Module 5

Asian vs. Western Ethics

ASIAN VALUES (Excerpt from Hoole and Hoole - Asian Values and the Human Rights Basis of Professional
Ethics)
Asia has many cultures and a broad set of values associated with each. By “Asian values” we do not
mean a broad set of values applicable to Southeast Asia and Far East (for there cannot be such a
broad set, given the regional disparities). Asian values refer to a narrow set which includes:
a. A stress on the community rather than the individual
b. The privileging of order and harmony over personal freedom
c. A refusal to compartmentalize religion separate from other spheres of life
d. An emphasis on savings and thrift
e. An insistence on hard work
f. Respect for political leadership
g. A belief that government and business need not be natural adversaries
h. An emphasis on family loyalty which includes respect for elders
Characterizing Western Ethics
Ethical discourses are central to any philosophical systems. Some of the philosophers directly addressed
the well-being and social good. The sophist considers man is measure of everything. For them, what
gives pleasure is good. Socrates emphasized on virtue as knowledge and unexamined life is not worth
living. The ethics of ancient and medieval theories are founded on religious morality. The ethical
theories of modern times are developed on the human nature. J. S. Mill maintains that human being
by nature seeks pleasure and avoids pain. For Kant, human beings by nature are rational and argue
for universal moral duty on this basis.
Western Ethics Eastern Ethics
Focus Finding Truth Protocol and Respect
Basis Rational Though Religious Teachings
Emphasis Logic, Cause and Effect Respect towards Family
Athens, Rome and Judeo Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism
Roots
Christianity and Taoism
Approach Rational Holistic and Cultural
Conflict and Good must triumph over evil Good and bad, Light and dark all
Harmony exist in equilibrium

References:
• De Guzman, J. M. et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of ethical behavior in modern society: Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.
• Hoole, S. R. & Hoole, D. (2005). Asian Values and the Human Rights Basis of Professional Ethics:
TEMPUS Publications. Retrieved from https://www.ijee.ie/articles/Vol21-3/IJEE1639.pd
ETHICS and RELIGION
The Role of Ethics in Religion (An article by S. Mintz, 2012)
Can we be Ethical without being Religious?
A longstanding debate has been whether ethics plays a role in religion. Most religions have an ethical
component. Ethics, which is a major branch of philosophy, encompasses right conduct and good life.
It is significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong. Ethics deals with
ideas such as Right, Good and Duty and these concepts were discussed in ancient Greece by Plato
and Aristotle in the 3rd & 4th Century BCE.
A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is simply satisfying, which is
held by many philosophers to be more important than traditional moral codes. The ancient Greeks
called it eudaimonia or happiness. The ancient Greeks believed happiness was brought about by living
one’s life in accordance with virtue – positive traits of character. Virtue in the highest sense, in an adult
who has been brought up well, will not just involve good personal habits such as courage and
temperance, but also friendship and justice and intellectual virtue. The essence of virtue is in the
wholeness of the person brought about by integrity.
The influential philosopher, Immanuel Kant defended the idea of God as a basic requirement of ethics.
We ought to be virtuous and do our duty, he said. Kant believed virtue should be rewarded by
happiness, and it would be intolerable if it were not so. Since it's clear that virtue often does go
unrewarded in the present life, Kant argued that the soul must be immortal. Virtue must receive its due
recompense in a future life, and there must be a God guaranteeing that it is so rewarded. The existence
of God and the immortality of the soul were what Kant called the postulates of practical reason - the
assumptions without which, so he claimed, ethics and a moral life would not be possible.
Revealed religions like Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam do prescribe some clear and
unambiguous rules to follow. If their scriptures were authored or dictated by God, then the commands
in them are God's own commands. They cannot be changed if human circumstances change or
ethical ideas progress.
If religion has a role in moral decision-making, then what should be that role? In America, for many
individuals, their religion is a centrally defining characteristic of who they are, such that they would be
nearly incapable of making ethical decisions independently of their religious beliefs.
Further, some of our most basic moral sentiments are directly connected to religious ideology. For
example, most people agree that things like murder and adultery are always wrong, regardless of
circumstances. Most major world religions echo these sentiments, and it can be argued that the
ancient codes of conduct these traditions embody are actually the original source of our social
intuitions. At a minimum, we do seem to regard religion as a good source of basic moral guidance,
making it unwise to argue that there ought to be no connection between religion and ethics. The link
between religion and morality is best illustrated by the Golden Rule. Virtually all of the world’s great
religions contain in their religious texts some version of the Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would
wish them do unto you”. In other words, we should treat others the way we would want to be treated.
This is the basic ethic that guides all religions. If we do so, happiness will ensue.
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I’ve studied other religions and identified the following religious tenets that speak to the Golden Rule:
Religion Expression of the Golden Rule
Christianity All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye so to them; for
this is the law. (Matthew 7:1)
Confucianism Do not do to others what you would not like yourself. Then there will be no
resentment against you, either in the family or in the state. (Analects 12:2)
Buddhism Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful. (Udana-Varga)
Hinduism This is the sum of duty, do naught onto others what you would not have them
do unto you. (Mahabharata)
Islam No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires
for himself. (Sunnah)
Judaism What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellowman. This is the entire Law; all the
rest is commentary. (Talmud, Shabbat 3id)
Taoism Regard your neighbor‟s gain as your gain, and your neighbor‟s loss as your own
loss. (Tai Shang Kan Yin P‟ien)
Zoroastrianism The nature alone is good which refrains from doing another
whatsoever is not good for itself. (Dadisten-I-dinik, 94, 5)

The role of philosophers is to accurately try to define and promote ethical concepts based upon logic
and reason. A religious person on the other hand, follows his or her code of conduct because he
believes that it is proper behavior and reaction to the varying challenges and circumstances which
arise during the course of life.
I end with two quotes. The first is from Kant: “In law a man is guilty when he violates the rights of others.
In ethics he is guilty if he only thinks of doing so.”
The second one sums up, I believe, the moral challenges of our time. Archie Carroll, a noted ethicist
said: “As religion and faith are being driven out of the public square, the Judeo-Christian ethical
foundations that have sustained our country since its beginning, are being lost and are being replaced
with a humanistic amorality, a self-centered, pragmatic indifference that will ensure that our moral
compasses will fail to point us in the right direction in the future.
 Stoicism
Epictetus once said that “Of one thing beware, O man: see what is the price at which you sell your
will. If you do nothing else, do not sell your will cheap”.

In the modern world Stoicism is defined as the endurance of pain or hardship without the display of
feelings and without complaint but the original philosophy was more than just an attitude. According
to the stoics, everything around us operates through a web of cause and effect resulting in the rational
structure of the universe which they called “LOGOS”. And while we may not have control over the
events that affects us, we do have a control over how we approach things. Rather than imagining an
ideal society, the stoics see the world as it is while pursuing self-improvement through four cardinal
virtues.
• Practical Wisdom
o Navigating complex situations with logic, information and calmness
• Courage
o To do the right thing and facing daily challenges with clarity and integrity
• Justice
o Treating every human being—regardless of his or her stature in life—with fairness and
kindness
• Temperance
o Exercising moderation and self-control in all the aspects of life
Stoicism was an active school of philosophy for several centuries in Greece and Rome but as a formal
institution, it faded away. But its influence has continued to inspire several business leaders, politicians
and athletes to this day. Which is why in this video we will be talking about 12 practical exercises, as
per the book How to be a Stoic by Massimo Pigliucci that uses Epictituse’s Enchiridion, which we can
use in the modern world while mastering the four stoic virtues.
1. Examine your impressions
➢ Epictetus says, “So make a practice at once of saying to every strong impression: ‘An
impression is all you are, not the source of the impression.’ Then test and assess it with your
criteria, but one primarily: ask, ‘Is this something that is, or is not, in my control?” By this
exercise Epictetus tells us to constantly examine our “impressions”—that is, our initial reactions
to events, people, and what we are being told—by stepping back to make room for rational
deliberation, avoiding rash emotional reactions and asking whether whatever is being
thrown at us is under our control or not. If it is under your control act on it, if it is not, then just
ignore it. For example, you are stuck in bad traffic, and you are getting late to work. Of
course, you could have done things which were under your control like pre-empting the
traffic and leaving early. But now since you are stuck in traffic, which is not under your control,
you could instead of being irritated or getting angry, just listen, keep calm and carry on
2. Remind yourself of the impermanence of things
➢ In words of Epictetus “When giving your child or wife a kiss, repeat to yourself, ‘I am kissing a
mortal” The truth is Change is a universal law of nature. Things are changing constantly. Life
is ephemeral— the people we care about may be snatched from us in a snap, without
warning. Therefore, this exercise is about reminding ourselves how precious our loved ones
are - they may soon flow past, too. Let’s appreciate what we have now because it might
be gone tomorrow. Life is impermanent. Keep in mind that you are lucky to be able to enjoy
the things you have, and that your enjoyment might end abruptly, and that you might never
be able to enjoy those things ever again. Learn to enjoy stuff and people without feeling
entitled to them, without clinging.
3. The reverse clause
➢ According to Epictetus “Whenever planning an action, mentally rehearse what the plan
entails”. It is not true that bad things only happen to bad people. Good or bad, each of us
is going to face certain situations. This exercise is all about facing these situations with the
best of your abilities while leaving the outcome to fate. Let’s suppose that you are
considered for a promotion at your job. While we naturally think that our goal is to get the
promotion, the outcome of course is not in our control—it can only be influenced by us. So,
you need to make your goal something that actually is in your power and not something
that Fate can rob you of: which in this case would be to put together the best promotion file
you can before the decision is made. Now, you may get the promotion but there are
chances that you won’t. The idea is not to absorb the injustice of not getting a promotion
that was richly deserved. Rather, it is to deploy the wisdom that sometimes things will not go
your way even if you do your best, and regardless of whether you deserved to get the
promotion.
4. How can I use virtue here and now
➢ Epictetus informs us “For every challenge, remember the resources you have within you to
cope with it”. According to Stoics, we should use every occasion, every challenge, as a way
to exercise our virtue, to become a better human being by constant application. Going by
the previous example, it is very natural for you to feel upset for not getting the promotion
that you thought you deserved or being envious of your colleague who got the promotion
instead of you. You might even be angry at your boss. Instead by remembering your
overarching goal which to be a decent person who doesn’t do anything that is unvirtuous
or that may compromise your identity or integrity, you can let go off the negative feelings
and take this situation as learning curve and look for at the ways you could improve your
work performance. The truth is all of us have a lot more self-control, endurance and patience
than we think we do.
5. Pause and take a deep breath
➢ As we learn from the words of Epictetus “Remember, it is not enough to be hit or insulted to
be harmed, you must believe that you are being harmed. If someone succeeds in provoking
you, realize that your mind is complicit in the provocation. Which is why it is essential that we
do not respond impulsively to impressions; take a moment before reacting, and you will find
it is easier to maintain control” This is simple advice, and yet it is very difficult to pull off. It is
also very, very important. The idea behind this exercise is to rationally examine our
impressions, regardless of whether they are negative, such as insults, or positive such as
feelings of lust for which we need to resist the impulse to react immediately and instinctively
to potentially problematic situations. Instead, we must pause, take a deep breath, perhaps
go for a walk around the block, and only then consider the issue with logic and calmness.
Once you start seriously practicing this exercise, you will see dramatic improvements in the
way you handle things, and you’ll get positive feedback from all the others who also see
those improvements in you.
6. Other-ize
➢ According to Epictetus “When somebody’s wife or child dies, to a man we all routinely say,
‘Well, that’s part of life.’ But if one of our own family is involved, then right away it’s ‘Poor,
poor me!’ We would do better to remember how we react when a similar loss afflicts others.”
Epictetus reminds us here of just how differently we regard an event that has affected other
people when the same event affects us. It is easy for us to be calm when little
inconveniences, or even disasters, happen to others than to ourselves. For example, when
your friend loses or breaks his phone, you will tell him that it’s just a phone and he can buy a
new one. But when you break your phone, you will lose your calm. Or even for more grievous
matters like when your friend’s wife dies, you will console him by telling him that death is a
part of life, and she is in a better place. But when you lose someone of your own, you will
lose your equanimity. Of course, losing your phone is not the same thing as losing your wife
but this exercise is all about understanding that accidents, injuries, disease, and death are
 unavoidable, and while it is understandable to be distraught over them, we can take
comfort in knowing that they are in the normal order of things. The universe isn’t after
anyone—or at least, it isn’t after any one of us in particular!
7. Speak little and well
➢ Epictetus says “Let silence be your goal for the most part, say only what is necessary, and be
brief about it. On the rare occasions when you’re called upon to speak, then speak, but
never about banalities like gladiators, horses, sports, food and drink—common-place stuff.
Above all don’t gossip about people, praising, blaming or comparing them.” Epictetus’s
gives us the list of things we should not talk about We may not talk much these days about
gladiators, but we do talk about star athletes, movie and music stars, and other “celebrities”
instead of talking about difficult topics because we have been conditioned to think that
“serious” talk is boring and at any rate requires more background knowledge and attention
than most of us associate with good conversation. Epictetus also advises to stay away from
the conversation that concern with gossiping and passing judgements of people. To indulge
in gossip and judge people who are not present to defend themselves simply does not seem
to be the virtuous thing to do. Initially this exercise will feel unnatural, but then the habit will
kick in. So slowly change your conversational topics and respond less to gossiping and
passing judgments and occasionally introduce a challenging topic of your own that is based
on something you’ve recently read or watched and that you feel might lead to a mutually
beneficial conversation with your friends.
8. Choose your company well
➢ Epictetus says “Avoid fraternizing with non-philosophers. If you must, though, be careful not
to sink to their level; because, you know, if a companion is dirty, his friends cannot help but
get a little dirty too, no matter how clean they started out.” Epictetus advises us to pay a
very close attention to whom we spend our time with. This is a great advice since life is short,
temptation and waste are always lurking, and so we need to pay attention to what we are
doing and who our companions are. So, start spending time with people who are interested
in following virtue and cultivating their character. Aristotle once said that we want to be with
friends who are better than ourselves, so that we can learn from them. Ask yourself about
the people you meet and spend time with: Are they making me better? Do they encourage
me to push forward, and do they hold me accountable? Or do they drag me down to their
level? And then consciously consider whom you allow into your life.
9. Respond to insults with humour
➢ In the words of Epictetus “If you learn that someone is speaking ill of you, don’t try to defend
yourself against the rumours; respond instead with, ‘Yes, and he doesn’t know the half of it,
because he could have said more.” We get easily offended when someone speaks ill about
us or insults us. We take the insults too personally which spoils our mood and ruin our self –
esteem. Instead, we need to realise that the insults, what other speak about you is not in your
control. But how you react to it, most certainly is. Epictetus tells us to respond insults with self
- depreciating humour. For example, if someone trolls you for being overweight, then instead
of getting offended and getting in a useless brawl, reply by saying – yes I am finally getting
one step closer to being the heaviest person on the planet and then give it a laugh. By
laughing off an insult, we are implying that we don’t take the insulter and his insults seriously.
To imply this, of course, is to insult the insulter without directly doing so. It is therefore a
response that is likely to deeply frustrate the insulter. For this reason, a humorous reply to an
insult can be far more effective than a counter insult would be.
10. Don’t speak too much about yourself
➢ As we learn from Epictetus “In your conversation, don’t dwell at excessive length on your
own deeds or adventures. Just because you enjoy recounting your exploits doesn’t mean
that others derive the same pleasure from hearing about them.” We are all guilty of talking
too much about ourselves. We talk about ourselves 30-40% of the time. That’s a lot. Studies
have shown that talking about ourselves is strongly associated with increased activity in the
mesolimbic dopamine system, the same part of our brain that experiences pleasure through
 things like food, sex, and money. The truth is no one wants to sit through a slide show from
your latest vacation (even when presented as tiny pictures on your latest shining iPhone), no
one really wants to hear another person going on and on about himself. It is pretty safe to
say that we are not as interesting as we think we are. We need to exercise some self - control
and refrain from talking too much about ourselves. This will make our friends and
acquaintances happier.
11. Speak without judging
➢ To quote Epictetus “Someone bathes in haste; don’t say he bathes badly, but in haste.
Someone drinks a lot of wine; don’t say he drinks badly, but a lot. Until you know their reasons,
how do you know that their actions are vicious?” This will save you from perceiving one thing
clearly, but then assenting to something different.” The idea is to distinguish between matters
of fact—to which we can assent if we find them justified by observation—and judgments,
from which we generally ought to abstain, since we usually don’t have sufficient information.
The truth is we're all doing the best we can, and we are not privy to the stories behind
people's actions, so we should be patient with others and suspend our judgment of them,
recognizing the limits of our understanding. One of the things one must work on is viewing
the world as objectively as possible. If you see someone you might be inclined to judge as
overweight, think instead of their exact weight, which is a fact, rather than the judgment
that there is too much of it. Better yet, see them as a whole person, with all their objective
characteristics rather than one you would single out. The judgment adds nothing but
unhelpful emotion. See the world as it is and work from that.
12. Reflect on your day
➢ Epictetus teaches “Admit not sleep into your tender eyelids till you have reckoned up each
deed of the day - How have I erred, what done or left undone? So, start, and so review your
acts, and then for vile deeds chide yourself, for good be glad.” Stoicism isn’t just about
thinking, it’s about action—and the best way to improve is to review. Each evening you
should examine your day and your actions. Find a quiet place in your house or apartment
and reflect on what’s happened during the day. The goal is to focus on the important
happenings of the day, particularly those that have ethical valence. Perhaps you spoke ill
about your friend or maybe you were helpful to a colleague. For each of these types of
occurrences, write few lines in your diary and grade your own ethical performance that day.
Ask yourself, what did I do well today? Where were my ethics were tested, where did I do
well? What did I do badly, why did this occur? And furthermore, how can I improve? So now
you know how you can improve tomorrow. If you think you did something that might have
compromised your virtue, then don’t beat yourself up. Be like Seneca and forgive yourself.
Have some self-compassion. Research shows that it’s forgiving yourself — not beating
yourself up — that prevents you from continuing to put things off. And don’t just be critical
of yourself. Think about what you did well so you can repeat it tomorrow and most of all Be
grateful for the good that happened today.