Guide to Road Safety Part 3:

Speed Limits and Speed Management

Sydney 2008
Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Publisher
First edition project manager: Phil Allan
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
First edition prepared by: Austroads Road Safety Task Force Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
[email protected]
The purpose of this guide is to provide an overview of speed limits and their www.austroads.com.au
application as a speed management tool. The use of appropriate speed limits
form an integral part of a safe road system. They are a speed management About Austroads
tool used to improve road safety, while maintaining the efficiency of the road
network. Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
road transport and traffic agencies.
Within the context of a safe road system, speed limits need to reflect the
varying types of road users, the road environment, types of vehicles driven Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
and the safety, amenity and economic needs of the community. organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
The general philosophy adopted when setting speed limits is that when they undertake leading-edge road and transport
are being assessed they take into consideration a comprehensive range of research which underpins our input to policy
factors. These factors include the safety record of the road, the roads development and published guidance on the
operating performance, the road and roadside infrastructure, geometry and design, construction and management of the road
roadside development. network and its associated infrastructure.
Austroads provides a collective approach that
Keywords
delivers value for money, encourages shared
harm minimisation, safe road system, speed, speed limits, speed knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
management, speed zones, road safety
Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
senior executive representatives from each of its
Edition 1.1 published August 2018 eleven member organisations:
• Format updated • Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
Edition 1.0 published February 2008 • Roads Corporation Victoria
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads
• Main Roads Western Australia
• Department of Planning, Transport and
ISBN 978-1-921329-42-5 Pages 19 Infrastructure South Australia
Austroads Project No. SP1051 • Department of State Growth Tasmania
Austroads Publication No. AGRS03-08 • Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Logistics Northern Territory
• Transport Canberra and City Services
© Austroads Ltd 2008 Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the • Australian Government Department of
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without Infrastructure and Regional Development
the prior written permission of Austroads. • Australian Local Government Association
• New Zealand Transport Agency.

This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Summary

The purpose of this guide is to provide an overview of speed limits and their application as a speed
management tool. The use of appropriate speed limits forms an integral part of a safe road system. They are
a speed management tool used to improve road safety, while maintaining the efficiency of the road network.

Within the context of a safe road system, speed limits need to reflect the varying types of road users, the
road environment, types of vehicles driven and the safety, amenity and economic needs of the community.

The general philosophy adopted when setting speed limits is that when they are being assessed they take
into account a comprehensive range of factors. These factors include the safety record of the road, the roads
operating performance, the road and roadside infrastructure, geometry and roadside development.

The application of appropriately set lower speed limits, as a means of achieving lower travel speeds, will be
also be expected to reduce the level of road trauma being experienced. Extensive research has shown that
even modest reductions in travel speed will result in substantial reductions in the incidence and severity of
road crashes.

Across Australia and New Zealand generally, default unsigned 50 km/h speed limits operate within urban
built-up areas, and 100 km/h in rural open-road environments. To reflect differences that may prevail along
roads across the road network varying sign posted speed limits are also applied for values ranging from 10
km/h for shared pedestrian vehicle road spaces (e.g. car parks and pedestrian malls) to 110 km/h for high
standard highways and freeways in rural areas.

Austroads 2008 | page i

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Contents

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Why is Speed Management Important? ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Speed and the Safe System ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Links between Travel Speed and Casualties ........................................................................................... 2

2. What Is A Speed Limit? ......................................................................................................................... 6

3. Different Types of Speed Limits ........................................................................................................... 7

3.1 Default Speed Limits ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.2 Signed Speed Limits................................................................................................................................. 7

4. How do you Choose the Speed Limit? ................................................................................................. 9

4.1 Crash History ............................................................................................................................................ 9
4.2 Current Operating Performance ............................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Road and Roadside Infrastructure, Geometry and Roadside Development ..........................................10
4.4 Unsealed Roads ..................................................................................................................................... 11

5. Speed Signing Principles and Practices ............................................................................................ 12

References ...................................................................................................................................................... 13

General Speed Limits (km/h) for Urban Arterial Roads, and Urban Local and
Collector Roads for Passenger Cars in OECD Countries ...................................................15

Speed Limits on Motorways, Main Highways and Rural Roads for Passenger Cars
in OECD Countries .................................................................................................................. 16

Meaning of the 85th Percentile Speed .................................................................................... 17

Tables
Table 1.1: Relationship speed changes and changes in casualty rates .................................................... 4

Figures
Figure 1.1: Safe road system ...................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1.2: Relationship speed changes and changes in casualty rates .................................................... 4

Austroads 2008 | page ii

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

1. Introduction

The purpose of this guide is to provide an overview of speed limits and their application as a speed
management tool.

1.1 Why is Speed Management Important?

Speed management is a key factor in the safe and efficient operation of the road network. Speed limits need
to reflect varying road user types, road environments, vehicle types and community needs such as safety,
amenity and economics. Speed management is much more than just legal speed limits and signs.

The travel or operating speed of vehicles has a number of effects relating to vehicle emissions, traffic flow,
user costs and safety. Reduced travel speeds can help reduce harmful emissions, enhance traffic flow,
decrease user costs and improve safety.

Speed limit management is about meeting an acceptable compromise across a wide range of objectives and
a diverse group of road users and communities. Safe and efficient travel is the cornerstone to a healthy and
prosperous society.

Effective speed management needs appropriate infrastructure, accompanied by education and enforcement
to maximise compliance and appropriate travel speeds. It is important that the community is made aware of
the changes and the associated benefits. It is critical that police enforce all speed limits.

1.2 Speed and the Safe System

The application of appropriate speed limits forms an integral part of the Safe System approach to road
safety. As outlined in the Safe System approach (see Figure 1.1 below) the limit of the human body to forces
is a key factor in crashes and speed is the single greatest influence on the forces in a crash. Lower speed
limits accompanied by appropriate design and enforcement will lead to lower speeds and hence lead to
reduced road trauma. A marginal reduction in the speed limit can result in a quantum drop in the casualty
crashes, over and above a general reduction in casualty crashes on roads where the speed limit has not
changed.

The Safe System focuses on harm minimisation as a philosophy in setting speed limits. Moderation of
speeds chosen by drivers and riders is critical in establishing a safer road system.

Austroads 200 | page 1

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Figure 1.1: Safe road system

1.3 Links between Travel Speed and Casualties

Apart from the wider benefits outlined above, research and evaluation shows that even a small decrease in
travel speeds will lead to significant reductions in crashes and trauma.

Lower speeds:
• allow road users more time to assess hazards and avoid a crash
• reduce both the reaction time and vehicle braking distance
• make it less likely that a driver will lose control
• reduce the impact forces in the event of a crash and the crash severity.

Austroads 200 | page 2

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

The Australian Transport Council (ATC) (2006) reported that:

• speeds 5 km/h above average in urban areas and 10 km/h above average in rural areas double the risk of
a casualty crash
• small reductions in average speeds (even one or two per cent) result in substantially greater percentage
reductions in deaths and injuries
• the chance of surviving a crash decreases dramatically above certain impact speeds for the following
types of crashes:
– pedestrian struck by vehicle  20 to 30 km/h
– motorcyclist struck by vehicle (or falling off)  20 to 30 km/h
– side impact vehicle striking a pole or tree  30 to 40 km/h
– side impact vehicle to vehicle crash  50 km/h
– head-on vehicle to vehicle (equal mass)crash  70 km/h

The ATC stated that ‘Moderation of speeds chosen by drivers and riders is critical in establishing a safer
road system’.

These conclusions are supported by a number of recent reviews, including: OECD/ECMT (2006); Elvik,
Christensen and Amundsen (2004); WHO (2004) Evans (2004) Accident Compensation Corporation and
Land Transport Safety Authority (2000); House of Commons Select Committee on Transport, Local
Government and the Regions (2002); TRL (2002); Baruya (1997); VTT (1999); Frith, Strachan, and
Patterson (2003);

These reviews have drawn on an extensive body of research into the effects of travel speeds on safety.
Several different research methods have provided evidence that quite small changes in travel speeds result
in very substantial changes in risk. These methods include:
• before and after studies of the effects of changes to speed limits, and of speed enforcement changes
• correlational studies of crash rates on similar roads with different speed distributions
• detailed investigation and computer reconstruction of crashes (allowing travel speeds of crashed vehicles
to be compared to the measured speeds of other vehicles at the same locations; the likely outcomes for
different initial travel speeds can also be calculated).

Results from this research are surprising to many experienced drivers, but are consistent with expectations
based on the laws of physics and well-established knowledge in the field of biomechanics. (Elvik,
Christensen and Amundsen 2004, Nilsson 2004).

Elvik, Christensen and Amundsen (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of research on the relationship between
travel speeds and casualty rates. The analysis included 98 separate studies which provided a total of 460
estimates of the relationship between changes in the mean speed of traffic on a road and changes in the
casualty rate. Data from 20 countries were included. Studies conducted between 1966 and 2004 were
included; about half the estimates came from studies conducted after 1990. The estimates were based on
both rural and urban roads, and covered a speed range from about 25 km/h to about 120 km/h.

This meta-analysis provided strong support for the ‘Power Model’ originally proposed by Nilsson (1981,
2004). The model parameters estimated by Elvik et al. differ slightly from those in the original Power Model,
but they are close, and show a similar pattern: a small percentage change in travel speeds typically results in
a similar percentage change in property damage crashes, but a larger percentage change in casualties –
particularly severe casualties. For small speed changes, the percentage change in deaths is typically about
four times the percentage change in speed.

Austroads 200 | page 3

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Table 1.1 and Figure 1.2 summarise these results. The power model exponents estimated from the meta-
analysis were: fatalities: 4.5, fatal crashes: 3.6, people seriously injured: 3.0, serious injury crashes 2.4,
people with minor injuries 1.5, other injury crashes 1.2, property damage crashes 1.0 and total people injured
(severity unspecified) 2.7.

Table 1.1: Relationship speed changes and changes in casualty rates

Change in mean speed

Change in: Speed reduction Speed increase

-10% -5% -1% +1% +5% +10%

Deaths -38% -21% -4% +5% +25% +54%
Serious injuries -27% -14% -3% +3% +16% +33%
Other injuries -15% -7% -1% +2% +8% +15%
Property damage crashes -10% -5% -1% +1% +5% +10%

Note: severity categories are mutually exclusive (for example, serious injuries exclude deaths).
Source: Elvik et al. 2004

Figure 1.2: Relationship speed changes and changes in casualty rates

50%
40% Deaths
Serious injuries
% change in casualties

30%
Other injuries
20%
10%
0%
-10%
-20%
-30%
-40%
-50%
-10% -8% -6% -4% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

% change in speed
Source: Elvik et al. 2004

Speed limits on much of Australia and New Zealand’s road network are higher than the limits many OECD
countries set on comparable roads.
• In Australia, most local and collector roads in urban areas (including residential streets) are zoned to 50
km/h
– in many OECD countries 30 km/h or 40 km/h limits are used extensively.

Austroads 200 | page 4

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

• In Australia, limits on urban arterials are usually 60 km/h, but limits of 70 km/h or 80 km/h are fairly
common
– in many OECD countries limits above 60 km/h are less common, and 50 km/h limits are used more
extensively.
• In Australia, limits of 110 km/h are the norm on non-freeway standard divided roads, and are used quite
extensively on undivided rural roads in most states
– in other OECD countries, speeds above 100 km/h are usually reserved for freeways (motorways) with
full access control; limits above 100 km/h on undivided roads are rare, and limits below 100 km/h are
the norm in many countries.
• Australia’s 110 km/h limits on access-controlled freeways are relatively conservative by OECD standards,
but not unusual: limits of 120 km/h or 130 km/h are used in many parts of Europe, but 110 km/h (or 70
mph) limits are the maximum in Canada, the UK, most states of the USA, Korea and Sweden. Norway
and Japan have motorway limits of 100 km/h.

Appendix A and Appendix B provides details of speed limits in other OECD countries.

Austroads 200 | page 5

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

2. What Is A Speed Limit?

Under the Australian and New Zealand road rules a driver must not drive at a speed over the speed-limit
applying to the length of road where the driver is driving. Speed limits apply when regulatory speed limit
signposting is provided. Sign posted speed limits should be applied to maximise safety and to reflect
particular road attributes such as the role and function of the road, type of road users, abutting land and
access, road geometry, roadside hazards and crash history.

What does the community think about speed risks and speed management?

Community attitude surveys show growing public understanding of speed risks, and majority support for
quite strict approaches to speed management.

For example, the ATSB’s national survey of community attitudes to road safety (Pennay 2006) shows that:
• Agreement with the statement ‘If you increase your driving speed by 10 km/h you are significantly more
likely to be involved in a car accident’ has increased from 55% in 1995 to 74% in 2006.
• An overwhelming majority (94%) of people surveyed in 2006 agreed that ‘an accident at 70 km/h will be
a lot more severe than an accident at 60 km/h’. (Compared to 80% in 1995.)
• In 1995, 1 in 4 people (26%) believed motorists should not be booked for driving at 70 km/h in a 60
km/h zone; by 2006, only 1 in 10 (10%) still held this view.
• Half the people surveyed in 2006 (49%) believed that drivers should be booked for travelling at 65 km/h
in a 60 km/h zone.
• In 2006 most people believed that the amount of speed enforcement activity should be either
maintained (44%) or increased (44%); only 11% favoured a decrease.

Austroads 200 | page 6

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

3. Different Types of Speed Limits

Road users understand there must be a range of speed limits depending on the road and traffic situation.
Across Australia and New Zealand a number of common types of speed limits apply as outlined below.

3.1 Default Speed Limits

There are two general ‘default’ (unsigned) speed limits in Australia and New Zealand, one that applies within
the urban or ‘built-up’ area, and the other that is applicable within a ‘rural’ open-road environment. Generally,
the default limit in urban areas is 50 km/h and in rural areas 100 km/h. When there is no speed limit sign,
these legal limits apply.

3.2 Signed Speed Limits

Speed limits also apply when regulatory speed limit sign posting is provided. There are a variety of
applications of signed speed limits as follows:
• Shared road space speed limits. This includes car parks and pedestrian malls and the speed limit is
typically 10 km/h but can vary from 4 or 5 km/h up to 20 km/h. In shared zones, pedestrians have priority
over vehicles. The road layout/infrastructure should be such as to limit the travel speed of vehicles.
• Linear speed limits In this situation a speed limit is applied along a road and any change in the nature of
the road e.g. moving into a residential area would be indicated with a different speed limit sign. Speed
limits can vary from 110 km/h in the rural areas to 50 km/h in build up areas. Speed limits such as 60, 70
km/h, 80 km/h and 90 km/h are applied depending on traffic volumes, roadside development and the
nature of the road (e.g. is it divided, is the alignment simple etc).
• Area-wide residential or commercial speed limits. In some situations, a speed limit, generally 40 km/h
is applied to a broad zone such as a residential area or shopping/business district. All enter and exit
roads need to be signed to give legal effect.
• Time based speed limits. These are applied in various situations including adjacent to schools, in work
zones, shopping precincts, during seasonal holiday activities, special events and if there are marked
changes in the season (e.g. snow and ice are present in winter) and for congestion management. Speed
limits generally vary from 25 km/h to 40 km/h.
• Variable speed limits. In some cases, the normal speed limit may need to be lowered (electronically or
manually) for a variety of reasons including:
– To reflect changes in traffic flow conditions.
– To cater for adverse weather conditions (e.g. high crosswinds on an elevated structure, fog, etc.).
– As an incident management tool (i.e. a lower speed limit may be applied when an incident, such as a
vehicle breakdown or road crash has occurred).
– Where periodic activity such as the opening and closing of a heavy vehicle inspection station may
warrant a reduction in general traffic speed past the site when heavy vehicles are entering/leaving.
• Heavy vehicle speed limits. While regulations stipulate that the maximum speed limit for heavy vehicles
(i.e. trucks and buses) is 100 km/h (or 90 km/h in New Zealand) and, in parts of Australia, 90 km/h for
road trains, there are some circumstances where there may be the need for a reduced speed limit to
apply. This may be due to:
– steep down grades
– substandard horizontal alignment.

Austroads 200 | page 7

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

• Reduced speed limits for trucks and buses on sections of road with steep down grades or substandard
horizontal alignment may be considered where:
– there is an over representation of trucks/buses in crashes
– the speed of descent exceeds safe values for steep grades
– heavy vehicles experience difficulties negotiating the road alignment.
• Reduced speed limits for trucks and buses on roads should, however, be applied with caution as creating
a large speed limit differential with other road users may increase the risk of crashes. Where a lower
speed limit is applied, treatments to provide safe passing opportunities (e.g. passing lanes, and truck and
bus turn-out bays) should be considered for other road users.

In some cases lower speed limits can apply to certain licence holders. For example, in some parts of
Australia, a lower limit applies to a novice driver such as a learner or provisional licence holder.

Austroads 200 | page 8

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

4. How do you Choose the Speed Limit?

When setting speed limits a range of factors need to be taken into account, within the context of the Safe
System.

4.1 Crash History

The most important consideration in the assessment or review of a speed zone should be the determination
of the crash rate of the road.

The crash history can be viewed in two ways: the risk faced by individuals, which is measured by the
casualty crash rate per 100 million vehicle kilometres, and the collective risk, which is measured by the
casualty crash rate per kilometre of road.

Collective risk represents the total risk along a length of road, as opposed to the risk faced by each individual
driver. For example, a link might experience a relatively low number of crashes. Other things being equal,
this low number of crashes would equate to a relatively low collective risk. However, if this link also carried
very low traffic volumes, then the few motorists that use the link might actually face a relatively high personal
risk. Conversely, if that link carried a high traffic volume, then the risk to each individual motorist would be
low.

Using collective risk as a basis for setting speed limits can create anomalies. Roads with higher traffic
volumes tend to be built to higher standards, but these roads can still have higher collective risk statistics
than lower standard roads with low traffic volumes. Therefore, a strong emphasis on collective risk in setting
limits can lead to relatively safe roads attracting lower limits than relatively unsafe roads.

A focus on individual risk is likely to provide a more consistent relationship between speed limits and
characteristics of the road and road environment, giving a hierarchy of limits that makes more sense to most
road users.

Lowering limits on roads with high collective risk can bring safety benefits, but these are the roads where
safety-focused road improvements are likely to be most cost-effective.

Enforcement is usually limited on low volume roads, and this limits the extent to which reduced speed limits
alone can reduce individual risk on these roads.

4.2 Current Operating Performance

The physical and operating environment of a road section is a major influencing factor on risk. Driver speed
behaviour is also influenced by the road user activity and visual cues associated with differing road locations.
Speed zone assessments or reviews of a road need to take these factors into account. The road
environment factors which have a marked influence on risk include roadside hazards, uncontrolled
intersections and other access points (such as driveways) and opportunities for collisions between motor
vehicles and pedestrians and cyclists.

The function of a road is one consideration in the determination of the most appropriate speed limit that
should apply. The assessment should also recognise that roads may have more than one function and that
there is a need to identify the primary function of the length of road under review. The issues that need to be
considered include whether the road:
• is a major traffic route (i.e. a road whose primary function is to move traffic between regions or centres –
these roads are typically primary arterials or secondary/sub-arterial roads)

Austroads 200 | page 9

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

• is a freeway or motorway (i.e. a high standard divided road whose primary function is to carry high
volumes of traffic)
• is a local collector (i.e. a non-arterial road that distributes traffic from local roads onto the arterial road
network)
• has a significant number of activities that generate a large number of pedestrians
• forms part of a residential precinct (i.e. a network of local roads bounded by collector and arterial roads)
or local traffic area (i.e. a network of local and collector roads bounded by arterial roads)
• is a shared zone road (i.e. an area or length of road that is shared by vehicles and pedestrians).

Road authorities seek to achieve a good match between road function and road design: as far as possible,
major traffic routes are designed to reduce collision risks, so that higher speeds can be sustained without
unacceptable risk. However, this is not always possible in practice. Where a road does not meet the safety
standards appropriate to its function, the speed limit should reflect the road as it is, not the road as it ought to
be.

A traditional consideration in assessing or reviewing speed limits is the determination of the 85th percentile
speed of the road.

The use of 85th percentile speed has been discontinued by many road authorities as a key factor in speed
limit setting and is not supported by the Safe System approach to road safety. Should it be found that the
travel speed is markedly higher than the assessed speed limit then it may be necessary to consider
establishing engineering measures designed to constrain vehicle speeds. Targeted speed enforcement
(including automatic enforcement, where appropriate) may also be considered as a means by which vehicle
speeds may be reduced.

Other major factors considered during speed zone assessments and reviews include:
• the presence of pedestrian and cyclist facilities (controlled and uncontrolled)
• the volume and composition of traffic (i.e. heavy and over dimensional vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians)
• traffic patterns or the presence of any special activities (e.g. schools and school crossings, frequent
regular bus stops, extensive periods of large numbers of pedestrians/cyclists, etc.), that may have an
impact on traffic flow and speed.

4.3 Road and Roadside Infrastructure, Geometry and Roadside Development

The geometric features of a road strongly influence the speed at which motorists travel. When assessing or
reviewing a speed zone the following geometric features are considered:
• alignment of the road (i.e. whether it is straight or curved, and if it is flat or steep)
Short sections of a road with an adverse alignment should be treated with advisory warning signs.
• road cross-section – characteristics can include:
– whether the road is divided or undivided
– where divided, the width of the median
– whether there is provision for protected right turn movement
– number of lanes and their widths
– presence of bus lanes/bicycle lanes
– the presence of edgelines, and whether there are sealed (i.e. minimum 0.6 m width) or unsealed
shoulders
– the offset to roadside features.

Austroads 200 | page 10

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

A key factor that influences vehicle speeds relates to the level of activity generated by the abutting roadside
properties. When assessing or reviewing speed zones the following factors need to be taken into account:
• whether there is restricted access on one or both sides of the road. This may result from the presence of
service roads, parkland, rail-line, river, beach, etc.
• whether the development on each side of the road is similar or vastly different
• the number of at-grade intersections (controlled and uncontrolled)
• the frequency and set back of driveways
• the nature and level of the roadside environment (i.e. residential, commercial/shopping or industrial).

A speed zone is generally not applied as a means of addressing isolated roadside hazards (e.g. unprotected
bridge end, tree or pole, intersection, etc.), or ‘black spot’ site (i.e. high crash locations). The more
appropriate course of action is to undertake appropriate remedial work to ameliorate the problem. The
corrective work may include improvements such as the installation of suitable advance warning signs and the
installation of safety barriers. The treatment of hazardous road locations will be expected to be undertaken
as part of a road safety program at either the local, state or federal government level.

A lower speed zone may, however, be applied where there are a series of hazards that prevail along an
extended length of road.

The speed limit on adjacent road sections requires consideration when conducting a speed zone
assessment. Many motorists object to frequent speed zone changes over a short distance. A short section
of a lower limit can be appropriate (e.g. within a shopping precinct or around a school) but if a number of
such locations are fairly close together, consideration should be given to extending the reduced speed zone
to a longer stretch of road.

4.4 Unsealed Roads

While the default rural speed limit on unsealed roads may be the same as for sealed roads, consideration
could be given to lower speed limits where there is direct roadside development, the road has a poor crash
history or poor alignment.

Factors that should be considered when investigating the appropriateness of applying a lower speed limit on
unsealed roads include:
• function of the road (e.g. arterial, collector road, local road, etc.)
• type and volume of traffic using the road
• alignment of the road
• climatic variation the road is likely to experience
• crash history of the road
• amenity of the driving environment such as dust.

Austroads 200 | page 11

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

5. Speed Signing Principles and Practices

Signing detail is provided in the Australian Standard, AS 1742.2 Parts 1 (2003), 2 (1994), 3 (2002) and
4 (1999), and in New Zealand, MOTSAM1 Edition 4 (1998) and MOTSAM2 Edition 3 (2004).

It should be noted, however, that there may be variations in practice across Australian jurisdictions. The
detail of the variations is provided within jurisdictional speed zoning guides.

For New Zealand detailed information associated with signs (regulatory and advisory), placement of signs,
pavement markings and calculation of advisory speeds is provided in:
• Transit New Zealand and Land Transport Safety Authority – Manual of Traffic Signs and Markings Part
1 (1998) and Part 2 (2004)
• New Zealand Ministry for Transport, Land Transport Rule: Setting Speed Limits 2003 (as amended)

Temporary speed limits can also be applied for example at roadworks or for special events. Guidelines
specifically for speed limits at roadwork sites are provided for Australia in the Australian Standard AS 1742.3
– 2002, Part 3: Traffic control devices for works on roads, while for New Zealand they are provided in the
Code of Practice for Temporary Traffic Management (COPTTM) Third Edition - June 2004, Transit New
Zealand.

Speed limits based on the 85th percentile speed

The 85th percentile speed is the speed at or below which 85% of motorists travel under free flow
conditions. Some existing guidelines specify that it is one of a number of factors that should be considered
when setting a speed limit. However, setting the speed limit based on unconstrained speed choices is
unlikely to deliver an optimum balance between costs and benefits, either for individual drivers, or the
community as a whole. It is for this reason that the Australian National Road Safety Action Plan states that
moderation of speeds chosen by drivers is critical in establishing a safer road system. (For further
discussion, see Appendix C.)

Austroads 200 | page 12

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

References

Accident Compensation Corporation and Land Transport Safety Authority New Zealand 2000, Down with
speed: a review of the literature, and the impact of speed on New Zealanders, Accident Compensation
Corporation and Land Transport Safety Authority, viewed October 2007,
http://www.acc.co.nz/PRD_EXT_CSMP/groups/external_ip/documents/internet/wcm000021.pdf
Australian Transport Council 2006. National Road Safety Action Plan 2007 and 2008. Australian Transport
Safety Bureau, Australian Government Department of Transport and Regional Services. Canberra, ACT,
Australia.
Baruya, A 1997, A review of speed accident relationship for European roads, master report R.1.1.1, working
paper, VTT, Finland, available October 2007,
http://virtual.vtt.fi/master/sum111.htm.
Elvik R, Christensen P & Amundsen AH 2004, Speed and road accidents: an evaluation of the power model,
TOI report 740/2004, Institute of Transport Economics TOI, Oslo, Norway,
http://www.toi.no/getfile.php/Publikasjoner/T%D8I%20rapporter/2004/740-2004/740-2004.pdf.
Evans, L 2004, Traffic Safety , Science Serving Society, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, USA,
available October 2007< http://www.scienceservingsociety.com/ts/text.htm>.
Frith, B, Strachan, G & Patterson, T 2003, ‘Road safety implications of excessive and inappropriate vehicle
speed’ ,in Australasian Road Safety Handbook: volume 2, AP-R268/05, Austroads, Sydney, NSW, pp 24-
31. http://www.onlinepublications.austroads.com.au/script/Details.asp?DocN=AS081906068455
House of Commons, Transport, Local Government and the Regions Committee 2002, Road traffic speed,
ninth report, report and proceedings of the committee session 2001-02, HC 557-I, House of Commons,
UK, available October 2007,
http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmtlgr/557/55702.htm.
Kloeden CN, McLean AJ, & Glonek G 2002, Reanalysis of travelling speed and the risk of crash involvement
in Adelaide South Australia, CR207, Australian Transport Safety Bureau, Canberra, available October
2007, <http://casr.adelaide.edu.au/speed/RESPEED.PDF>.
Kloeden CN, McLean AJ, Moore VM & Ponte G 1997, Travelling speed and the risk of crash involvement,
Federal Office of Road Safety, CR172, Canberra, available October 2007,
<http://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/1997/pdf/Speed_Risk_1.pdf >.
Kloeden CN, Ponte G & McLean AJ 2001, Travelling speed and the risk of crash involvement on rural roads,
CR204, Australian Transport Safety Bureau, Canberra, available October 2007,
<http://casr.adelaide.edu.au/ruralspeed/RURALSPEED.PDF>.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and Federal Highway Administration 1998, The effect of
increased speed limits in the post-nmsl era: report to congress, report no. 808637, NHTSA,US
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, available October 2007,
<http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/Rpts/1998/Speedlim.pdf>
Nilsson, G 1981, ‘The effects of speed limits on traffic accidents in Sweden’, Symposium on the effects of
speed limits on traffic accidents and transport energy use, held in Dublin, 6 to 8 October 1981, OECD,
Road Research Programme, Paris.
Nilsson, G 2004, Traffic safety dimensions and the power model to describe the effect of speed on safety,
bulletin 221, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden, available October 2007,
<http://www.lub.lu.se/luft/diss/tec_733/tec_733_transit.html>.
OECD/ECMT Joint Transport Research Committee 2006, Speed management, OECD & ECMT, Paris.
http://www.cemt.org/JTRC/WorkingGroups/SpeedManagement/SpeedSummary.pdf (free summary)
Pennay, D (2006). Community Attitudes to Road Safety: Community Attitudes Survey Wave 18, 2005. ATSB
Research and Analysis Report. Road safety. Consultant Report CR 227.

Austroads 200 | page 13

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Transit New Zealand 2004, Code of practice for temporary traffic management COPTTM, 3rd edn., Transit
New Zealand, Wellington.
Transit New Zealand and Land Transport Safety Authority 1998, Manual of traffic signs and markings; part 1:
traffic signs, MOTSAM1; 4th edn., Transit New Zealand, Wellington
Transit New Zealand and Land Transport Safety Authority 2004, Manual of traffic signs and markings; part 2:
markings, MOTSAM2; 3rd edn., Transit New Zealand, Wellington
Taylor, MC, Baruya, A, & Kennedy, JV 2002, The relationship between speed and accidents on rural single-
carriageway roads TRL Report No. TRL511, < http://www.trl.co.uk/static/dtlr/pdfs/TRL511.pdf
Transportation Research Board 1998, Managing speed: review of current practice for setting and enforcing
speed limits, special report 254, TRB, Washington, DC. http://trb.org/publications/sr/sr254.pdf
TRL 2002, ‘Memorandum by the Transport Research Laboratory (RTS 27)’ in the House of Commons
Select Committee on Transport, Local Government and the Regions Road traffic speed, ninth report,
report and proceedings of the committee session 2001-02, HC 557-I, House of Commons, UK, available
October 2007, <http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmtlgr/557/557ap34.htm
>.
VTT Communities & Infrastructure 1999, MASTER: Managing speeds of traffic on European roads, final
report, European Commission Transport Research, Fourth Framework Programme, Road Transport,
available October 2007, < http://virtual.vtt.fi/master/master_finalreport.pdf

World Health Organization 2004, World report on traffic injury prevention, World Health Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland, available October 2007, <http://www.who.int/world-health-
day/2004/infomaterials/world_report/en/>

Standards Australia
AS 1742.1 – 2003, Manual of uniform traffic control devices Part 1: General introduction and index of signs,
Standards Australia, Sydney.
AS 1742.2 – 1994, Manual of uniform traffic control devices Part 2: Traffic control devices for general use,
Standards Australia, Sydney.
AS 1742.3 – 2002, Manual of uniform traffic control devices Part 3: Traffic control devices for works on
roads, Standards Australia, Sydney.
AS 1742.4 – 1999, Manual of uniform traffic control devices Part 4: Speed controls, Standards Australia,
Sydney.

Austroads 200 | page 14

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

General Speed Limits (km/h) for Urban

Arterial Roads, and Urban Local and
Collector Roads for Passenger Cars in
OECD Countries

Country Urban arterial roads Urban local and collector roads

Australia 60 - 70 - 80 50
Austria 50 50
40 (streets in residential areas)
30 (zones)
Canada 50 - 60 40 - 50
Czech Republic 50 - 60 50
Denmark 50 50
Finland 50 30 – 40 - 50
France 50 30 - 50
Germany 50 50
Greece 50 - 70 - 90 40 – 50 (collector streets)
30 (local streets)
Iceland 50 - 60 50 (collector streets)
30 (local streets)
Ireland 50 - 80 50
Korea 60 (1 lane) 60 (1 lane)
80 (2 plus lanes) 80 (2 plus lanes)
Mexico 80 20 - 60
Netherlands 50 – 70 50
New Zealand 50 - 80 50
Norway 50 30 - 50
Poland 50 50
Portugal 50 – 90 50
Russia 60 60
Sweden 50 – 70 30 – 50
Switzerland 50 50
United Kingdom 48 – 64 (30 – 40 mph) 32 – 48 (20 – 30 mph)
United States 1 48 – 88 (30 – 55 mph) 40 – 56 (25 – 35 mph)

1
Varies by state.

Austroads 200 | page 15

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Speed Limits on Motorways, Main Highways

and Rural Roads for Passenger Cars in
OECD Countries

Country Motorways Main Highways Rural Roads

Australia 100 - 110 100 - 110 80 – 90 – 100
Austria 130 80 - 90 - 100 70 – 80 – 90
Canada 100 - 110 80 – 100 70 - 100
Czech Republic 130 90 90
Denmark 130 80 - 100 80
Finland 120 100 (main) 120
80 (rural)
France 130 90 90
Germany 130 100 100
None (autobahns)
Greece 120 110 70 – 100
50 (through small towns)
Iceland 90 90 80 (gravel roads)
90 (paved roads)
Ireland 120 100 80
Korea 90 – 100 - 110 60 (2x1 lane) 60 (2x1 lane)
80 (2x2 or more lanes) 80 (2x2 or more lanes)
Mexico 130 110 100
Netherlands 100 - 120 100 60 (settlements
/recreational areas)
New Zealand 100 100 80 - 100
Norway 90 - 100 80 80
Poland 130 100 80
Portugal 120 90 - 100 90
Russia 110 90 90
Sweden 110 90 70
Switzerland 120 80 80
United Kingdom 113 (70 mph) 97 (60 mph) 97 (60 mph)
United States 2 88 – 113 (55 – 70 mph) 88 – 113 (55 – 70 mph)
rural 88 – 113 (55 – 70 mph)
urban 104 – 120 (65 – 75 mph)

2
Varies by state.

Austroads 200 | page 16

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

Meaning of the 85th Percentile Speed

One of the oldest criteria for setting speed limits is the 85th percentile speed (the speed at or below which
85% of motorists travel under free flow conditions – when their speed choice is not constrained by vehicles in
front of them).

The view that limits should be set at or close to the 85th percentile speed dates back to the early 1940s in
the USA (TRB 1998). Three main arguments were put forward at the time, and have been repeated over the
years (TRB 1998):
• The collective wisdom argument: that 85th percentile speeds provide an objective basis for determining
‘maximum safe speeds’.
– The theory was that that most drivers are capable of making good judgements about ‘safe’ driving
speeds, and will in fact chose to drive at ‘safe’ speeds.
– From this perspective, the only function of speed management is to limit the speeds of the small
minority of drivers who are incompetent or irresponsible.
• The speed dispersion argument: that speed limits near the 85th percentile will minimise the variance of
the speed distribution – thus minimising opportunities for vehicle conflict and therefore also minimising the
number of crashes.
– An important element of this argument is the proposition that setting speed limits lower than the 85th
percentile will lead to greater speed dispersion, and that this will offset any benefits of lower speeds,
and may actually increase crash rates.
• The enforcement practicality argument: that 85th percentile limits have ‘appeal’ from an enforcement
perspective, and represent a reasonable and realistic benchmark for enforcement.
– A modern variant of this argument is that enforcing speed limits below the 85th percentile ‘requires a
level of enforcement intensity and expense that has proven difficult to sustain [in the USA]’ (TRB
1998).

The political appeal of 85th percentile speed limits is clear: this criterion produces limits that are, by design,
acceptable to the great majority of drivers. If the limits are enforced with a fairly broad tolerance, and not very
intensively, not many drivers will be penalised, or even inconvenienced. The behavioural impact will be
minimal, but authorities will be able to claim that compliance is generally good.

However, the traditional arguments for 85th percentile speed limits assert that such limits are not merely
expedient: they actually produce the best attainable safety outcomes. The first argument predicts that speed
limits below the 85th percentile will not improve safety (since only drivers who are already ‘safe’ will be
affected, and reducing their speeds will not make them safer). The second argument predicts that lower
limits may actually increase crashes and casualties. The third predicts that attempts to reduce speeds by
lowering limits will fail: because enforcement is too difficult.

When the 85th percentile criterion was first adopted, there was relatively little direct scientific evidence about
the consequences of different travel speeds, or even the extent to which changing limits would affect travel
speeds.

There is now ample evidence that setting and enforcing lower speed limits is feasible, sustainable, and
produces safety benefits (see reviews and research cited in Section 1.3 of the main report).

In Australia this was recognised back in the early 1980s and the use of the 85th percentile speed has been
largely discontinued by many road authorities as a key factor in speed limit setting.

Austroads 200 | page 17

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

It is true that benefits from speed limit reductions may be very limited if enforcement and public education
efforts are minimal. It is also true that actual speed reductions have typically been less than the nominal
reduction in speed limit. However, substantial benefits have been observed even when enforcement was not
very rigorous and initial speed compliance was poor (by contemporary Australian standards).

For example, the National Maximum Speed Limit of 55 mph (89 km/h) that was introduced in the United
States in 1973 as a fuel-saving measure was well below previous 85th percentile speeds on most rural roads.
It was actually below prevailing median speeds on rural interstate and rural primary roads, and well below
typical design speeds of the rural Interstate system. After the limit was imposed, a majority of drivers
exceeded it. But mean speeds, 85th percentile speeds and speed variance were reduced on all three major
rural road classes (interstate highways, rural primaries and rural secondaries). There was a substantial
reduction in the number of deaths, and the death rate per distance travelled (TRB 1998, Evans 2004,
NHTSA 1998).

Apart from the direct evidence that safety can be improved by setting limits below 85th percentile speeds,
there have been other critiques of the arguments for 85th percentile speeds.

Driver Selection of Safe (or Optimum) Speeds

Speeds selected by the majority of drivers are not safe in any absolute sense. At current 50th or 70th
percentile free speeds on most roads, the risk of a serious crash is small, but not zero. Lower speeds would
reduce that risk.

There are even grounds to doubt that most drivers will select speeds that represent a good balance between
the advantages and disadvantages of different speeds.
• Drivers may not consider all the relevant costs and benefits when they make their speed choices.
• The main benefits of higher speeds (reduced actual or perceived travel times, competition, enjoyment)
accrue to the driver; some potential negative consequences are borne by others (environmental impacts,
loss of amenity, injuries to others, crash costs covered by insurance).
• Drivers’ subjective assessments of risk, and the relationship between speed and risk, are likely to be
inaccurate
• Personal experience is a poor guide to understanding the links between travel speed and risk for the
following reasons:
– Although serious crashes happen every day, they are rare in the experience of individual drivers.
– The personal experience of most drivers convinces them that the speeds at which they usually drive
are ‘safe’. 3
– Many people find the objective data on speed risks surprising and counter-intuitive. 3

For these reasons, limits based on drivers’ unconstrained speed choices are unlikely to deliver an optimum
balance between costs and benefits for the community as a whole, or even individual drivers.

3
The effect of travel speed on risk shows up clearly in aggregate data based on very large numbers of drivers, but when individual
drivers take decisions that increase their risk, most will not experience a crash. If they do crash, they are unlikely to carry out detailed
calculations to work out how the outcome might have changed if their speed had been slightly lower.

Austroads 200 | page 18

 Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management

It follows that when the authorities responsible for the regulation of road traffic engage in speed
management, that is, in policies and measures to influence drivers’ choice of speed, they are usually seeking
to reduce speeds. Speed regulation can also be seen as persuading vehicle users to forego some of the
perceived advantages to them of higher speeds, in order to reduce some of the less well-perceived
disadvantages to themselves and many disadvantages to others (VTT 1999).

Speed Dispersion

Research conducted in the 1960s (Solomon 1964; Cirillo 1968 [cited in TRB 1998]; RTI 1970 [cited in TRB
1998]) appeared to show that vehicles travelling at speeds that were close to average had the lowest crash
risk, while both slower vehicles and faster vehicles were more at risk of crashing. This was interpreted as
providing support for the speed dispersion argument, but there are a number of caveats to this interpretation:
• There were a number of methodological flaws in these studies which may have inflated risk estimates for
lower speed vehicles (see Kloeden, McLean, Moore and Ponte (1997), Kloeden, Ponte and McLean
(2001), TRB 1998).
• The crashes studied were mainly low severity property damage crashes. Hence the risk curves would not
have reflected the effects of speed on crash severity and injury/fatality risk. Moreover, Evans (2004) has
noted that the types of crash that might be affected by speed dispersion (such as rear end and side-swipe
crashes) form a very small proportion of high-severity crashes; the bulk of fatal crashes are events where
speed dispersion is a most unlikely factor: single vehicle crashes, non-overtaking head-on crashes and
intersection crashes on rural roads; side impacts, frontal crashes and pedestrian crashes on urban roads.
• More recent, better designed case control studies based on casualty crashes (Koeden et al. 1997, 2001,
2002) did not find an inverted-U risk function: the results show a rapid monotonic increase in risk as
speed increases.
• Many correlational studies have found a relationship between aggregate measures of speed dispersion
and aggregate crash rates, but when the study design controls well for other variables the relationship
can vanish (Taylor, Baruya and Kennedy, 2002).

The question of whether speed dispersion is a significant causal factor in serious crashes remains
controversial. Even if it is a factor, the available evidence does not indicate that raising speed limits in the
hope of reducing speed variance will improve safety. As Evans (2004) and Baruya (1997) have noted, the
more logical solution, with much stronger research backing, is to reduce limits and use enforcement backed
by public education to reduce the speeds of the fastest vehicles. This will reduce speed variance, mean
speeds, and crash risk.

Austroads 200 | page 19