respiration glucose is completely oxidized in the presence of oxygen and more energy
is produced. The end products are carbon dioxide, water and energy. It takes place in most
plants and animals. C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O  12H2O + 6CO2 + Energy
 In anaerobic respiration glucose is incompletely oxidized in the absence of oxygen and less
energy is produced. The end products are lactic acid/ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy. It
takes place in muscle cells and microorganisms like yeast.
C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy
 The carbon dioxide released during respiration can be tested by passing the CO2 gas through
lime water. The lime water turns milky. Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
 Potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide and forms Potassium carbonate and water.
KOH + CO2  K2CO3 + H2O
Procedure :
 Germinate some pea, bean or gram seeds by keeping them in moist cotton wool.
 Put the germinating seeds in a conical flask and add some water to keep them moist.
 Hang a small test tube containing some potassium hydroxide solution with the help of a thread
inside the flask.
 Pass a delivery tube through a cork and fix it to the flask.
 Dip the other end of the delivery tube in a beaker containing some water.
 Make the apparatus air tight by sealing the joints using Vaseline or grease.
 Keep the apparatus undisturbed for a few hours and observe the changes.

Observations : The water level in the delivery tube rises.

Inference : During respiration the germinating seeds give out CO2. The CO2 is absorbed by the
KOH solution and a partial vacuum is formed in the conical flask. To fill up the vacuum, water rises
up in the delivery tube.

Precautions :
 The apparatus should be air tight.
 The end of the delivery tube in the flask should not touch the germinating seeds.
 The germinating seeds in the flask should be kept moist.
 Delivery tube
Thread

Cork

KOH solution

Test tube

Water Beaker
Germinating seeds

Fig : Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration

 EXPERIMENT No. - 09

Aim : To perform and observe the following reactions and classify them into Combination reaction,
Decomposition reaction, Displacement reaction and Double displacement reaction :
* Action of water on Quick lime.
* Action of heat on Ferrous sulphate crystals.
* Iron nails kept in Copper sulphate solution.
* Reaction between Sodium sulphate and Barium chloride solutions.
Materials required : Quick lime, Water, Ferrous sulphate, Iron nails, Copper sulphate solution,
Sodium sulphate solution, Barium chloride solution, Bunsen burner, Test tubes, Test tube holder,
Funnel, Filter paper, Tripod stand, Litmus paper (red and blue), Acidified Potassium dichromate
solution etc.
Theory :
 Combination reaction is a chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine together
to form a single new substance. E.g. - Reaction between Quick lime (CaO) and water to form
calcium hydroxide.
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + Heat
 Decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in which a single substance decomposes into two
or more new substances. E.g. - when Ferrous sulphate is heated, it forms Ferric oxide, Sulphur
dioxide and Sulphur trioxide.
2FeSO4  Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
 Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive metal displaces a less
reactive metal from its salt solution. E.g. - Iron displaces Copper from Copper sulphate solution
to form Ferrous sulphate and Copper.
Fe + CuSO4  FeSO4 + Cu
 Double displacement is a chemical reaction in which two substances react together to form two
new substances by exchanging their ions in aqueous solution. E.g. - Sodium sulphate solution
reacts with Barium chloride solution to form Sodium chloride and Barium sulphate.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2  2NaCl + BaSO4
Procedure :
 Action of water on Quick lime : Take about 40ml of Quick lime in a beaker and add
some water to it and stir it well with a glass rod.
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + Heat
This is a combination reaction.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No.
1 Touch the outer surface of the Outer surface of The reaction is exothermic.
beaker. the beaker is hot.
2 Add a few drops of the solution with The red litmus Ca(OH)2 is basic in nature.
a dropper on a red litmus paper. paper turns blue.
Filter the solution and take 10ml of it The solution Ca(OH)2 is lime water and it
3 in a test tube and pass carbon turns milky. turns milky due to the formation
dioxide gas through it by blowing air of CaCO3 .
from the mouth through a glass tube. Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
Precautions :
 Quick lime should not be touched with hand, it causes burns.
 Lime water in the test tube should be clear.
 CO2 should be passed through lime water only for a short time.

 Action of heat on Ferrous sulphate : Take about 5g of Ferrous sulphate crystals in a

test tube, fix a test tube holder to it and heat it over a flame.
2FeSO4  Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
Observations and inference :
Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No.
Take about 5g of Colourless gas is formed FeSO4 decomposes to form
1 FeSO4 in a test tube and heat and a brownish yellow Fe2O3 and oxides of sulphur.
it over a flame. solid is left in the test tube. 2FeSO4  Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
2 Test the smell of the gas. The gas has an irritating The gases are oxides of sulphur.
smell of burning sulphur.
Bring a moist blue litmus The blue litmus paper The oxides of sulphur are acidic
3 paper in contact with the gas. turns red. in nature.
Precautions :
 Use only small amounts of the chemicals.
 Do not touch the chemicals directly with hand.
 Smell the gas only by wafting.

 Iron nails kept in Copper sulphate solution : Take an iron nail and rub it with
sand paper. Take some Copper sulphate solution in a test tube. Immerse the nail in the solution
and leave it for about 15 minutes without disturbing it.
Observations and inference :
 A brown coating is formed over the iron nail and the solution turns light green in colour.
 Iron displaces Copper from Copper sulphate solution to form Ferrous sulphate and Copper.
This is because iron is more reactive than copper.
Fe + CuSO4  FeSO4 + Cu
Precautions :
 The iron nails should be cleaned by rubbing with sand paper.
 The test tube with the iron nail should not be disturbed.
 Do not touch the brown coated iron nail with the hand.

 Reaction between Sodium sulphate solution and Barium chloride solution : Take
10ml of Sodium sulphate solution in one test tube and 10ml of Barium chloride solution in
another test tube. Mix the two solutions in a conical flask. Stir it with a glass rod and then leave
it undisturbed for some time. A white precipitate is formed which settles at the bottom and a
clear solution is seen above it. Sodium sulphate solution reacts with Barium chloride solution to
form sodium chloride and Barium sulphate precipitate by exchanging their ions.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2  2NaCl + BaSO4
Precautions :
 Use only small amounts of the chemicals.
 Stir the solutions in the flask and leave it undisturbed for a few minutes.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 10

Aim : To observe (a) the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:
(i) ZnSO4 (aq.) (ii) FeSO4 (aq.) (iii) CuSO4 (aq.) (iv) Al2(SO4)3 (aq.)
(b) Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above result.

Materials required : Test tubes, Test tube stand, Zinc, Iron, Copper and Aluminium metals,
Sand paper, ZnSO4, FeSO4, CuSO4 and Al2(SO4)3 solutions.

Theory : A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution. The reactivity
of these four metals is in the order Al > Zn > Fe > Cu.
 Aluminium displaces Zinc, Iron and Copper from its salt solutions.
2Al + 3ZnSO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3Zn
2Al + 3FeSO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3Fe
2Al + 3CuSO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3Cu
 Zinc displaces only Iron and Copper from its salt solutions.
Zn + FeSO4  ZnSO4 + Fe
Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
 Iron displaces only Copper from its salt solution.
Fe + CuSO4  FeSO4 + Cu
 Copper does not displace Al, Zn or Fe from its salt solutions.
Procedure :
 Clean the metals with sand paper and cut them into small pieces.
 Take 10ml each of ZnSO4, FeSO4 and CuSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Aluminium metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
 Take 10ml each of Al2(SO4)3, FeSO4 and CuSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Zinc metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
 Take 10ml each of Al2(SO4)3, ZnSO4 and CuSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Iron metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
 Take 10ml each of Al2(SO4)3, ZnSO4 and FeSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Copper metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
Observations and inference :
Metal Salt solution Colour Change in Inference
to which change appearance
added of solution of metal
ZnSO4 No change. Changes Al displaces Zn from
ZnSO4.
Aluminium FeSO4 Green colour Changes Al displaces Fe from
disappears. FeSO4.
CuSO4 Blue colour Changes Al displaces Cu from
disappears. CuSO4.
Al2(SO4)3 No change No change Zn does not displace Al
from Al2(SO4)3.
Zinc FeSO4 Green colour Changes Zn displaces Fe from
disappears. FeSO4.
CuSO4 Blue colour Changes Zn displaces Cu from
disappears. CuSO4.
 Al2(SO4)3 No change No change Fe does not displace Al
from Al2(SO4)3.
ZnSO4 No change No change Fe does not displace Zn
Iron from ZnSO4.
CuSO4 Blue colour Changes Fe displaces Cu from
disappears. CuSO4.
Al2(SO4)3 No change No change Cu does not displace Al
from Al2(SO4)3.
Copper ZnSO4 No change No change Cu does not displace Zn
from ZnSO4.
FeSO4 No change No change Cu does not displace Fe
from FeSO4.

Precautions :
 Clean the metal strips with sand paper before use.
 Use clean and dry test tubes.
 Handle chemicals carefully and do not touch the chemicals.
 LIST OF PRACTICALS
CLASS – X
SECOND TERM

1. To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid) :

* Odour
* Solubility in water
* Effect on litmus
* Reaction with sodium bicarbonate.

2. To study saponification reaction for preparation of soap.

3. To study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard
water.

4. To determine the focal length of (a) Concave mirror and

(b) Convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

5. To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for
different angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction,
angle of emergence and interpret the result.

6. To study (a) Binary fission in Amoeba and

(b) Budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.

7. To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

8. To draw the images of an object formed by a convex lens when placed at various
position.

9. To study homology and analogy with the help of preserved/available specimens of

either animals or plants.

10. To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red kidney
beam).
 EXPERIMENT No. - 01

Aim : To study the physical and chemical properties of Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH).

Materials required : Acetic acid, test tubes, test tube stand, one holed cork, delivery tube, water,
litmus solution, sodium carbonate, limewater etc.
Theory :
 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste.
 It is soluble in water.
 It turns blue litmus to red.
 A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
 Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ethyl ethanoate (ester) in the presence of conc.
H2SO4.
conc. H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ----------------- CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester is called esterification.
 Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + H2O
 Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3  2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3  CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Observations and Inferences :
Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No
.
1 Odour : Take a small amount of Pungent vinegar Ethanoic acid has pungent
ethanoic acid in a test tube and like smell. vinegar like smell.
smell it carefully.
2 Solubility : Take a small amount of It dissolves in Ethaoic acid is soluble in
ethanoic acid in a test tube and add water. water.
equal amount of water in it.
3 Litmus paper test : Take a small The blue litmus Ethanoic acid is acidic in
amount of ethanoic acid in a test turns red. nature.
tube and dip a strip of blue litmus
paper in it. Next dip a strip of red
litmus paper in it.
4 Sodium carbonate test : Add a A brisk CH3COOH reacts with
pinch of sodium carbonate into a effervescence takes Na2CO3 to form CO2 gas
test tube containing some ethanoic place and the lime which turns lime water
acid and pass the evolved gas water turns milky. milky.
through lime water. CH3COOH + Na2CO3 
CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Precautions :
 Clean the test tubes thoroughly before the experiments.
 Hold the test tubes using a test tube holder.
 Note the observations carefully.
 EXPERIMENT No. – 04A

Aim : To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Materials required : Concave mirror, mirror holder, white screen, metre scale etc.

Theory :
 A spherical mirror is a part of a hollow sphere whose one surface is silvered. There are two types
of spherical mirrors - concave mirror and convex mirror. In a concave mirror the reflecting
surface is towards the inside of the mirror. In a convex mirror the reflecting surface is towards
the outside of the mirror.
 The centre of the mirror is called its pole (P). The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a
part is called the centre of curvature (C). The line passing through the pole and centre of
curvature is called the principal axis. The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is
called the radius of curvature (R). Rays of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection meet
at a point on the principal axis called principal focus (F). The distance between the pole and
principal focus is called the focal length (f). R = 2f where f is the focal length.
 When the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the focus on the same side of the concave
mirror. A very distant object like a very far away tree can be considered as a distant object and
its image is formed at the focus on the same side of the concave mirror.
 The relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a
spherical mirror is called the mirror formula.
Mirror formula : 1/v + 1/u = 1/f or, f = uv/(u+v)
Procedure :
 Mount the concave mirror on the mirror holder.
 Face the mirror towards a distant object like a tree or a building.
 Obtain a sharp image of the distant object on the screen by moving the screen forward and
backward.
 Measure the distant between the mirror and screen by using a metre scale.
 Repeat the experiment to obtain three values of focal length and calculate the mean focal length.

P
C
F

Fig : Image of object at infinity formed at the focus

 F P

f
focal length

Fig : Image of distant object formed at the focus

Observation and inference :

Sl. No. Focal length Mean focal length
1
2
3

Result : The focal length of the given concave mirror is ---- cm.

Precautions :
 The distant object should be clearly visible.
 The image obtained on the screen should be sharp and distinct.
 The surface of the mirror should be clean.
 EXPERIMENT No. – 04B

Aim : To determine the focal length of a convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

Materials required : Convex lens, lens holder, white screen, metre scale etc.

Theory :
 A lens is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces one or both of which is
spherical. There are two types of lenses - convex and concave lenses. Convex lens (Converging
lens) is thick in the middle and thin at the edges. Concave lens (Diverging lens) is thin in the
middle and thick at the edges.
 The centre of the lens is called its optical centre (O). Rays of light parallel to the principal axis
after refraction meet at a point on the principal axis on the other side of the convex lens called
principal focus (F). The distance between the optical centre and principal focus is called focal
length (f).
 When the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the focus on the other side of the convex
lens. A very distant object like a very far away tree can be considered as a distant object and its
image is formed at the focus on the other side of the convex lens.
 The relationship between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) of a
spherical lens is called the lens formula.
Lens formula : 1/v – 1/u = 1/f or, f = uv/(u-v)

Procedure :
 Mount the convex lens on the mirror holder.
 Face the convex lens towards a distant object like a tree or a building.
 Obtain a sharp image of the distant object on the screen by moving the screen forward and
backward.
 Measure the distant between the convex lens and screen by using a metre scale.
 Repeat the experiment to obtain three values of focal length and calculate the mean focal
length.

O F

Fig : Image of object at infinity formed at the focus

 focal length
O f F

Fig : Image of distant object formed at the focus

Observation and inference :

Sl. No. Focal length Mean focal length
1
2
3

Result : The focal length of the given convex lens is --- cm.

Precautions :
 The distant object should be clearly visible.
 The image obtained on the screen should be sharp and distinct.
 The surface of the lens should be clean.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 05

Aim : To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles
of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and angle of emergence and interpret
the results.

Materials required : Drawing board, white paper, rectangular glass slab, pins, scale, protractor
etc.
Theory : When a ray of light travels obliquely from one transparent medium to another it gets
bent at the interface of the two media. This is called refraction of light.
 Refraction is due to the change in the speed of light when it travels from one media into
another.
 When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it gets bent towards the normal.
When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it gets bent away from the
normal.
 The angle between the incident ray and normal is the angle of incidence < i , the angle between
the refracted ray and normal is called the angle of refraction < r and the angle between the
emergent ray and normal is the angle of emergence <e.
 Laws of refraction :
 The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant
for a given pair of media.
μ = sine i /sine r
Where μ is a constant called refractive index. The second law of refraction is known as
Snell’s law.
Procedure :
 Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
 Place the glass slab on the paper and draw its outline with a pencil and mark it as ABCD.
 Remove the slab and mark a point E on AB slightly towards A and draw a perpendicular
(normal) passing through E.
 Draw a line XE making an angle 30o with the normal.
 Replace the slab on the outline and fix two pins P and Q vertically on the line XE about 5–7 cm
apart.
 Looking through the other side CD fix two more pins R and S about 5–7 cm apart so that all the
four pins appear to be in a straight line.
 Remove the slab and draw a line YF passing through the pin points R and S to meet the side
CD at F. Draw line joining points E and F. Measure the angle of emergence.
 Repeat the experiment for angles of incidence < i equal to 45o and 60o and measure the angles of
refraction.

Observations and inference :

Sl. No. Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Angle of emergence
1 30o
2 45o
3 60o
Result :
 The angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence.
 The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but is displaced laterally by a distance.

Normal Normal

Incident ray Incident ray

Rarer medium i i Denser medium

(Air) (Glass)

Denser medium r Rarer medium

(Glass) r (Air)

Refracted ray Refracted ray

Fig:- Refracted ray bends towards the normal Refracted ray bends away from the normal

X
P
Incident ray Normal

Q
i
A E B

r
Rectangular
Refracted ray glass slab

C F D
e
R
Lateral displacement
Normal S of incident ray

Emergent ray
Y
Fig:- Refraction of light through a rectangular glass slab
 EXPERIMENT No. - 06

Aim : To study (a) Binary fission in Amoeba and (b) Budding in Yeast with the help of prepared
slides.

Materials required : Compound microscope, Prepared slides of binary fission in Amoeba and
budding in Yeast.

Theory : There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms - Asexual reproduction and
Sexual reproduction.
 In sexual reproduction, two individuals are involved to produce a new individual.
 In asexual reproduction, new individuals are produced from a single parent.

 Asexual reproduction is of different types. They are Fission, Budding, Regeneration,

Fragmentation, Spore formation, Vegetative propagation etc.

 Fission : In this process a unicellular organism divides and forms two or more new
individuals. Fission is of two types. They are binary fission and multiple fission.
Binary fission : In this method one organism divides and forms two individuals.
E.g. - Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
Multiple fission : In this method one organism divides into many daughter cells.
E.g. - Plasmodium.

 Budding : In this process a bud like projection is formed on the body of the organism. Then
the nucleus divides and forms two nuclei. The bud then develops into a new individual. It then
separates from the parent and forms an independent individual.

Procedure : Take the slides of binary fission in Amoeba and budding in Yeast. Observe first under
the low power and then under the high power of a microscope.

Observations :
(a) Binary fission in Amoeba : In this process the nucleus first divides and forms two daughter
nuclei. Then the cytoplasm also divides and forms two daughter cells.

(b) Budding in Yeast : In this process a bud like projection is formed on the body of the
organism. Then the nucleus divides and forms two nuclei. The bud then develops into a new
cell. Repeated budding forms a chain of cells. The cells then separate from the parent and
forms independent individuals.
 Fig : Binary fission in Amoeba

Bud Daughter cell

Chain of yeast cells

Fig : Budding in Yeast

 Mr. P. K. Singh
PGT (Biology)
KV Muzaffarpur (F/S)
[email protected]