Journal of Occupational Science

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Mothering as a relational role: Re-evaluating

everyday parenting occupations

Chetna Sethi

To cite this article: Chetna Sethi (2019): Mothering as a relational role: Re-evaluating everyday
parenting occupations, Journal of Occupational Science, DOI: 10.1080/14427591.2019.1666423

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2019.1666423

Published online: 21 Oct 2019.

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JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE
https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2019.1666423

Mothering as a relational role: Re-evaluating everyday parenting

occupations
Chetna Sethi
Towson University, Maryland, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The family focused literature within occupational science has viewed Accepted 6 September 2019
parenting as an individualistic and bidirectional approach to parent-child
interactions. This conceptualization is not fully able to capture the KEYWORDS
Mothering; Relational roles;
complexities associated with family beliefs and values, the multitude of Parenting occupations;
social influences on parenting occupations, or the cultural world of Parenting
parents as a whole. The results presented here are one aspect of a larger
study that explored how primary caregivers (mothers) of children aged
2-6 years manage everyday interactions with their typically developing
children and make decisions concerning everyday parenting.
Constructivist grounded theory methodology was utilized to analyse 22
interviews from 12 mothers. Open, focused, and theoretical coding were
used to construct a framework of parental decision-making. In addition
to identifying the interrelated and varying nature of women’s many
roles, this study found that the role of mother is comprised of multiple
interconnected roles as caregiver, nurturer, educator, protector, and
learner. Through analysis, it was discovered that it is more appropriate
to study parenting as a relational role encompassing multiple
occupations rather than describing parenting as an occupation or co-
occupation. Additionally, the findings portray mothers as holistic
occupational beings, in keeping with the proposed shift in occupational
science to consider parent-child relationships from a transactional rather
than bidirectional perspective.

Research on families within the sociology and parenting styles (Fulgini et al., 2013; Kawabata,
psychology fields has most often focused on Alink, Tseng, van Ijzendoorn, & Crick, 2011),
“the family” as an objectified entity (Morgan, and the overall family situation (Vernon-Fea-
2011). For example, researchers have studied gons, Garrett-Peters, Willoughby, & Mills-
the intergenerational transmission of maladap- Koonce, 2012) as contributing factors to how
tive parenting such as spanking (Bower-Russa, parents discipline their young children.
2005; Deater-Deckard, Lansford, Dodge, Pettit, Additionally, sociodemographic factors such as
& Bates, 2003), child maltreatment, previous ethnic diversity (Fulgini et al., 2013), and gender
physical and/or sexual abuse (Conger, Schofield, of the child (Poehlmann, Burnson, & Wey-
Neppl, & Merrick, 2013; Dixon, Browne, & mouth, 2014) and parents (Kawabata et al.,
Hamilton-Giachrists, 2009), and breaking the 2011) have been considered to influence the
cycle of violence (Dixon et al., 2009). Other overall approach to parenting.
researchers have explored parental perceptions Occupational scientists have been equally
of a child’s intentions (Burchinal, Skinner, & interested in studying and understanding family
Reznick, 2010), parents’ communication and occupations to build scholarship in the area, as

CONTACT Chetna Sethi [email protected]

© 2019 The Journal of Occupational Science Incorporated
2 C. SETHI

well as to inform pediatric occupational therapy child interactions, with the exception of a few
practice. Occupational scientists have thus studies (e.g. Bonsall, 2014; Lawlor, 2003). This
attempted to study family occupations through conceptualisation does not take into consider-
the study of family routines and rituals (Boyd, ation the intricacies associated with the cultural
McCarty, & Sethi, 2014; Fiese, 2007; Koome, world of parents, or the multitude of social influ-
Hocking, & Sutton, 2012). Although not directly ences on parenting occupations.
defined as “parenting”, studies related to family Other recent literature related to mothering
routines have focused on the parents’ perspec- has focused on play scenarios of infants (Pizur-
tives of the occupations the family engages in; Barnekow et al., 2014), mothering experiences
family routines can thus be used as a proxy for for adolescent children (Chapdelaine, Shields,
parenting occupations. Additionally, in the & Forwell, 2017; Crowe, Duvall, & Gutierrez,
family focused literature within occupational 2016), and parents’ response to infant crying
science, parenting has often been considered a (Poskey, Pizur-Barnekow, & Hersche, 2014).
co-occupation (Esdaile & Olsen, 2004; Orban, Although extending the conversation regarding
Ellegård, Thorngren-Jerneck, & Erlandsson, parenting, these studies have focused on the
2012; Pierce, 2003, 2009; Pizur-Barnekow, strategies parents employ rather than the
Kamp, & Cashin, 2014) and also the ‘dance’ reasons or decisions behind employing these
that mothers do (Larson, 2000). strategies when engaging with their children.
In a slightly different conceptualization of For this reason, the main purpose of this study
parenting occupations, Lawlor (2003) argued was to understand how parents of young chil-
that to study families effectively the unit of dren make decisions about everyday parenting.
analysis needs to move from observable behavior Rather than studying the ‘what’ or ‘who’ of par-
to the situation of the family as a whole. On the enting, this study was focused on the ‘why’ and
basis that children co-construct their worlds ‘how’.
socially and culturally, she contended that child- Guided by the principles of life course soci-
hood experiences are co-created through social ology (Elder, 1998), this paper aims to conceptu-
occupations, that actors are transactional, and alize parenting occupations in a holistic manner
the actions of one shape the actions of another as transactions of parents’ cultural situations and
in a way that enhances the child’s experiences. their social roles. The life course perspective
In line with the transactional perspective describes a sequence of age-graded roles, which
(Dickie, Cutchin, & Humphry, 2006), Lawlor are the consequences of opportunities, expec-
described occupations as “jointly constructed tations shaped by social norms that structure
actions” (p. 151). More recently, Bonsall (2014) the life course, and limitations. Thus, within a
recognized the importance of social and histori- life course perspective situations are examined
cal influences on fathering occupations, such holistically, taking into account concepts like
that past events and future goals influence pre- social roles, historical contexts, institutions
sent actions. This life course perspective is in such as education and family, linked lives, tim-
line with the transactional view of occupation ing of events, and human agency, to mention a
diminishing the boundaries between past, pre- few (Elder, 1998).
sent, and future (Cutchin & Dickie, 2013) and
shifting the focus away from an individualistic
Life Course Sociology and Pathways
approach.
However, most current literature has focused Rutter (1989) suggested that continuities in par-
on families of children with disabilities (e.g. Bon- enting practices occur because children carry
sall, 2014; Downs, 2008; Harkness et al., 2007) with them the results of earlier learning and
rather than parental perspectives of the engage- structural and functional changes, while
ment in everyday occupations of typically devel- acknowledging that a person’s characteristics at
oping young children. Additionally, the family one age will not necessarily predict the degree
focused literature within occupational science or type of change over a later time period.
has been shown to view parenting as an indivi- These changes are more likely detected by focus-
dualistic and bidirectional approach to parent- ing on the process of negotiating life transitions,
 JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE 3

and not just their occurrence or the behavioral trajectories through life transitions and path-
outcomes. Life transitions have been described ways. As such, the role of a parent is not simply
as life events that are relatively abrupt and defined by that social role alone. For example, a
mark changes in state or role (Macmillan & woman’s demands as a student will influence the
Copher, 2005). For example, graduating from occupations she is able to engage in to fulfill the
high school, entering into a marriage, or becom- mothering role. Multiple roles in concert with
ing a mother are life events that trigger a change each other likely produce a trajectory for the par-
in the roles to be fulfilled by an individual. enting role that will be different depending on
Further, these authors defined pathways as inter- the number and variety of other roles simul-
locked trajectories of social roles, including edu- taneously being fulfilled.
cation, work, and family, and residence, which
are followed by individuals and groups through-
Methods
out society. This definition of pathways identifies
the interconnected and dynamic nature of tra- The study reported in this paper was one aspect
jectories (temporal continuity of roles) and tran- of a larger study that explored how mothers who
sitions (life events that index changes in roles) were primary caregivers of typically developing
over time. It further brings to light the transac- children aged 2-6 years old managed everyday
tional nature of family roles, which structure interactions with their children and made
the life course. In fact, according to Macmillan decisions regarding everyday parenting. Char-
and Copher (2005), life courses are structured maz’s (2014) constructivist grounded theory
to the extent that they are differentially defined methodology was used to analyze 22 interviews
by the order and timing of multiple social roles. from 12 mothers using open, focused, and theor-
Macmillan and Copher (2005) also described etical coding to construct a framework of par-
family role schemas and the varying meanings ental decision-making.
these schemas provide to different family roles. Occupational scientists have proposed that
They illustrated, for example, the different social social processes unfold over time as a result of
meaning that has been associated with parent- engagement in occupations (Nayar, 2012).
hood (a social role) within or outside marriage. Grounded theory research is very well suited to
This difference in meaning influences the trajec- study such social phenomena as parenting,
tory of such a social role and thus is important to especially due to its close ties with symbolic
keep in mind when attempting to research interactionism. In addition, the social and cul-
families. In essence, family role schemas are tural situatedness of families (Mistry & Wu,
the cultural tools that define what family roles 2010) provides the basis for a constructivist
are (Macmillan & Copher, 2005). Further, family inquiry into parenting practices. Thus, the data
roles within larger role configurations and path- were collected and analyzed using Charmaz’s
ways involve interdependencies with extra- (2014) grounded theory principles. Approval
family roles of school and work. For example, for the study was obtained from the University
Macmillan and Copher’s example of teen par- of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Institutional
enting suggests that parenthood may foster tran- Review Board prior to data collection and analy-
sitions out of schooling and undermine sis, which was carried out by the principal
educational attainment over the life course. investigator.
Thus, social roles and the fulfillment of such
roles in light of other roles becomes important
Recruitment and sample
to study in order to get a holistic picture of
family dynamics. Mothers of children aged 2-6 years who were
Using the life course perspective of inter- considered typically developing were recruited
locked roles and residence identifies the dynamic through convenience sampling, primarily
nature of a woman’s roles, the temporal continu- through fliers distributed to local child-care cen-
ity of these roles, as well as the life events that ters, pre-schools, doctors’ offices, and CHIP
may change these roles over time. Social roles, (Children’s Health Improvement Program)
such as mothering, are thus incorporated into offices in an eastern state in the United States.
4 C. SETHI

After initial contact was made with the 14 Table 1. Demographics of mothers in the study.
mothers who expressed interest in the study, Demographic
Characteristic Categories Number
two screening questions were asked: (1) Do
you have a child between the ages of 2 and 6, Age Range 26-35 5
36-45 7
and (2) Does your child have any known/diag- Race/Ethnicity African-American/Black 2
nosed conditions? There were no exclusion cri- Caucasian/White 6
teria based on parent race/ethnicity; however, Asian/Pacific Islander 1
Hispanic/Latino 1
for the convenience of data collection and analy- Other/Mixed 2
sis, only English-speaking participants were Education Less than high school 1
included (as the lead researcher’s primary spo- GED 0
High school diploma 4
ken language is English). Associate’s degree 2
Two prospective participants were excluded Bachelor’s degree 1
from the study; one because her child had Master’s degree 2
Doctoral degree 0
cerebral palsy and another did not seem Other 2
sufficiently proficient in English to answer (Career school;
interview questions. Of the 12 mothers Personal Care
Assistant
recruited, each had at least one child between (PCA) and
the ages of 2 and 6. The five mothers with accounting
two children in that age range were asked to certification)
Annual Less than $15,000 3
share information regarding either or both of Household $15,000 - $24,999 0
their children as appropriate. Four of the Income $25,000 - $49,999 4
mothers had one other child between the $50,000 - $99,999 1
More than $100,000 2
ages of 7 and 18 living in the household; Prefer not to answer 2
three had two other children in that age
range; and one mother had three other chil-
dren. Four mothers lived alone with their chil- first interview, mothers were asked to describe
dren; five lived with one other adult (partner scenarios from recent experiences with their
or spouse); and three lived with two other children that led to a disciplining response
adults (including sister, sister-in-law, and from the mother, and probes were used to
adult child). All mothers were aged between get rich and in-depth interview responses
26 and 45 years old. The sample was varied regarding the manner in which they decided
in terms of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, to respond to their child. In the second inter-
level of education, and household income. view, the mothers were provided with an
Table 1 presents the demographic character- opportunity to reflect on the previous inter-
istics of the mothers included in this study. view, often by reading back sections of the
transcript, and encouraged to describe other
scenarios with their children or other factors
Data collection
that influenced their decisions about respond-
Two in-depth, audio-recorded interviews were ing to their child’s behavior. Mothers were
conducted with each participant, as the study compensated with a $25 visa gift card after
was focused on mothers’ decision-making pro- the completion of each interview. Two mothers
cesses. Most of the interviews were conducted were unavailable for the second interview, and
in the mothers’ homes, with a few conducted thus a total of 22 interviews were conducted.
at the local library and one at a coffee shop. At the beginning of the first in-person inter-
The initial interviews lasted approximately view, consent was obtained. Completed consent
50-75 minutes. The follow-up interviews were forms were kept in lock boxes separate from par-
conducted approximately 2-4 weeks after the ticipant contact information, which was stored
first and lasted anywhere between 35-50 min- on a password protected personal laptop. The
utes. The second interview was beneficial for audio recordings of all interviews were saved
clarification of data as well as member check- on a password and fingerprint protected iPhone
ing to optimize trustworthiness. During the until they could be transferred to a password
 JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE 5

protected laptop. After that, the audio files were constructing a conceptual framework truly
deleted. grounded in the data. The larger study included
parents of children with developmental disabil-
ities, primary caregivers of adults with autism,
Data analysis
parents of children with Conduct Disorder and
All audio files were transcribed verbatim and Oppositional Defiant Disorder, and parents
deidentified before data analysis began. Initial with chronic mental health concerns. Thus, the
line by line coding of each transcript, using construction of the conceptual framework is
initial, focused and theoretical codes, was carried ongoing. However, one of the end results of
out while data collection continued simul- this project was related to the core category of
taneously. Constant comparative methods “mothering as a relational role” the findings
(Charmaz, 2014) were used to achieve a higher from which are presented.
level of abstraction of findings towards frame-
work development. As part of the analysis pro-
cess, comparisons were made between data and Findings
other data, data and codes, codes and other The study identified the interrelated and varying
codes, categories and codes, categories and nature of a woman’s many roles, the temporal
other categories, and core category to all other continuity of these roles, and the life experiences
categories. that may transform these roles over time. For
During the data collection and analysis, 28 example, Nicole spoke of her struggle to fulfil
reflective memos and 26 additional analytic the role of a wife due to the overwhelming nature
memos were written, leading to decisions of being a mother.
about adding further interview questions as
well as theoretical sampling. Once the concep- My husband still expects me to be a wife
tual framework began to take shape, categories and a partner to him. I find that, to be hon-
that required further theoretical saturation est, probably one of the more difficult things
were identified and theoretical sampling was car- in my life. I have children all day long that
ried out. This included re-coding or analyzing need me, you know, homework and shut-
previously coded data with an emphasis on tling and meals and cleaning. Then he
emerging categories (Charmaz, 2014), as well comes home and he wants me to be a wife.
as asking specific questions related to theoretical However, this study also found that the role of
categories in subsequent interviews. For mother, itself, includes multiple interconnected
example, the core category of “mothering as a roles (see Figure 1) including caregiver, nur-
relational role” included categories related to
turer, educator, protector, and learner. The fol-
caregiving, protecting, mentoring/education, lowing is a description of mothers’ relational
and learning. However, when specific questions roles and the occupations they engage in to
were asked regarding the “multiple hats” worn
fulfil these roles.
by mothers, a fifth category related to nurturing
emerged. Previous transcripts were then re-
Caregiver
coded with an emphasis on the newly emerged
category. Typically, caregivers provide help to other
people in need. In the context of parenting, the
term caregiving is often associated with such
Development of conceptual framework
occupations as bathing, feeding, or dressing a
The end goal of most grounded theory studies is child, and this was also the case for the women
to develop a middle-range or substantive theory, in this study. They described these caregiving
or some sort of conceptual framework about the tasks in a similar manner, including “potty train-
process or phenomenon under study. For this ing” and “getting them ready for bed”. As chil-
project, the research process and theoretical dren gained more self-care skills, the ways in
decision-making strategies were documented in which the mother carried out these caregiver
reflective and analytic memos with the goal of tasks also changed. For example, for a child
6 C. SETHI

Figure 1. Mothering as a relational role.

that could dress him or herself, the mother’s car- checking him out. Making sure, you know,
egiving tasks were related to procuring the overnight sicknesses do happen. Rashes hap-
child’s clothes, picking out clothes for school, pen. You know, that type of thing. So, daily
or tying the child’s shoe laces, as well as house- health, I want to call it like a daily health
hold chores such as laundry. Similarly, for observation as a caregiver.
older children that could, for example, feed
themselves, the caregiving tasks shifted slightly. In general, the participants believed that most,
In such a situation, instead of feeding her if not all mundane everyday occupations and
child, a trip to the grocery store or cooking a household chores such as cooking, clean-
healthy dinner for the family were also included ing, laundry, school pick-ups and drop-offs
within caregiving occupations. For example, or what Cindy, a mother of two, described
providing healthy and nutritious meals were an as fulfilling the child’s “basic needs” were car-
important part of the caregiving role for Liz, a ried out for the purpose of fulfilling the
mother of two. caregiver role.

So, children are what they eat … when you

Nurturer
stop and you do fast food every day, or you
just grab, you know, when they want a Although many actions related to raising and/
snack, you give them a snack instead of say- or caring for a child are associated with nur-
ing, ‘Okay, well what about an apple?’ You turing, the participants in the study identified
know, you are what you eat, so that goes nurturing as having an emotional component.
back to being a caregiver. For many of them, being a nurturer meant
showing affection and expressing love and
Liz also viewed caregiving as maintaining the care for their children. In fact, for these
overall well-being of her child. mothers, nurturing occupations were the
most defining responsibilities of being a
Caregiving is doing a head to toe check parent. For example, Laurel, a mother of two
daily. Daily observation. From head to toe, explained:
you know. He wakes up in the morning.
The first thing I do is, I mean I look at his I think that being an affectionate mom is
face, you know as I’m talking to him, I’m the most important thing. I want them to
 JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE 7

know that somebody loves them uncondi- I don’t want them to think that people can
tionally and they don’t have to look for just talk to them however they want to. I’m
that, they don’t have to search for it. trying to teach them how to be respectful. If
I want that respect, then I have to show
Similarly, when asked about what being a good them how to do it.
mother means to her, Amanda, a mother of
three said, “I guess caring and showing affection Similarly, Linda also valued the importance of
and showing them that I love them, and I’m teaching her children to be respectful.
here for them no matter what. Just being here
to guide them.” Nurturing occupations such as We’ve got to teach our children to respect not
“kissing away the boo boo”, comforting tired only themselves but their belongings. If they
and cranky children, or simply “doing things as respect themselves and other people around
a family” were significant as the participants them, their belongings in this world, every-
believed that they provided a sense of belonging one and everything will be so much easier
for the child. For example, Linda, a mother of and so much happier, and their toys and
two, explained the importance of eating dinner belongings would last a lot longer.
together as a family. As another example, Anita, a mother of four,
We try to do all that as a family. It’s for the explained that teaching manners at home was
children to know that family is important. very important to her, so that her son learned
Your family sticks together no matter acceptable ways of behaving when he went out
what is going on in this world or whatever into the world.
today. It’s your family that’s always going When I’m sleeping in the room, you’re not
to be there and stand by you. It’s important allowed to come in. Or don’t just walk in
for me to let my children know, no matter my room. You have to knock on the door.
what goes on in life, you should never When you knock on the door, I tell you
ever have fear to come to mom and dad come in. When you just open the door, I
for anything. send you right back outside. Go back out
This example provides insight into the partici- and close my door and knock. By the time
pants’ sense of fulfilling all their roles as transac- you go back to somebody’s house, you’re
tional in nature. Linda was all at once being a not just going to walk in a person’s house.
protector for her child but also making sure You’re going to knock before you enter.
her child had a sense of belonging and non-judg- For all the participants, disciplining their chil-
mental acceptance from the parents. This quote dren or correcting their behavior was carried
is presented under the role of nurturer because out to fulfil the role of educator. The goal was
Linda emphasized the importance of children always to teach their child a better way to
feeling loved and having an identity as part of respond, think or act, and to engage in behaviors
a family. that she considered appropriate.

Educator Protector
The role of educator encompasses many differ- Keeping their children safe was another very
ent aspects of parent-child interactions. These important part of being a parent. Pam, a mother
range from teaching a child to brush his or her of two daughters, would put both her children in
teeth, to helping a child with schoolwork or cor- the grocery cart while shopping. Recently, how-
recting a child’s behavior. The end goal of fulfill- ever, she noticed that her older child was too big
ing this role is always to bring about some for the cart: “I was really afraid I was going to
positive change in the child’s behavior. For push it and have her … go out.” Pam believed
example, Amanda, a mother of three, tried to that safety was extremely important and thus
model the behavior that she wanted to instill in started using a child-friendly cart with a car
her 3-year-old daughter. attached to it for this reason. As a different
8 C. SETHI

example, Emily, a mother of two, thought that thick of a book that you would follow for
“the new girl’s a bully” and she therefore always rules and regulations. A good 200 pages,
watched her children play outside through the but it’s called Minimum Standards. It’s
window because one of the new neighbor’s the basics of getting by … Child ratios.
daughter teased her son. Current events related Health and safety. Sanitation. Daily rou-
to neighborhood safety also factored into the tines. First aid.
necessity of keeping children safe. Linda
informed me of a recent drive-by shooting in Many mothers also described watching other
her neighborhood. people’s parenting strategies and making judg-
ment calls about whether or not they would
It’s just important for us to make sure that engage in such occupations with their own chil-
our children are safe and feel safe not only dren. Nicole recalled:
at home, feel comfortable at home and feel
as safe as possible in the world, but the I can remember sitting there watching my
things that go on in this world I know it’s niece play with her spaghetti, like play,
hard. I’m 40 years old, and I’m even scared. play, play with it at dinner. I remember
having the thought, ‘My kids are never
Whether it was prevention of bullying, or ensur- going to do that. They’re not going to play
ing the child did not eat foods he was allergic to, with their food.’
all mothers discussed being protective of their
children. In fact, Nicole informed me that the manner in
which some of her friends parented their children
led to the disruption of her social relationships
Learner with them: “Certainly relationships have gone by
“There’s not a manual to being a parent,” said the wayside because I can’t be around them with
Kristin, a mother of two. She went on, “there’s their kids because of the way they parent.”
nothing that can prepare you for parenting.
You never know what your child is going to be
Summary of findings
like. Everybody’s different.” All the mothers in
the study expressed this opinion in one way or It is important to recognize that the above cat-
another. They recounted strategies of educating egories are not mutually exclusive. In this study,
themselves to become a better parent, which every mother talked about engaging in each of
ranged from trial and error to formal parenting the occupations and fulfilling each of these roles
classes. For example, Linda, asked other people independently or in conjunction with each
for advice: “I listen to everybody else’s advice, other. For example, Gina, a mother of two,
but the main person I really listen to is her doctor described getting her children ready for school
because her doctor knows and what her doctor and transporting them to and from the bus stop
says to me I know is the best thing for her.” In as mundane daily chores, which would imply
comparison, Emily described used more trial fulfilling the role of caregiver: “It has to be done.
and error and learning from her past experi- You do it every day.” On the other hand, Nicole
ences. For example, she took away her 4-year- experienced the time that she spent helping her
old son’s hand-held video game console as a daughter get dressed as an opportunity to teach
form of discipline, because “everything else her to be kind. She told her 5-year-old daughter,
didn’t work”. As another example, Liz, who every day, “Go to school, help somebody. Be nice to
was the director of a childcare center for many somebody.” In this scenario, Nicole was enfolding
years, believed that her past experiences and her caregiver role with the role of an educator.
training in child health and safety contributed However, Cindy, mother of two, found describ-
to her skills as a mother. ing the nature of managing these different roles
overwhelming.
Standards. Minimum Standards are
embedded in my head … Minimum Stan- Definitely different hats. I think that some-
dards is the basics, and it’s about that times we forget to switch hats, we forget to
 JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE 9

let other people help us with those hats. such as asking for advice from experts or reading
Not because we don’t trust other people books about parenting, while others simply
but because we know how to get it done observe other parents or discuss parenting strat-
quicker and right the first time, and egies with friends and family to fulfil this role of
because we don’t want to miss anything. a learner.
That’s my big thing, I don’t want anybody Not all parenting occupations identified by
else to do [things] because I don’t want to the mothers were related directly to parent-
miss anything … I think we forget to share child interactions, but all were in some way
those hats. People are happy to help but fulfilling the role of a parent. For example,
sometimes [we] don’t allow it when they mothers might negotiate a “deal” with their
offer. children about getting dessert being conditional
on finishing their vegetables, which requires
This account provides further evidence of the direct communication with children. However,
intertwined and transactional nature of the rela- packing a child’s lunch for school was also con-
tional roles that mothers fulfil by engaging in a sidered to be a parenting occupation, though it
multitude of occupations. required no direct contact with the child. This
study also found that the role of mothering
incorporates many different occupations that
Discussion
may or may not require initiation by the
The findings reveal the multiple occupations child. Some examples include grocery shop-
that mothers engage in to fulfil the roles of care- ping, reading parenting books, observing
giver, nurturer, educator, protector, and learner. others, or seeking advice to inform parenting
As caregivers, mothers fulfil their children’s decisions. It is thus more appropriate to
basic needs, such as providing food and shelter. describe mothering as a relational role instead
All occupations associated with meeting these of a co-occupation (Pierce, 2009). Additionally,
needs, such as shopping, cooking, cleaning, it was apparent that while parenting roles
transporting the child to and from the bus stop encompass many different occupations, the
or school are included within the caregiver definition of ‘parenting occupations’ can
role. As nurturers, mothers provide a sense of include different things for different people.
belonging and affection towards the child. Enga- The myriad of mothering occupations, and
ging in occupations like hugging and kissing the the motivations behind engaging in these occu-
child, expressing concern for their child when pations, were explored in this study.
hurt, and doing things as a family, help to In connection to the concept of pathways
fulfill that role. Mothers also help children to within life course sociology, this study found
understand right from wrong and teach appro- that mothers fulfil multiple social roles, which
priate ways to act in the world. These occu- is consistent with occupational science research
pations, along with teaching their child on becoming a mother for the first time
manners and appropriate skills are included (Horne, Corr, & Earle, 2005) and caregiving
within the role of educator. Additionally, for adolescents or young adults with spinal
mothers’ protection of their children, whether cord injury (Haywood & Lawlor, 2019). How-
from violence in an impoverished neighborhood ever, this study also highlights the importance
or bullying at school, is associated with the role of multiple interconnected roles within the role
of protector. Mothers may engage in occu- of a mother and the considerable overlap within
pations such as watching children closely while the occupations that mothers engage in to fulfil
they play outdoors, or discussing issues pertain- these roles. For example, one mother was motiv-
ing to bullying with a teacher to fulfil this role. ated by the nutritional value of food and believed
Finally, mothers are also learners, constantly that she was nurturing and protecting her child
evolving and maturing in the mothering process, from disease through mealtimes. In contrast,
and this can be due to the children’s chronologi- another mother believed that providing meals
cal age or learning from their own experiences. for the child was a simple caregiving task that
Some mothers seek out learning experiences, fulfilled the child’s basic needs.
10 C. SETHI

Additionally, some mothers enfolded mul- or bi-directional in nature to a more transac-

tiple roles into one occupation, such as the tional perspective.
mother who enfolded coaching her child to be
kind into helping her child get dressed. The
Limitations
findings indicated, thus, that these categories
are not mutually exclusive, as every mother in This study was carried out with utmost rigor and
the study described engaging in occupations to ethical considerations. However, a few limit-
fulfil all of these roles either singularly or in con- ations must be acknowledged. First, the study
cert with each other. Finally, the participants primarily made use of semi-structured inter-
acknowledged that constantly trying to manage views rather than observations of mother child
these different mothering roles could be interactions, since it related to the sensitive
overwhelming. topic of parenting practices. However, future
The findings of this study are consistent with studies must be conducted with use of other
previous occupational science research. For types of data such as focus groups, observations,
example, in a study of occupational well-being journals etc. Second, as a starting point, this
of individuals experiencing homelessness, Tho- study focused on mothers’ perspectives on the
mas, Gray, and McGinty (2017) described a process of decision-making. Future research
single mother striving to keep her temporary should attempt to replicate the findings in
accommodation clean, while also making time other groups of primary caregivers, such as
to cuddle her children, prepare meals for them, fathers, grandparents, aunts/uncles and/or foster
and “protect her children from the reality they parents. Additionally, to further explore certain
face” (p. 186). Similarly, in a study of mothers aspects of the conceptual framework, such as
of children with food allergies, mothers were historical context related to intergenerational
reported to display multiple occupational identi- transmission, multigenerational interview
ties, such as warriors, managers of change, studies could also be conducted. In addition,
“allergy moms”, and advocates (VanderKaay, the sample size for this study was based, in
2016, p. 224). These categories are similar to part, on feasibility and time constraints. How-
and appear to have considerable overlap with ever, future studies of larger sample sizes, or
the occupations that mothers engage in when multiple replication studies of similar sample
fulfilling the relational roles of protector, educa- sizes, could help abstract the findings from this
tor, and learner. Larson’s (2000) metaphorical study to a substantive theory, and further formal
description of motherhood as an “orchestration theory. Finally, the current project was carried
of occupation” (p. 269) resonates with this out with mothers of typically developing chil-
everyday reality. dren, as previous research has outlined that
there can be differences in parenting and overall
family dynamics when a child has a disability
Implications for Occupational Science
(Crowe, Duvall, & Gutierrez, 2016; Downs,
This study has numerous implications for occu- 2008; Koome, Hocking, & Sutton, 2012). Future
pational science. First, the findings revealed that application of these findings with parents of chil-
it is more appropriate to study parenting as a dren with disabilities could strengthen the the-
relational role encompassing multiple occu- ory development process. Further, the study of
pations, instead of describing parenting itself as parents with mental, intellectual, or physical dis-
an occupation. Further, rather than describing abilities would also help with the transferability
the parent-child relationship as a bidirectional of the findings.
interaction, the study revealed it to be a transac-
tional process. Finally, the findings portray
Conclusion
mothers as more holistic occupational beings,
incorporating their present socio-cultural situ- Parenting children with or without disabilities is
ations and their everyday parenting occupations. a complex process involving conscious and sub-
These findings further the shift in occupational conscious decision-making abilities. Parenting
science from viewing occupations as individual cannot be limited to being considered an
 JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL SCIENCE 11

occupation or taken to only include family rou- Chapdelaine, S., Shields, H., & Forwell, S. J. (2017) How
tines. Instead, one must consider parenting as a mothers experience their adolescents’ first year in high
school. Journal of Occupational Science, 24(3), 338–
relational role and recognize the importance of
350. doi:10.1080/14427591.2016.1254675
social roles and how they interconnect with Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd
one another. The concert of mothering roles ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
that encompasses many habits and occupations Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Neppl, T. K., & Merrick, M.
provides an opportunity to explore these occu- T. (2013). Disrupting intergenerational continuity in
harsh and abusive parenting: The importance of a
pations at multiple levels. nurturing relationship with a romantic partner.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(4), 11–17. doi:10.
1016/j.jadohealth.2013.03.014
Acknowledgements Crowe, T. C., Duvall, S. W., & Gutierrez, J. A. (2016).
The guidance and feedback from Dr. Brian Boyd Occupational performance goals of mothers of adoles-
throughout this project was invaluable. Feedback from cents with disabilities and mothers of adolescents with
Drs. Ruth Humphry, Antoine Bailliard, Amelia Gibson typical development. Journal of Occupational Science,
and Iheoma Iruka was incorporated to maintain rigor 23(3), 370–381. doi:10.1080/14427591.2016.1172494
during the entire research process. Finally, this study Cutchin, M. P., & Dickie, V. A. (2013). Transactional per-
would not be possible without the 12 incredible mothers spectives on occupation: An introduction and ration-
who shared their stories. ale. In M. P. Cutchin & V. A. Dickie (Eds.),
Portions of this data were presented at the 2017 Transactional perspectives on occupation (pp. 1–10).
annual meeting of Society for the Study of Occupations: Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
USA (SSO: USA) in Seattle, Washington. Deater-Deckard, K., Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit,
G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2003). The development of atti-
tudes about physical punishment: An 8-year longi-
Disclosure statement tudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(3),
351–360. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.351
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the Dickie, V., Cutchin, M. P., & Humphry, R. (2006).
author. Occupation as transactional experience: A critique of
individualism in occupational science. Journal of
Occupational Science, 13(1), 83–93. doi:10.1080/
Funding 14427591.2006.9686573
Dixon, L., Browne, K., & Hamilton-Giachrists, C. (2009).
This project was funded in part by The Graduate School, Patterns of risk and protective factors in the interge-
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. nerational cycle of maltreatment. Journal of Family
Violence, 24(2), 111–122. doi:10.1007/s10896-008-
9215-2
ORCID Downs, M. (2008). Leisure routines: Parents and children
Chetna Sethi with disability sharing occupation. Journal of
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7676-6438 Occupational Science, 15(2), 105–110. doi:10.1080/
14427591.2008.9686616
Elder, G. H., Jr. (1998). The life course as developmental
theory. Child Development, 69(1), 1–12. doi:10.1111/j.
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