LECTURE NOTES

Irrigation and Hydraulic Structures

Semester: 6th, B.Tech

Department: Civil Engineering

Teacher Incharge: Prof. M A Lone

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 CHAPTER-6

WATERLOGGING

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 Waterlogging
Introduction:
Waterlogging occurs when the soil is saturated with water. The agricultural land becomes
waterlogged when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops get saturated and the normal
conditions circulation of air is cutoff. The waterlogging affects the productivity of the land and
leads to a reduction in the crop yield. Waterlogging generally occurs because of over-irrigation,
high water table and the poor water management.

Due to the presence of water at or near the land surface, evaporation takes place
continuously. Because of evaporation, there is a continuous upward flow of water from the water
table if it is high because of the capillary action. Water brings salts with it and when the water
evaporates, these salts get accumulated on the surface. These salts affect the fertility of the soil,
and the soil may become alkaline. Waterlogging can be prevented to a large extent by providing
an effective drainage system.

Causes of waterlogging:
Waterlogging of the land occurs when the water table rises and the soil in the root zone of
the plants gets saturated and the air circulation is stopped. Waterlogging general ly occurs
because of intensive irrigation and inadequate drainage of the irrigated land. Waterlogging
affects the productivity and the fertility of the land and causes a reduction in the crop yield. The
causes of waterlogging are:

1. Over-Irrigation: The main cause of waterlogging is over-irrigation of the land. The excess
water applied to the land percolates deep into the ground and joins the water table. As the ground
water storage is augmented, the water table rises. As soon as the water table comes close to the
land surface, waterlogging occurs.

2. Inadequate surface drainage: Waterlogging usually occurs when there is inadequate surface
drainage of the irrigated land. Heavy precipitation along with inadequate surface drainage causes
flooding of the land. The prolonged flooding (or inundation) results in heavy percolation of
water into the ground, which causes a rise of the water table and hence waterlogging.

3. Obstruction of natural surface drainage: If a natural drainage (stream) near the irrigated
area is obstructed by constructing an embankment for a road, canal, etc., the flooding of the area
may occur leading to waterlogging.

4. Obliteration of a natural drainage: If an existing natural drainage is destroyed, it results in

stoppage of natural flow and hence waterlogging.

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5. Obstruction of natural subsurface drainage: If there is an impermeable stratum below the
land surface at a relatively low depth, it prevents natural downward movement of water into the
subsoil which may result in the formation of perched water table that can cause waterlogging.

6. Impervious top layer: If the top layer of the land is impervious, it obstructs the flow in the
downward direction. Such land is prone to waterlogging due to irrigation.

7. Seepage from canals: Water Seeps from the bed and sides of an unlined canal. It adds to the
ground water reservoir and there is a general rise in the water table, which may lead to
waterlogging.

8. Construction of a reservoir: If a large reservoir is constructed in the region, there is an

increase in the water level on the upstream of the dam. Consequently, there is an increase in the
inflow to the groundwater storage and a decrease in the outflow from the groundwater as base
flow of the river. The adjoining area may get waterlogged.

9. Defective methods of cultivation: If the defective methods of cultivation are used, there may
be ponding up of water on the land surface which may cause waterlogging. The defective
methods of cultivation include construction of high levees (bunds) which obstruct the natural
drainage, inadequate preparation of land, failure to smoothen the field after tillage, improper
disposal of spoil earth, improper selection or crops and growing crop which require excessive
watering.

10. Defective irrigation practice: Waterlogging may also occur due to detective irrigation
practice, such as adopting high intensity of irrigation, applying high depth of water and using
detective method of application of water like wild flooding.

Ill effects of waterlogging:

1. Reduction in growth of plants: Because of waterlogging, there is absence of aeration in the
roots of plants due to which the plant growth is reduced.

2. Difficulty in cultivation: For optimum results in crop production, the land has to be prepared.
The preparation of land in wet condition is difficult and expensive. As a result, cultivation may
be delayed and the crop yield adversely affected.

3. Accumulation of salts: As a result of high water table in waterlogged areas, there is an

upward capillary flow of water to the land surface where water gets evaporated. The upward
moving water brings with it soluble salts from the salty soil layers well below the surface. These
soluble salts carried by the upward moving water are left behind in the root zone when this water
evaporates. The accumulation of these salts in the root zone of the soil may affect the crop yield
considerably.

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4. Weed growth: There are certain types of plants and grasses which grow rapidly in marshy
lands. In waterlogged lands, these plants compete with the desired useful crop. Thus, the yield of
the desired useful crop is adversely affected.

5. Increase in plant diseases: Because of waterlogging, various diseases occur in the plants,
which decrease their growth.

6. Lowering of soil temperature: The presence of excessive moisture content lowers the
temperature of the soil. In low temperature the bacteriological activities are retarded which
affects the crop growth badly.

7. Increase in incidence of malaria: The waterlogged land becomes a breeding place for
mosquitoes which may cause malaria. Moreover, the climate becomes damp which may affect
the health of community.

Measures for prevention of waterlogging:

The main cause of waterlogging in an area is the introduction of canal irrigation in the
area. It is; therefore, better to plan an irrigation scheme in such a way that the land is prevented
from getting waterlogged. The following measures are usually adopted for prevention of
waterlogging or relieving the area, which are waterlogged.

1. Limiting the intensity of irrigation: In regions where there is a possibility of waterlogging,

the annual intensity of irrigation should be kept low, not more than 40 to 60%.

2. Providing a drainage system: Waterlogging can be prevented by providing a properly

designed drainage system.

3. Lining the canal section: When the canal section is made fairly watertight by providing
lining, the seepage loss is reduced to quite a good extent.

4. By lowering the FSL of the canal: Loss may be due to percolation or absorption but when
FSL is lowered the loss is reduced to sufficient extent. The canal should be designed such that its
FSL is as low as possible, consistent with the requirements of flow irrigation for the commanded
area.

5. Improving the natural drainage of the area: Improving the natural drainage involves
removing obstruction to the flow such as weeds, bushes and other vegetations from the stream
section. Straightening of the streams and canalizing them into shallow wide reaches improves the
natural drainage. Increasing the bed slopes of the streams also improves the drainage. The
chances of waterlogging are considerably reduced if the natural drainage of the area is good.

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6. Provision of intercepting drains: These are generally constructed parallel to the canal. The
water seeping from the unlined canal can be intercepted by providing intercepting. They give
exceptionally good results for the reach where the canal runs in high embankments.

7. Increasing outflow from the groundwater reservoir: If the well irrigation is adopted in the
area, the water table goes down and the chances of waterlogging are considerably less.
In fact, a judicious combination of the canal irrigation and the well irrigation in the same area is
an ideal solution for the waterlogging problems.

8. Changing the crop pattern: In regions susceptible to waterlogging, the crop pattern should
be changed so that the crop requiring heavy irrigation should be avoided and those requiring
light irrigation is encouraged.

9. Prevention of seepage from reservoir: The seepage from small reservoirs can be reduced by
lining the surface of the reservoirs. Also suitably designed filters should be provided so that
seepage from the reservoirs is discharged into streams.

10. Changing the assessment method: lf the water supplied to the cultivators is assessed on
area basis; the cultivators have a tendency to use excess water which causes waterlogging. By
adopting the volumetric assessment of water, the excess use of water is controlled and the
chances of waterlogging are reduced.

11. Adopting better methods of application of water: By adopting efficient methods of

application of water, such as Sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation, waterlogging can be
prevented.

12. Educating the cultivators to use water economically: The cultivators should be apprised of
ill effects of waterlogging. They should be trained to use water economically and avoid wasteful
use of water.

Drainage of Irrigated lands:

Need for drainage: During rain or irrigation, the fields become wet. The water infiltrates into
the soil and is stored in its pores. When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be
saturated and no more water can be absorbed; when rain or irrigation continues, pools may form
on the soil surface.

Part of the water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper
layers and is replaced by water infiltrating from the surface pools. When there is no more water
left on the soil surface, the downward flow continues for a while and air re-enters in the pores of
the soil. This soil is not saturated anymore. However, saturation may have lasted too long for the
plant health. Plant roots require air as well as water and most plants cannot withstand saturated
soil for long periods.

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 Besides damage to the crop, a very wet soil makes the use of machinery difficult, if not
impossible. The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the
groundwater reservoir. As a result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or
simply water table) rises. Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the
groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the root zone (Fig. 1). Again, if this
situation lasts too long, the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the water table are
thus necessary.

(a) Before Irrigation (b) After Irrigation

Figure 1. Groundwater table before and after irrigation

Irrigation
The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the root zone is
called drainage. Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water,
but may also have other origins such as canal seepage or floods. In very dry areas there is often
accumulation of salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Salts can be washed
out by percolating irrigation water through the root zone of the crops. To achieve sufficient
percolation, farmers will apply more water to the field than the crops need. But the salty
percolation water will cause the water table to rise. Drainage to control the water table, therefore,
also serves to control the salinity of the soil.

Types of drainage:

Drainage can be either natural or artificial. Many areas have some natural drainage; this
means that excess water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers. Natural
drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or man-made drainage is required. There are
two types of artificial drainage:

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1. Surface drainage

2. Subsurface drainage

1. Surface drainage: Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the
land. This is normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow
ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains. In order to facilitate the flow of excess
water towards the drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading (Fig. 2 ).

Figure 2. Surface drainage- The field is given artificial slope to facilitate drainage

2. Subsurface drainage: Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the root zone. It is
accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains.

i. Deep open drains

The excess water from the root zone flows into the open drains (Fig. 3). The disadvantage
of this type of subsurface drainage is that it makes the use of machinery difficult. Open drains
use land that otherwise could be used for crops. They restrict the use of machines. They also
require a large number of bridges and culverts for road crossings and access to the fields. Open
drains require frequent maintenance (weed control, repairs, etc.).

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 Figure 3. Deep open drains

ii. Pipe drains

Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter. The
pipes convey the water to a collector drain (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Pipe drains

Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually placed in trenches by
machines. In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30 cm long and 5 -10 cm in diameter) drainage
water enters the pipes through the joints. Flexible plastic drains are much longer (up to 200 m)
and the water enters through perforations distributed over the entire length of the pipe. In
contrast to open drains, buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable land and maintenance

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requirements are very limited. The installation costs, however, may be higher due to the
materials, the equipment and the skilled manpower involved.

Saline and alkali soils:

Soils are classified as saline or alkaline mainly on the basis of their soluble salt
concentration and exchangeable sodium content. Because both these parameters depend upon the
moisture content of the soil, it is important to mention the moisture content used in the test. The
most commonly used moisture content is the saturation moisture content as determined from a
saturated, disturbed soil sample in the laboratory. The soil sample is brought to saturation
condition by stirring it in distilled water. When the sample becomes fully saturated, the
characteristic end point is reached. The soil glistens and flows slightly without free water
standing on the surface. The solution is extracted from the soil in this condition for the test. The
solution is called the saturation extract.

On the basis of the soluble salt concentration and exchangeable sodium content, the soils may be
classified into 3 types:

1. Saline soils

2. Saline-alkali soils

3. Alkali soils

1. Saline soils: Saline soils are the soils which contain soluble salts in a large quantity such that
the growth of the plants is hampered. A normal (non-saline) soil may become saline if the
irrigation water contains large quantities of salts. The soil may also become saline by upward
movement of ground water due to capillary action when the water table is high. In both these
cases, the salts accumulate on the soil surface. The soluble salts in the saline soils are mainly
chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium and potassium. Sometimes nitrates of these
elements are also found. The saline soils may also contain insoluble salts such as calcium
sulphates (gypsum), calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates. If the saturation extract
contains less than 3 gm/l of salt, the soil is said to be non-saline, and if the salt concentration of
the saturation extract contains more than 12 gm/l, the soil is said to be highly saline. The
electrical conductivity of saline soils is greater than 4000 micromhos per cm at 25°C.

The saline soils can be reclaimed by reducing the soluble salt concentration to acceptable
limits by leaching, provided adequate drainage occurs. For that purpose, more water is applied to
the field than is required for crop growth. This additional water infiltrates into the soil and
percolates through the root zone. During percolation, it washes the salts out of the root zone and
takes these along to deeper layers. This is known as leaching.

2. Saline-alkali soils: The saline-alkali soils have characteristics somewhat in-between those of
the saline and alkali soils. For such soils the electrical conductivity is greater than 4000

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micromhos per cm at 25°C, the exchangeable sodium percentage is greater than 15 and the pH
value is about 8.5. Saline-alkali soils can be reclaimed by leaching, but before leaching, it is
necessary to replace the exchangeable sodium ions present in the soil by calcium or other
suitable ions. If this is not carried out the exchangeable sodium ions will be left after leaching
which may deteriorate the soil structure due to dispersion of soil particles. It will result in a
decrease in the permeability of the soil.

3. Alkali soils: Alkali soils have electrical conductivity less than 4000 micromhos per cm at
25°C, the exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15 and the pH value between 8.5 and
10.0. These soils are also called black alkali soils because a black crust is formed on the surface
of the soil if organic matter is present. It is very difficult to reclaim alkali soils. Such soils are
quite impermeable. It becomes difficult for the water used for leaching to enter the soil and if
once entered, it is more difficult to get it out. To replace the sodium ions, chemicals such as
gypsum and sulphur are introduced in the soil to increase the concentration of soluble calcium so
that it can replace exchangeable sodium. These chemicals are mixed with the soil mechanically.
These can also be washed in if intake rate and permeability can be improved.

The permeability of the alkali soil can be improved temporarily by cultivation. The
permeability can be improved somewhat permanently by converting the alkali soil to the saline-
alkali soil. This is achieved by irrigating the land with saline water. As the soluble salt content is
increased, the soil structure is improved and the permeability is increased. After the soil becomes
fairly permeable, chemicals such as gypsum can be introduced to replace the sodium. After the
exchangeable sodium percentage is decreased, the soil can be reclaimed by controlled leaching
and drainage.

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