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SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Instructional Module in
RC301: Technology Research 2

Preliminaries
I. Lesson Number 1
II. Lesson Title Finding Answers to Research Questions
III. Brief Introduction Data collection methods rely on random sampling and
of the Lesson structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences
into predetermined response categories. They produce results
that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses
derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a
phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question,
participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If
this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant
and situational characteristics to statistically control for their
influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is
to generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to
select participants.
IV. Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
a. Understand data collection and organization procedures.
b. Collect data from the participating respondents of study.
c. Organize the data gathered through various data
presentation methods.
d. Appreciate the value of accurate statistical treatment of
data through reflective essay.

Lesson Proper
I. Getting Started
Instructions: Surround with the appropriate words and phrases the expression in the
middle of the graph.

II. Discussion
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Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables

of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of
research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities,
business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and
honest collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality
evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing
and credible answer to questions that have been posed. Regardless of the field of study or
preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential
to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection
instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for
their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring. Data collection is one of the most
important stages in conducting a research. You can have the best research design in the
world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be not be able to complete your
project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work,
patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data
collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a
sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect
the data from the selected sample.
Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be
mathematically computed. Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be
classified as nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always),
such data includes measurements of something. Quantitative approaches address the
‘what’ of the program. They use a systematic standardized approach and employ methods
such as surveys and ask questions.
Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement,
are standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually
be measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the
investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences. It is important to
note that for peer-based programs quantitative data collection approaches often prove to
be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of necessary resources to ensure rigorous
implementation of surveys and frequently experienced low participation and loss to follow
up rates are commonly experienced factors.
The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured
data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response
categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. If
the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the
researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative data
gathering strategies include –
• Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients
waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
• Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc).
• In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of
questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling
the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their
cooperation.
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• Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the

researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous.

Mixed Methods: Mixed methods approach as design, combining both qualitative and
quantitative research data, techniques and methods within a single research framework.
Mixed methods approaches may mean a number of things, i.e. a number of different types
of methods in a study or at different points within a study or using a mixture of qualitative
and quantitative methods. Mixed methods encompass multifaceted approaches that
combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce weaknesses that stem from using a single
research design. Using this approach to gather and evaluate data may assist to increase
the validity and reliability of the research. Some of the common areas in which mixed-
method approaches may be used include –
• Initiating, designing, developing and expanding interventions;
• Evaluation;
• Improving research design; and
• Corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence.

Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach include –

• Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions;
• Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and
• Decisions regarding which research methods to combine.

Mixed methods are useful in highlighting complex research problems such as disparities in
health and can also be transformative in addressing issues for vulnerable or marginalized
populations or research which involves community participation. Using a mixed-methods
approach is one way to develop creative options to traditional or single design approaches
to research and evaluation. There are many ways of classifying data. A common
classification is based upon who collected the data.

PRIMARY DATA
Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data.
Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective.
Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity is
greater than secondary data.

Importance of Primary Data: In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from

primary sources and work on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female
population in a country cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed
sources. A research can be conducted without secondary data but a research based on
only secondary data is least reliable and may have biases because secondary data has
already been manipulated by human beings. One of such sources is old and secondly they
contain limited information as well as they can be misleading and biased.

Sources of Primary Data: Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes
difficult to obtain data from primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack
of cooperation. Following are some of the sources of primary data.
1. Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform
logical study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine,
psychological studies, nutrition and for other scientific studies. In experiments the
experimenter has to keep control over the influence of any extraneous variable on
the results.
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2. Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management,

marketing and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different
methods.
A. Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a
list of questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers.
Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute,
through electronic mail or through fax and other methods.
B. Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the
main problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an
in depth source of information. The interviewer can not only record the statements the
interviewee speaks but he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions
to the questions too. This enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily.
3. Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know
that s/he is being observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in
natural settings as well as in artificially created environment.

Advantages of Using Primary Data

• The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
• There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
• If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-
• deciding why, what, how, when to collect;
• getting the data collected (personally or through others);
• getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
• ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-
• all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;
• there is no fake/ cooked up data;
• unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.

3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

Gathering primary quantitative data

• Sampling and measurement

Population and sample size. The collection of primary data requires that the
researcher clearly define the population under investigation, as well as the units of analysis
that constitute that population. ‘Population’ refers to all the concerned units (e.g. people,
companies) within a particular problem space and at the specified time that the researcher
would like to study. For example, in a study looking to ascertain the level of compliance to
the Philippines code of corporate governance, the population would be all public Philippines
companies. However, because it is often impossible to investigate all members of the
population (usually for legitimate reasons, such as time and resources constraints), a
portion of the population, known as a ‘sample’, is studied.
Samples are therefore used to make inferences about the population. In trying to
draw a sample from a population, a number of techniques are used. Broadly, there are two
types of sampling techniques: probability/random sampling and non-probability/non-
random sampling.
1. Probability sampling uses a random selection process and gives every member of the
population an equal chance of being included in the sample. There are two main
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requirements for probability sampling: first, an adequate sample frame, comprising a

comprehensive list of all members of the population of interest, and second, an ability to
randomly select based on features present in the sample frame (Walter 2013). „
2. Non-probability sampling involves a specific sample chosen on the basis of particular
characteristics or similar differentiating features relevant to the study; therefore, it cannot
be used to determine whether the results of the study are representative of the entire
population. Table 9.1 provides a summary of the various types of probability and non-
probability sampling techniques

SECONDARY DATA
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called
as secondary data. The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It
is collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator
for another purpose). For examples, Census data being used to analyze the impact of
education on career choice and earning.
Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses,
organizational records and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative
research. Secondary data is essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that
can adequately capture past change and/or developments.

Sources of Secondary Data: The following are some ways of collecting secondary data
• Books
• Records
• Biographies
• Newspapers
• Published censuses or other statistical data
• Data archives
• Internet articles
• Research articles by other researchers (journals)
• Databases, etc.

Importance of Secondary Data: Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is
still there. Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information
from secondary sources is easier and possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in
such situation one has to confine the research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data
is present but the respondents are not willing to reveal it in such case too secondary data
can suffice. For example, if the research is on the psychology of transsexuals first it is
difficult to find out transsexuals and second they may not be willing to give information you
want for your research, so you can collect data from books or other published sources. A
clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has
already been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have been
carried out, published texts and statistics could have been already used elsewhere, media
promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized. This wealth of background work
means that secondary data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and
reliability which need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data.
Furthermore, secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent
primary research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results
can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a review
of the secondary data.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data

• No hassles of data collection.
• It is less expensive.
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• The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).

Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

• The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down.
• Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
• With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
• Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data
a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
• Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright. Keeping in view the
advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the research study and
time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have been selected.
These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.

Measurement Scales for Quantitative Data

• Nominal
Each variable has a different value but there is no order, categorizing people based
on gender, religion, position, etc. For example, in a survey where there are values of
gender, male and female may come with a numerical value (male = 0, female = 1). Real
nominal variables are those classified based on a naturally occurring attribute such as sex,
nationality or ethnic origin. Artificial nominal variables are those classified based on “man-
made” attributes following certain rules such as passing or failing a test, being an introvert
or extrovert. We can assign numbers for classification but these numbers would not alter
the data since there is not a quantitative difference between these numbers. Arithmetic
operations on these numbers have no meaning.

• Ordinal
Data follows a specific progressive order based on values (for example, degree
types like bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral). When we are interested in ranking data, we
can use the ordinal level of measurement. The identification of runners who came 1st, 2nd
or 3rd in a race is an example of ranking.

• Interval
This data is continuous and has an order along a scale (e.g., ratings of 1 to 5). Each
value is equally spaced from the value before and after (e.g., distance between 1 and 2 is
equal to the distance between 2 and 3). Suppose a student got zero in a test in English
vocabulary. Does it mean that the student has absolutely no knowledge of English? It is
doubtful that such an explanation will be acceptable.

• Ratio
Data is continuous and has an absolute zero. The zero point indicates the total
absence of the attribute measured. Ratio data is very similar in properties to interval data.
A good example is temperature, which can go down to zero degrees. Data relating to area,
volume, and weight are examples of variables that can be measured on a ratio scale.

Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis can be defined as an economic tool for the management and
investors to analyze financial events and make investment and business decisions. It uses
complex financial and statistical models to quantify objective business data for determining
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the after-effects of a decision on the business operations. The worthiness of investments

is found using it to identify the correlation between the variables.
Data means facts or information about people, places, things, events and so on and
when these data appear not in words, images or pictures, but in numerical forms such as
fractions, numbers and percentages, they become quantitative data. To understand the
numbers standing for the information, you need to analyse them: that is, you have to
examine or study them, not by taking the data as a whole, but by separating it into its
components. Then, examine each part or element to see the relationships between or
among the parts, to discover the orderly or sequential existence of these parts, to search
for meaningful patterns of the components, and to know the reasons behind the formation
of such variable patterns.

Analyzing Quantitative Data

1. Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert
raw data into something meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:

Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible, whether the data
collection was done as per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a four-step
process, which includes…

A. Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually interviewed or not.

B. Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as per the research criteria.
C. Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure was duly followed.
D. Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the respondent all the questions,
rather than just a few required ones.

To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of completed surveys

and validate the collected data. (Note that this can be time-consuming for surveys with lots
of responses.) For example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents split into 2 cities. The
researcher can pick a sample of 20 random respondents from each city. After this, the
researcher can reach out to them through email or phone and check their responses to a
certain set of questions.

Step 2: Data Editing

Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill fields
incorrectly or skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the
researcher should conduct basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw research
data to identify and clear out any data points that may hamper the accuracy of the results.
For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by respondents. While editing
the data, it is important to make sure to remove or fill all the empty fields. (Here are 4
methods to deal with missing data.)

Step 3: Data Coding

This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping
and assigning values to responses from the survey. For example, if a researcher has
interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the average age of the respondents, the
researcher will create age buckets and categorize the age of each of the respondent as per
these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-15 years old would have their age
coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.). Then during analysis, the researcher can deal
with simplified age brackets, rather than a massive range of individual ages.
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Step 4. Data Tabulation

For easy classification and distribution of numbers based on a certain criterion, you
must collate them with the help of a graph called Table, used for frequency and percentage
distribution, this kind of graph is an example excellent data organizer that researchers find
indispensable.

Step 5. Analyzing the Data

Data coding and tabulation are the two important things you have to do in preparing
the data for analysis. Before immersing yourself into studying every component of the data
for analysis. Before immersing yourself into studying every component of the data, decide
on the kind of quantitative analysis you have to use, whether to use simple descriptive
statistical techniques or advanced analytical methods. The first one that college students
often use tells some aspects of categories of data such as: frequency of distribution,
measure of central tendency (mean, median and mode), and standard deviation. However,
this does not give information about population from where the sample came. The second
one, on the other hand, fits graduate level research studies because this involves complex
statistical analysis requiring a good foundation and thorough knowledge about statistics.

1. Descriptive Statistical Technique

This quantitative data analysis technique provides a summary of the orderly or
sequential data obtained from the sample through the data-gathering instrument used. The
results of the analysis reveal the following aspects of an item in a set of data (Morgan 2014;
Punch 2014; Walsh 2010):
Frequency Distribution- gives you the frequency of distribution and percentage of the
occurrence of an item in asset of data. In other words, it gives you the number of responses
given repeatedly for one question.

Measurement of Central Tendency- indicates the different positions or values of the

items, such that in a category of data, you find an item or items serving as the:

Mean- average of all the items or scores

Example: 3 + 8 + 9 + 2 + 3=38
38 ÷ 7 = 5.43 (Mean)

Median- the score in the middle of the set of items that cuts or divides the set into two
groups.
Example: The numbers in the example for the Mean has 2 as the Median.

Mode- refers to the item or score in the data set that has the most repeated appearance in
the set.
Example: Again in the given example above for the mean, 3 is the mode.
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Standard Deviation- shows the extent of the difference of the data from the mean. An
examination of this gap between the mean and the data gives you an idea about the extent
of the similarities and differences between the respondents. There are mathematical
operations that you have to do to determine the standard deviation. Here they are:
Step 1. Compute for the Mean.
Step 2. Compute the deviation (difference) between each respondent’s answer (data item)
and the mean. The plus sign (+) appears before the number if the difference is higher;
negative sign (-), if the difference is lower.
Step 3. Compute the square of each deviation.
Step 4. Compute the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.
Step 5. Divide the sum of squares by adding the squared figures.
Step 5. Divide the sum of squares by the number of data items to get the variance.
Step 6. Compute the square root of variance figure to get standard deviation.

2. Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods

An analysis of quantitative data that involves the use of more complex statistical
methods needing computer software like the SPSS, STATA, or MINITAB, among others,
occurs among graduate-level students taking their MA or PhD degrees. Some of the
advanced methods of quantitative data analysis are the following (Argyrous 2011; Levin
and Fox 2014; Godwin 2014):

a. Correlation- uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the relationship of two
variables. The results, however, are incapable of establishing causal relationships.

b. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)- the results of this statistical analysis are used to
determine if the difference in the means or averages of two categories of data are
statistically significant.
Example: If the mean of the grades of a student attending tutorial lessons is significantly
different from the mean of the grades of a student not attending tutorial lessons.

c. Regression- has some similarities with correlation, in that, it also shows the nature of
relationship of variables, but gives more extensive result than that of correlation. Aside
from indicating the presence of relationship between two variables, it determines whether
a variable is capable of predicting the strength of the relation between the treatment
(independent variable) and the Outcome (dependent variable). Just like correlation,
regression is incapable of establishing cause-effect relationships.
Example: If reviewing with music (treatment variable) is a statistically significant predictor
of the extent of the concept learning (outcome variable) of a person.
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Statistical Methods

Statistics is a term that pertains to your acts of collecting and analysing

numerical data. Doing statistics then means performing some arithmetic procedures like
addition, division, subtraction, multiplication, and other mathematical calculations.
Bivariate analysis refers to the analysis of two variables to determine relationships between
them. Bivariate analyses are often reported in quality-of-life research. Bivariate analysis
means the analysis of bivariate data. Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest forms of
quantitative (statistical) analysis. It involves the analysis of two variables (often denoted as
X, Y), for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them.
Bivariate analysis can be helpful in testing simple hypotheses of association.
Bivariate analysis can help determine to what extent it becomes easier to know and predict
a value for one variable (possibly a dependent variable) if we know the value of the other
variable (possibly the independent variable)
Bivariate analysis can be contrasted with univariate analysis in which only one
variable is analysed. Like univariate analysis, bivariate analysis can be descriptive or
inferential. It is the analysis of the relationship between the two variables. Bivariate analysis
is a simple (two variable) special case of multivariate analysis (where multiple relations
between multiple variables are examined simultaneously).

Statistical Methodologies
When analysing data, such as the marks achieved by 100 students for a piece
of coursework, it is possible to use both descriptive and inferential statistics in your analysis
of their marks. Typically, in most research conducted on groups of people, you will use both
descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze your results and draw conclusions.

Descriptive statistics
It is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize
data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data.
Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we
have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They
are simply a way to describe our data.
Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply presented our raw
data it would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if there was a lot
of it. Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more meaningful
way, which allows simpler interpretation of the data. For example, if we had the results of
100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be interested in the overall performance of
those students. We would also be interested in the distribution or spread of the marks.
Descriptive statistics allow us to do this. How to properly describe data through statistics
and graphs is an important topic and discussed in other Laerd Statistics guides. Typically,
there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:

O Measures of central tendency: these are ways of describing the central position of a
frequency distribution for a group of data. In this case, the frequency distribution is simply
the distribution and pattern of marks scored by the 100 students from the lowest to the
highest. We can describe this central position using a number of statistics, including the
mode, median, and mean.
O Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by describing how
spread out the scores are. For example, the mean score of our 100 students may be 65
out of 100. However, not all students will have scored 65 marks. Rather, their scores will
be spread out. Some will be lower and others higher. Measures of spread help us to
summarize how spread out these scores are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics
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are available to us, including the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard
deviation.

Inferential Statistics
We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate
group of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the
exam marks for the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about this
group of 100 students. Any group of data like this, which includes all the data you are
interested in, is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it includes
all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in the exam
marks of 100 students, the 100 students would represent your population. Descriptive
statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of populations, like the mean or
standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the whole population (i.e.,
everybody you are interested in).
Often, however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested
in investigating, but only a limited number of data instead. For example, you might be
interested in the exam marks of all students in the UK. It is not feasible to measure all exam
marks of all students in the whole of the UK so you have to measure a smaller sample of
students (e.g., 100 students), which are used to represent the larger population of all UK
students. Properties of samples, such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called
parameters, but statistics. Inferential statistics are techniques that allow us to use these
samples to make generalizations about the populations from which the samples were
drawn. It is, therefore, important that the sample accurately represents the population. The
process of achieving this is called sampling (sampling strategies are discussed in detail in
the section, Sampling Strategy, on our sister site). Inferential statistics arise out of the fact
that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample is not expected to perfectly
represent the population. The methods of inferential statistics are (1) the estimation of
parameter(s) and (2) testing of statistical hypotheses.

Types of Statistical Data Analysis

1. Univariate- Univariate analysis is the analysis of one (“uni”) variable, when one
measurement is made on each observation, univariate analysis is applied.
2. Bivariate- analysis of two variables (independent and dependent variables), Bivariate
analysis is the analysis of exactly two variables.

• Multivariate- If more than one measurement is made on each observation, multivariate

analysis is applied. Multivariate analysis is the analysis of more than two variables

Data Presentation

Data can be presented in one of the three ways:

– as text;
– in tabular form; or
– in graphical form.

Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data format, the

method of analysis to be used, and the information to be emphasized. Inappropriately
presented data fail to clearly convey information to readers and reviewers. Even when the
same information is being conveyed, different methods of presentation must be employed
depending on what specific information is going to be emphasized. A method of
presentation must be chosen after carefully weighing the advantages and disadvantages
of different methods of presentation. If one wishes to compare or introduce two values at a
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certain time point, it is appropriate to use text or the written language. However, a table is
the most appropriate when all information requires equal attention, and it allows readers to
selectively look at information of their own interest. Graphs allow readers to understand the
overall trend in data, and intuitively understand the comparison results between two groups.
One thing to always bear in mind regardless of what method is used, however, is the
simplicity of presentation.

Text presentation
Text is the main method of conveying information as it is used to explain results
and trends, and provide contextual information. Data are fundamentally presented in
paragraphs or sentences. Text can be used to provide interpretation or emphasize certain
data. If quantitative information to be conveyed consists of one or two numbers, it is more
appropriate to use written language than tables or graphs. For instance, information about
the incidence rates of delirium following anesthesia in 2016–2017 can be presented with
the use of a few numbers: “The incidence rate of delirium following anesthesia was 11% in
2016 and 15% in 2017; no significant difference of incidence rates was found between the
two years.” If this information were to be presented in a graph or a table, it would occupy
an unnecessarily large space on the page, without enhancing the readers' understanding
of the data. If more data are to be presented, or other information such as that regarding
data trends are to be conveyed, a table or a graph would be more appropriate. By nature,
data take longer to read when presented as texts and when the main text includes a long
list of information, readers and reviewers may have difficulties in understanding the
information.

Table presentation
Tables, which convey information that has been converted into words or numbers
in rows and columns, have been used for nearly 2,000 years. Anyone with a sufficient level
of literacy can easily understand the information presented in a table. Tables are the most
appropriate for presenting individual information and can present both quantitative and
qualitative information. Examples of qualitative information are the level of sedation,
statistical methods/functions, and intubation conditions.
The strength of tables is that they can accurately present information that cannot
be presented with a graph. A number such as “132.145852” can be accurately expressed
in a table. Another strength is that information with different units can be presented
together. For instance, blood pressure, heart rate, number of drugs administered, and
anesthesia time can be presented together in one table. Finally, tables are useful for
summarizing and comparing quantitative information of different variables. However, the
interpretation of information takes longer in tables than in graphs, and tables are not
appropriate for studying data trends. Furthermore, since all data are of equal importance
in a table, it is not easy to identify and selectively choose the information required.

III. Application

A. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT AND VALIDATION

From the outputs previously made, accomplish the following tasks.
1. Devise a research instrument to be used in your research’s data gathering in a form
of survey questionnaire.
2. Identify three (3) experts/practitioners who can help to validate and improve the
research instrument.
3. Prepare letter of communication for the validators attached with the research
instrument and certification of validation.
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4. Submit them to the chosen validators and take note of the suggestions given and
corrections made by them.
5. Revise the research instrument.

B. DATA GATHERING
1. Seek permission from the adviser, the Dean or Program Head before administering
the data gathering.
2. Reproduce the validated research instrument to copies based on the number of
target respondents or population. (print or non-print depends on the situation)
3. Distribute the instrument to the respondents.

C. DATA ORGANIZATION / PRESENTATION

1. Tabulate and calculate the data gathered.
2. Ask the assistance of a statistician for the statistical treatment.
3. Present the results in tabular form.

IV. Assessment

Instructions: Fill in the blanks with correct answer.

1. __________ is a data collection technique that uses sense organs in gathering facts
or information about people, things, places, events and so on by watching and
listening to them.
2. __________ is the most popular data-gathering technique in quantitative and
qualitative research studies for the researchers are free to use not just one
instrument but interview or survey.
3. __________is a paper containing series of questions formulated for an individual
and independent answering by several respondents for obtaining statistical
information and each question offers a number of probable answers from which the
respondents, on the basis of their own judgement, will choose the best answer.
4. __________is a survey type of data-gathering technique which also makes you ask
a set of questions, but this is done orally whether in a traditional way or by using the
modern technology.
5. __________is a scientific method of collecting data whereby you give the subjects
a sort of treatment or condition then evaluate the results to find out the manner by
which the treatment affected the subjects and to discover the reasons behind the
effects of such treatment on the subjects.
6. __________is another quantitative-data collection technique that makes you search
through several oral or written forms of communication to find answers to your
research questions. This data collection method is not only for examining printed
mateor analyzing rials but also for analyzing information coming from non book
materials but also for analyzing information coming from non book materials like
photographs, films, videotapes, paintings and the likes.
7. __________a scale of measurement that shows the classification of things based
on a certain criterion such as gender, origin, or brand and that arithmetic operations
on these numbers have no meaning.
8. __________refers to scale of measurement being used to show equal differences
between points on the scale in an arbitrary manner n attitude, inclinations, feelings,
ideas, fears, opinions, etc). This data is continuous and has an order along a scale
(e.g., ratings of 1 to 5). Each value is equally spaced from the value before and after
(e.g., distance between 1 and 2 is equal to the distance between 2 and 3).
9. __________is another scale of measurement in which the data follows a specific
progressive order based on values (for example, degree types like bachelor’s,
master’s, and doctoral) to indicate the rank or hierarchical order of things.
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10. __________Data in this level of measurements is continuous and has an absolute

zero. The zero point indicates the total absence of the attribute measured and is
very similar in properties to interval data, an is temperature, which can go down to
zero degrees.
11. __________This is the process of presenting and interpreting numerical data.
12. __________include measures of central tendency (averages - mean, median and
mode) and measures of variability about the average (range and standard
deviation). These give the reader a 'picture' of the data collected in the research
project.
13. __________are the outcomes of statistical tests, helping deductions to be made
from the data collected, to test hypotheses set and relating findings to the sample
or population.
14. __________The difference between the highest score and lowest score.
15. __________The average or the sum of the values divided by the number of values
16. __________The middle score of data when set in numerical order. To find the
middle position, order the scores, count the number of scores, add 1, and divide by
2
17. __________The most frequently occurring score in a data set.
18. __________This measurement shows the extent of the difference of the data from
the mean.
19. __________This method uses statistical analysis to yield results that describe the
relationship of two variables. The results, however, are incapable of establishing
causal relationships.
20. __________The results of this statistical analysis are used to determine if the
difference in the means or averages of two categories of data are statistically
significant.

V. Reflection

RESTRICTED ESSAY
Instructions: Answer and reflect on the following questions. Write an essay consisting of
25-50 words each item.
1. How significant is validation process in developing research instrument?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. How was your experience in gathering the data of your research study?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. What do you think is the role of statistical treatment in finishing a research study?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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VI. References
Carey, Teresita G., Naval, Victoria C., Prieto, Nelia G. (2017). Practical research 1
qualitative research. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

Cabauatan, Ronaldo R., De Castro, Belinda V., Grajo, Jeanette P., Uy, Chin (2016).
Practical research 2. Quezon City: Vibal Group Inc.

Diga, Reu Amor A., (2020). Inquiries, investigation, and immersion. Philippines:
Department of Education

Hernandez, Marvin P., (2020). Practical research 2. Quezon Province: Department of

Education

Saludez, Luis Miguel P., (2020) Beginning writing research. Lucban, Quezon: Southern
Luzon State University

Prepared by: Reviewed by:

JOEL M. BREGONDO Jr., MATE JOHN MARC R. MENDOZA, MAEd, MLIS

Instructor Program Head, School of Teacher Education

Validated by: Approved by:

JENIFFER OESTAR, Ph.D. JESS JAY M. SAJISE, DBA

Internal Validator, English Vice President of Academic Affairs External