EXPERIMENT 8: MINOR LOSSES IN PIPE

1.0 Objective

Determine the loss coefficient (KL value) and minor head loss (hLm) in pipe
components/fittings for different water flowrates, pipe diameters and pipe bends.

2.0 Apparatus

Pressure measurement test-bench (depicted in Figure 1).

Inlet Valve Tested Pipe

Section

Two Tube
Manometer

Manometer Outlet
Tube Valve

Figure 1: Pressure measurement test-bench

3.0 Theory

The flow in piping system at different flowrates may be required to pass through a
variety of fittings, bends, or abrupt changes in area [1]. Additional head losses called as
minor head losses (hLm) are encountered, primarily as a result of flow separation. By
simplifying the Bernoulli equation between two (2) points for the horizontal (z 1 = z2)
pipe, the pressure loss (P) and total head loss (hLT) could be determined as follows [2]:
P 1−P2 V 22 −V 21
= +h ¿ (h¿ =h L + hLm ) (Eq.1)
ρg 2g

P1−P2 V 22−V 21
h¿ = +
ρg 2g
(Eq.2)
2
fl V
hL=
Di 2 g
(Eq.3)

K LV2 h
h Lm = ( K L =2 g Lm2 ) (Eq.4)
2g V

P1−P2 V 22−V 21 fl V 2 K L V 2 P1 −P 2
h¿ = + = + ( =h1−h2 ) (Eq.5)
ρg 2g Di 2 g 2g ρg

Where:
P1 - P2 = Pressure drops between two (2) points (Pa)
= density of flowing medium (kg/m3)
g = Gravity constant (9.81 m/s2)
V1 -V2 = Changes of velocity of flowing medium from points one (1) to two (2) (m/s)
hLT = Total head loss (m)
hL = Major head loss (m)
f = Coefficient of pipe friction (dimensionless)
l = Length of the pipe (m)
Di = Internal diameter of pipe (m)
V for hL = Speed of flowing medium for the tested pipe (m/s)
hLm = Minor head loss (m)
V for hLm = Speed of flowing medium in the vicinity where the minor loss occurs (m/s)
KL = Loss coefficient associated with hLm (dimensionless)
h1 - h2 = Differential height in manometer between points one (1) and two (2) (m)

The value of KL is strongly dependent on the geometry of the component considered as well
as the fluid properties (includes the Re), and the mathematical function of them can be
expressed as follows [2] :

K L=∅ (geometry , ℜ) (Eq.6)

In many practical applications, the Re is large enough so that the flow through the
component is dominated by inertia effects, leaving the viscous effects as secondary
importance. In a flow which dominated by inertia effects, it is usually found that
pressure drops and head losses correlate directly with the dynamic pressure. Therefore,
the friction factor (f) for very large Re in fully developed pipe flow is independent of the
Re. The same condition is found to be true for flow through pipe components/fittings.
Thus, in most practical cases, the KL for components are a function of geometry only. In
this experiment, the KL value and hLm in pipes for different water flowrates, pipe
diameters and pipe bends will be determined. The description related to each of the
tested geometrical is as follows:

i. Sudden expansion/enlargement and sudden contraction

KL for sudden expansion/enlargement and contraction in circular ducts/pipes are shown in
Figure 2. Note that losses for a sudden expansion/enlargement are based on speed of
1 2
flowing medium at region one (1): ( V 1), whereas for a sudden contraction are based on
2
1 2
speed of flowing medium at region two (2): ( V 2).
2

Figure 2: Loss coefficients for flow through sudden area changes [1]

The value of KL for the fluid flows through a sudden expansion/enlargement and
contraction can be obtained by considering the continuity (Eq. 7), momentum (Eq. 8),
and energy equations between points one (1) and two (2) (Eq. 1) for the control volume
shown in Figure 2. The resulting three governing equations are as follows [2]:

Ai 1 V 1=A i 2 V 2 (Eq. 7)
P1 A i 2−P2 Ai 2= ρ A i2 V 2 (V 2−V 1 ) (Eq. 8)

Those equations can be rearranged to give the theoretical KL for sudden

expansion/enlargement as [2]:

Ai 1 2
K L=(1− ) (Eq.9)
Ai 2

Whereas the theoretical KL for sudden contraction can be expressed as [2]:

 Ai 1 2
K L=(1− ) (Eq.10)
Ai 2

Where:
P1 = Pressure at small cross-section of upstream (Pa)
V1 = Velocity at small cross-section of upstream (m/s)
Ai1 = Cross-sectional area for upstream, calculated using internal diameter of pipe (m2)
P2 = Pressure at small cross-section of downstream (Pa)
V2 = Velocity at small cross-section of downstream (m/s)
Ai2 = Cross-sectional area for downstream, calculated using internal diameter of pipe (m2)
= specific weight of flowing medium: = g (N/m3)

ii. Elbows, pipe bends, and pipe branches

The value of hLm and KL for the flows involving pipe components/fittings such as elbows,
pipe bends, and pipe branches could be determined experimentally using the Eq. 3 to Eq. 5.
An examples of typical values of KL for pipe components/fittings are shown in Figure 3.
 Figure 3: Typical values of KL for pipe components/fittings [2]

4.0 Experimental Procedure

I. Determine the direction of water inflow and outflow for the tested pipe section
II. Fully open the inlet valve (by turning it to anticlockwise direction) of tested pipe
section,and close the inlet valve (by turning it to clockwise direction) for non-tested
pipe section.
III. Turn on the pump and slowly open the outlet valve (by turning it to anticlockwise
direction) until maximum (fully open), and wait for a while in order to remove any
air bubbles for the tested pipe section.
IV. Identify the inlet flowing pressure (h1) and the outlet flowing pressure (h2) for the
 tested pipe section and connect the manometer tubes from those h1 and h2 of the
tested pipe section to the two-tube manometer (h1-inlet and h2-outlet).
V. Record the values of h1 and h2 (mm) at two-tube manometer.
VI. Determine the actual water flowrate (QAct) by recording the time taken to collect
the three (3) litres volume of water at the tank.
VII. Reduce the opening of outlet valve and repeat steps (iv) to (vi) for five (5)
different values of QAct.
VIII. After finished, remove the manometer tubes first to avoid the bubbles in the tube.
IX. With pump in running condition, repeat steps (i) to (viii) for the other tested pipe
section.
X. After finished, remove all the manometer tubes from the system. Fully closed the
inlet and outlet valves, and turn off the pump and the main switch.

4.0 Results

Record your data using Table 1 to Table 3.

Table 1: Data for sudden enlargement and sudden contraction

 Volume of
water Time QAct h1 h2 Δh
Pipe section
collected (s) (l/s) (mm) (mm) (m)
(l)
Sudden enlargement

(outer diameter (D1o) = 20 mm,

thickness (t1) = 1.5 mm, length of tested
pipe section (l1) = 125 mm); 3

(outer diameter (D2o) = 32 mm,

thickness (t2) = 1.8 mm, length of tested
pipe section (l2) = 125 mm)
Sudden contraction

(outer diameter (D1o) = 32 mm,

thickness (t1) = 1.8 mm, length of tested
pipe section (l1) = 125 mm); 3

(outer diameter (D2o) = 20 mm,

thickness (t2) = 1.5 mm, length of
tested pipe section (l2) = 125 mm)

Table 2: Data for elbows and pipe bends

Volume of
water Time QAct h1 h2 Δh
Pipe section
collected (s) (l/s) (mm) (mm) (m)
(l)
 2 x angle 90°

(outer diameter (Do) = 20 mm, 3

thickness (t) = 1.5 mm; length of tested
pipe section (l) = 203 mm)

2 x bend 90°

(outer diameter (Do) = 20 mm, bend

3
radius (r) = 40 mm, thickness (t) = 1.5
mm, length of tested pipe section (l) =
322 mm)

2 x angle 45°

(outer diameter (Do) = 20 mm, bend

3
radius (r) = 40 mm, thickness (t) = 1.5

Table 3: Data for pipe branches

Volume of
water Time QAct h1 h2 Δh
Pipe section
collected (s) (l/s) (mm) (mm) (m)
(l)

Y-type
 (outer diameter (Do) = 20 mm, 3
thickness (t) = 1.5 mm; length of tested
pipe section (l) = 150 mm)

T-type

(outer diameter (Do) = 20 mm, 3

thickness (t) = 1.5 mm; length of tested
pipe section (l) = 150 mm)

5.0 Discussion

i. Calculate the minor head loss (hLm) and loss coefficient (KL value) for each of
the pipe components/fittings. (Note for major losses (hL) calculation: Set the
temperature of flowing medium (T) = 36 °C, and determine the coefficient of
friction (f) using a formula
of Blasius, f = 0.316⁄4 ).
√Re
ii. Discuss the effects of different water flowrates, pipe diameters and pipe
bends on the value of loss coefficient (KL).
iii. Briefly discuss on factors contributing to errors or inaccuracy in experimental
data, and the possible recommendations to improve the existing results.

6.0 Conclusion

State the conclusions that can be obtained from the experiment.

7.0 References

[1] R. W. Fox, P. J. Pritchard, A. T. McDonald. 2011. Fox and McDonald's

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 8th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[2] B. R. Munson, A. P. Rothmayer, T. H. Okiishi. 2012. Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Edition, Wiley.