University of Helwan

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Design Dept.
Mattaria - Cairo

ENGINEERING
DRAWING

For Preparatory Year Students

Prepared By
Dr. Mohamed Othman Ibrahim
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

Chapter 1

Drawing Equipment and use of instruments 1.1 – 1.19

Chapter 2

Geometric Construction 2.1 – 2.22

Chapter 3

Theory of Projection 3.1 – 3.54

Chapter 4

Missing Views and Dimensions 4.1 – 4.57

Chapter 5

Sectioning and Conventions 5.1 – 5.77

Chapter 6

Steel constructions 6.1 – 6.19

Appendix A A-1 – A-25

References
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

Chapter 1
Drawing Equipment and Use of
Instruments
Throughout the ages, people have found communication with each other to be essential
to their development. The means they have used have progressed from grunts to
articulate speech and form signs and primitive drawings to competent writing and
complicated drawings. All these have served to convey ideas, information, and
instructions from one person to another.
In present-day industry the principal means of communication is engineering
drawing, which is the international language of engineering.
Engineering drawing is a system of communication in which ideas are
expressed exactly information is conveyed completely and unambiguously, and even
the most complicated shapes are specifically described.

Engineering drawings are two-dimensional visual representations of three-

dimensional objects and are used as a universal means of communication in industry.

Drawing sheets: As shown in the figure the 'A' series of drawing sheets which are
normally used:

1- A4 210 mm x 297 mm
2- A3 297 mm x 420 mm
3- A2 420 mm x 594 mm
4- A1 594 mm x 841 mm
5- A0 841 mm x 1189 mm

The sides of all sheets are in the ratio

1: √2 The area of A0 ≡ 1m2

1-1
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

Drawing Equipment and use of instruments

1.1 Introduction

Drawing instruments are designed

to help the drafter ‫ الرسام‬prepare
many types of drawings in a
productive manner.
You will find that your skill
and productivity will increase with
practice and as you become more
familiar with the use of tools that
are available to you.
The instruments and materials
needed for making ordinary
engineering drawings are shown in
Fig. 1.1 essential drafting equipment
Fig 1.1.

1.2 List of Equipment and

Materials.

The following list is a practical

selection of equipment and
materials necessary for making
pencil drawings

1. Drawing board.
2. T –square. T ‫مسطرة حرف‬
3. 30o – 60o and 45o triangles
4. Scales. ‫مسطرة مدرجة‬
5. Drawing pencils.
6. Pencil pointer (file or Fig. 1.2 a standard set of drawing equipment

sandpaper Pad)
7. Scotch tape. ‫شريط الصق‬
8. Pencil eraser.‫ممحاة‬
9. Cleaning eraser. ‫فوطة‬
10. Protractor. ‫منقلة‬
11. Set of compasses. ‫مجموعة‬
‫براجل‬
12. Flexible curve. ‫مسطرة منحنيات‬

1-2
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

1.3 Set of instruments. A standard set of 1.6 Pencil Pencils may be the
drawing instruments is shown in Fig. conventional wood pencil or the lead
1.2 These can be purchased
separately, but they are available
assembled as a set in one case.
1.4 Protractor. When lines must be
drawn or measured at angles other
than at multiples of 15o, a protractor
is used Fig. 1.3.
1.5 Special instruments and templates. Fig. 1.3 Protractor
A few of the many special
instruments and templates that are
convenient for drawing are shown in
Fig. 1.4-1.8.
Because of the time consumed in
cutting the wood to repoint an ordinary
drawing pencil, some draftsman favor
the use of artist's automatic pencils Fig
1.4 Separate leads for these pencils
may be purchased in any deferent
degrees of hardness available for
regular drawing pencils.
The flexible curves shown in Fig.
Fig. 1.4 Artist's automatic pencils
1.5, because of their limitless
variations, are extremely convenient.
The drop pen (pencil) Fig.1.6 is
designed for repeated drawing of
circles of small diameter, such as the
circles representing rivet heads.
Dimensions can be transferred from
one scale to another by using a special Fig. 1.5 Flexible curves
type of dividers, the proportional
dividers Fig. 1.7. This instrument is
very helpful in enlarging and reducing
dimensions on drawing.
A wide variety of templates are
available for preparing drawings in
both pencil and ink. These are
available for drawing nuts and bolts,
circles and ellipses, architectural
symbols, and many other applications.
The wide range of templates is shown Fig. 1.6 Drop pen (pencil)
in Fig. 1.8.

1-3
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

holder, which is a mechanical pencil. blade is in the required position. The left
Both types are identified by a number hand then should be
and /or letter at the end. Pencil grades
are shown graphically in Fig. 1.9,
ranging from the hardest, 9H, to the
softest, 7B. The pencils in the medium- Fig.1.7 Proportional dividers
grade range of 3H- B are the pencils
most often used for drafting work.
1.7 Drawing Pencil Lines. Pencil lines
should be sharp and uniform along their
entire length and sufficiently distinct to
fulfill their ultimate purposes.
Construction lines (preliminary lines)
should be drawn very lightly so that they
may be easily erased. Finished lines
should be made boldly and distinctly, so
that there will be definite contrast TILT-HEX DRAFTING TEMPLATE
between visible and invisible object
lines and auxiliary lines, such as
dimension lines, center lines, and section
lines. To give this contrast which is
necessary for clearness and ease in
ELECTRO SYMBOL TEMPLATE

reading, object lines should be of

medium width and very black, invisible
lines black and not so wide, and
auxiliary lines dark and thin. When
drawing a line, the pencil should be
inclined slightly (about 60°) in the
direction in which the line is being
drawn (Fig. 1.10). The pencil should be
"pulled" (never pushed) at the same
inclination for the full length of the line.
If it is rotated (twisted) slowly between
Fig.1.8 Special templates
the fingers as the line is drawn, a
symmetrical point will be maintained
Artistic General Accurate
and a straight uniform line will be Applications Drafting Construction
ensured.
1.8 T-square. The T square is used
primarily for drawing horizontal lines
and for guiding the triangles when
drawing vertical and inclined lines. It is
manipulated by sliding the guiding edge
Fig.1.9 The pencil lead grades
(inner face) of the head along the left
edge of the board Fig. 1.11a until the

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 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

shifted to a position near the center of

the blade to hold it in place and to
prevent its deflection while drawing the
line. Experienced draftsman hold the T-
square as shown in Fig.1.11b, with the
fingers pressing on the blade and the
thumb on the paper.
1.9 Horizontal lines are drawn from left to
right along the upper edge of the T-
square Fig 1.12.
1.10 Vertical lines. Vertical lines are
drawn upward along the vertical leg of a
triangle whose other (horizontal) leg is Fig.1.10 How to hold and control your
supported and guided by the T- square pencil
blade. The blade is held in position with
the palm and thumb of the left hand and
the triangle is adjusted and held by the
fingers, as shown in Fig. 1.13 Either the
30o x 60o or the 45o triangle may be used
since both triangles have a right angle.
However, the 30o x 60o is generally
preferred because it usually has a longer
perpendicular leg.
1.11 Inclined Lines. Triangles also are (a)
used for drawing inclined lines, lines
that make angles of 30o, 450, or 60o with
the horizontal may be drawn with the
30o x 60o or the 45o triangle in
combination with the T-square, as
shown in Fig. 1.13 if the two triangles
are combined, lines that make 15o or a
multiple of 15o may be drawn with the
horizontal. Several possible
arrangements and the angles that result
are shown in Fig. 1.14. The triangles (b)
used singly or in combination offer a
Fig.1.11 Manipulating the T- square
useful method for dividing a circle into
4, 6, 8, 12, or 24 equal parts (Fig. 1.15).
For angles other than those divisible by
15, a protractor must be used.
1.12 Parallel Lines. The triangles are used
in combination to draw a line

1-5
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

parallel to a given line. To draw such a

line, place a ruling edge of a triangle,
supported by a T-square or another
triangle, along the given line; then slip
the triangle, as shown in Fig. 2.24 , to

Fig.1.12 drawing horizontal lines

the required position and draw the
parallel line along the same ruling edge
that previously coincided with the given
line.
1.13 Inclined Lines Making 15o, 30o, 45o,
60o or 75o with an Oblique line. A line
making an angle with an oblique line
equal to any angle of a triangle may be
drawn with the triangle. To draw an
oblique line using the revolved triangle
method [Fi9.1.16 (a)], adjust along the
given line the edge that is opposite
required angle; then revolve the triangle
about the required angle, slide it into
position, and draw the required line
along the side opposite the required
angle. To use the sliding triangle method
[Fig. 1.16 (b)], adjust to the given line
one of the edges adjacent to the required
angle, and guide the side opposite the
required angle with a straight edge; then
slide the triangle into position and draw
Fig.1.13 drawing vertical lines

the required line along the other adjacent

side. To draw a line making 75 with a
given line, place the triangles together so
that the sum of a pair of adjacent angles
equal 75o, and adjust one side of the
angle thus formed to the given line, then
slide the triangle whose leg forms the
other side of the angle, across the given
line into position, and draw the required
line, as shown in Fig. 1.17 (a(.To draw a
line making 15o with a given line, select
any two angles whose difference is 15o.
Adjust to the given line a side adjacent
to one of

1-6
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

these angles, and guide the side adjacent

with a straightedge. Remove the first
triangle and substitute the other so that
one adjacent side of the angle to be
subtracted is along the guiding edge, as
shown in Fig. 1.17(b), then side it into
position and draw along the other
adjacent side
(a)

2 parts 6 parts

3 parts 12 parts

(b)

Fig. 1.15 To divide a circle into 4, 6, 8, 12, or 24

equal parts

(c)
With give line AB.

(d)
(a) (b)
Fig.1.14 drawing inclined lines
with triangles
Fig.1.16 To draw lines making 30o, 45o or 60o
with a given line

1-7
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

1.14 Compass or Large Bow, The

compass or large bow is used for
drawing circles and circle arcs. For
drawing pencil circles, the style of point
illustrated in Fig. 1.18 (c) should be
used because it gives more accurate
results and is easier to maintain than
most other styles. This style of point is (a)
formed by first sharpening the outside
of the lead on a file (Fig 1. 19) or
sandpaper to a long flat bevel
approximately5 mm long [Fig. 1.18(a)]
and then finishing [Fig. 1.18(b)] with a
slight rocking motion to reduce the
width of the point. Although a hard lead
(4H-6H) will maintain a point longer
without re-sharpening, it gives a
finished object line that is too light in
(b)
color. Soft lead (F or H) gives a darker
Fig.1.17 to draw lines making 15o, or 75o
line but quickly loses its edge and, on with a given line
larger circles, gives a thicker line at the
end than at the beginning. Some
draftsmen have found that a medium-
grade (2H-3H) lead is a satisfactory
compromise for ordinary working
drawings. For design drawings, layout
work and graphical solutions, however,
a harder lead will give better results.
The needle point should have the
Fig.1.18 shaping the compass lead
shouldered end out and should be
adjusted approximately 6mm beyond
the end of the split sleeve [Fig. 1 18(a)]
1.15 Using the Compass or Large
Bow. To draw a circle, it is first
necessary to draw two intersecting
centerlines at right angles and mark
off the radius. The pivot point should
be guided accurately into position at
the center. After the
Fig.1.19 shaping the compass lead

1-8
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

pencil point has been adjusted to the

radius mark, the circle is drawn in a
clockwise direction, as shown in Fig.
(1.20) while drawing the circle, the
instrument should be inclined slightly
forward, if the pencil line is not dark
enough, it may be drawn around
again.
When using a compass for a radius
larger than 5 cm, the legs should be
bent at the knee joints to stand
approximately perpendicular to the
paper Fig (1.21).

1.16 Use of the Bow Instruments. The Fig.1.20 using the large bow
bow pen and bow pencil are
convenient for drawing circles having
a radius of 3 cm. or less (Fig. 1.22).
The needle point should be adjusted
slightly longer than the marking point,
as in the case of the compass.
Small adjustments are made by the
fingers of the hand holding the
instrument, with the pivot point in
position at the center of the required
circle or arc. Fig.1.21 using the compass (large bent)

1.17 Conventional Line Symbols.

Symbolic lines of various weights are
used in making technical drawings.
Two widths of lines-thick and thin
are recommended for use on drawings
(Fig 1.22).
Exact thicknesses may vary
according to the size and type of
drawing. For example, where lines are
close together, the lines may be
slightly thinner.

Fig.1.22 using bow pencil

1-9
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

Fig.1.23 Alphabet of lines (finished weight)

1-10
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

The lines illustrated in Fig. 1.23

are shown full-size. When symbolic
lines are used on a pencil drawing
they should not vary in color. For
example, center lines, extension lines,
dimension lines, and section lines
should differ from object lines only in
width. The resulting contrast makes a
drawing easier to read. All lines,
except construction lines, should be WORLD PRODUCTION OF CRUDE
very dark and bright to give the PETROLEUM
(a) Chart
drawing the "snap" that is needed for
good appearance.
Freehand technical lettering
1.18 Introduction. To impart to the
workers in the shops all the necessary
information for the complete
construction of a machine or structure,
the shape description, which is
conveyed graphically by the views,
must be accompanied by size
descriptions and instructive
specifications in the form of figured
(b) Machine Drawing
dimensions and notes (Fig. 1.24)
All dimensions and notes should
be lettered freehand in a plain, legible
style that can be rapidly executed.
Poor lettering detracts from the
appearance of a drawing and often
impairs its usefulness, regardless of
the quality of the line work.
1.19 General Proportions of Letters.
Although there is no fixed standard for (c) Structural Drawing
the proportions of the letters, certain
definite rules must be observed in
their design if one wishes to have his
lettering appear neat and pleasing. The
recognized characteristics of each
letter should

(D) Electrical diagram

Fig.1.24 Technical Drawing

1-11
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

be carefully studied and then

thoroughly learned through practice It
is often desirable to increase or
decrease the width of letters in order
to make a word or group of words fill
a certain space. Letters narrower than
normal letters of the same height are
NORMAL
called compressed letters; those that
are wider are called extended letters COMPRESSED
(Fig. 1.25).
1.20 Uniformity in Lettering. EXTENDED

Uniformity in height, inclination,

spacing, and strength of line is Fig.1.25 Compressed and extended letters
essential for good lettering (Fig. 1.26)
Professional appearance depends as
much on uniformity as on the
correctness of the proportion and
shape of the individual letters.
Uniformity in height and inclination is
assured by the use of guide lines and
slope lines and uniformity in weight
and color, by the skillful use the pencil
and proper control of the pressure of
its point on the paper. The ability to
space letters correctly becomes easy
after continued thoughtful practice.
1.21 Inclined and Vertical Capital
Letters. The letters shown in Figs1.27 .
and 1.28 have been arranged in related
groups. In laying out the characters, the
number of widths has been reduced to
the smallest number consistent with
good appearance similarities of shape
have been emphasized and minute
differences have been eliminated. Each
letter is drawn to a large size on a cross-
section grid that is 2 units wider, to
facilitate the study of its characteristic
shape and proportions. Arrows with
numbers indicate the order and
direction of the strokes. The curves of
the

1-12
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

inclined capital letters are portions of

ellipses, while the curves of the
vertical letters are parts of circles.

The I, T, L, E, and F

The letter I is the basic or stem

stroke. The horizontal stroke of the T
is drawn first, and the stem starts at
the exact center of the bar. The L is 5
units wide, but it is often desirable to
reduce this width when an L is used in
combination with such letters as A and

Fig.1.27 Inclined capital letters

T. It should be observed that the letter
L consists of the first two strokes of
the E. The middle bar of the E is
1⁄ % units long and is placed slightly
2
above the center for stability. The top
bar is 1⁄2 unit shorter than the bottom
bar. The letter F is the E with the
bottom bar omitted.

The H and N

Stroke 3 of the H should be slightly

above the center, for stability. The
outside parallel strokes of the N are
drawn first to permit an accurate
estimate of its width. The inclined
stroke should intersect these
accurately at their extremities.

The Z and X

The top of the Z should be 1 unit

narrower than the bottom, for stability.
In the smaller sizes, this letter may be
formed without lifting the pen. The X
is similar to the Z in that the top is
made 1 unit narrower than the bottom.
The inclined strokes cross slightly
above center.

1-13
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

The A, V, M, and W
The horizontal bar of the A is
located up from the bottom a distance
equal to one third the height of the
letter. The V is the letter A inverted
without the crossbar, and is the same
width. The letters M and W are the
widest letters of the alphabet. The
outside strokes of the M are drawn
first, so that its width may be judged
accurately. The inside strokes of this
letter meet at the center of the base.
The W is formed by two modified V's.
Alternate strokes are parallel.

The K and Y
Fig.1.28 Vertical capital letters

The top of the letter K should be

made 1 unit narrower than the bottom,
for stability. Stroke 2 intersects the
stem one-third up from the bottom.
Stroke 3 is approximately
perpendicular to stroke 2, and, if
extended, would touch the stem at the
top. The strokes of the Y meet at the
center of the enclosing parallelogram
or square.

The O, Q, C, and G

Stroke 1 of the letter O starts just to

the right of the top and continues to
the left around the side to a point
beyond the bottom Thus stroke 1
forms more than half of the ellipse or
circle. The Q is the letter O with the
added ken, which is a straight line
located near the

1-14
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

The C is based on the o, but since it is

not a complete ellipse or circle, it is
narrower than either the O or Q. The
top extends 1 unit down and the bottom
1 unit up on the right side. G is similar
to C. The horizontal portion of stroke 2
starts at the center.

The D, U, and J

The first two strokes of the D form

an incomplete letter L. Stroke 3 starts
as a horizontal line. The bottom third
of the U is one-half of an ellipse or
circle. J is similar to the letter U.

The P, R, and B

The middle horizontal bar of the P is

located at the center of stroke 1. The
curved portion of stroke 3 is one-half
of a perfect ellipse or circle. The R is
constructed similarly to the P. The tail
joins at the point of tangency of the
curve and middle bar. To stabilize the
letter B, the top is made 1⁄2unit
narrower than the bottom and the
middle bar is placed slightly above the
center. The curves are halves of
ellipses or circles.

The S and &

The upper and lower portions of the

S are perfect ellipses with one- quarter
removed. The top ellipse should be
made 1⁄2 unit narrower than the lower
one, for stability. In the smaller sizes
this letter may be made with one or
two strokes, depending upon its size.
The true ampersand is made with three
strokes.

1-15
 Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

Professionals, however, usually

represent an ampersand with a
character formed by using portions of
the upper and lower ellipses of the
numeral 8 with the addition of two
short bars (Fig. 1.27).
Although many favor the inclined
letters, recent surveys indicate that
vertical letters are used more
generally.

1.21 Inclined and Vertical Numerals.

The numerals, shown in Figs.
1.29 and 1.30 have been arranged in
related groups in accordance with the
common characteristics that can be
recognized in their construction.
Fig.1.29 Inclined numbers

The 1, 7, and 4

The stem stroke of the 4 is located

1 unit in from the right side. The bar is
1⁄ units above the base. The stem of
2
the 7 terminates at the center of the
base.

The 0, 6, and 9

The cipher, which is 1 unit

narrower than the letter O, is the basic
form for this group. In the figure 6, the
right side of the large ellipse ends 1
unit down from the top, and the left Fig.1.30 Vertical numbers
side ends at the center of the base. The
small loop is slightly more than three-
fourths of an ellipse. The 9 is the 6
Inverted.

1-16
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

The 8, 3, and 2

1234567890
Each of these figures is related to
the letter S, and the same rule of
stability should be observed in their
construction. The top portion of the
figure 8 is shorter and 1⁄2 unit
narrower than the lower portion. Each
loop is a perfect ellipse. The figure 3
is the 8 with the lower-left quarter of
the upper loop and the upper-left
quarter of the lower loop omitted. The
2 is simply three- quarters of the upper
loop of the 8 and the upper-left quarter
of the lower loop of the 8 with straight
lines added.

The 5

This figure is a modification of

the related groups previously
described. The top is 1⁄2 unit
narrower than the bottom, for stability. SCALE
The curve is a segment of a perfect 0 10
ellipse, ending one unit up from the
bottom.

7
ABCDEFG
HIJKLMN
OPQRSTU
VWXYZ&
1-17
Chapter One Drawing Equipment and Use of Instruments

Problems
The problems (Figs. 1.31-1.35) are to be constructed in size A4 paper, plain or with a
printed grid; two problems can be constructed per sheet.

Fig.1.31Begain by lightly laying out the rectangle 1 and

construct the following lines: 1 - visible line, 2- hidden line,

3- dimension line, 4 - center line, and 5 - cutting plane line.

For rectangle 2 and 3 construct the patterns shown.

Fig. 1.32 Study the figures closely and draw one per sheet of size A4 paper. The circles
are 10 cm. in diameter. The dimension S in problem 8 is 3 cm.

1-19
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

Chapter 2
Geometric Constructions

INTRODUCTION triangle inscribed in a semicircle will

always be a right triangle.
Many problems in drafting and graphics
can be solved only by the application of
geometry and geometric construction.
Engineering and technical problems are
often solved by geometric construction
during the design process.

Mathematics was an outgrowth of

graphical construction: consequently
Fig. 2.1 When three sides are given, a
there is a close relationship between the Triangle can be drawn with a compass.
two areas. The proofs of many
principles of plan geometry and
trigonometry may be developed by
using graphics. Graphical methods can
be applied to algebra and arithmetic,
Fig. 2.2 Any angle that is inscribed in
and virtually all problems of analytical
a semicircle will be a right angle.
geometry can be solved graphically.
2- Constructing polygons
1- Constructing triangles
A regular polygon (having equal sides)
When three sides of a triangle arc
can be inscribed in a circle or
given, the triangle can be constructed
circumscribed about a circle. When
by using a compass as shown in Fig. 2.1
inscribed, all the corner points will lie
Only one triangle can be found when
along the circle. This makes it possible
the sides arc given. A right triangle can
to divide the circle into the desired
be constructed by inscribing it inside a
number of sectors to locate the points
semicircle as shown in Fig. 2.2 Any
(Fig. 2.3).

2-1
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions
For example, a 12-side polygon is
constructed by dividing the circle into
12 sectors and connecting the points to
form the polygon.

Step 1 To construct a regular polygon,

divide the circumference of a circle into
the same number of divisions as the
sides of the polygon, 12 in this case.
Fig. 2.4 A circle can be inscribed or
circumscribed to form a hexagon by
Step 2 Connect the divisions along the using a 30o- 600 triangle
circumference with straight lines to
form the sides of the polygon.
4- Octagons
The octagons, an eight-sided regular
polygon, can be inscribed in or
circumscribed about a circle (Fig. 2.5)
by using a 45o triangle. A second
method inscribes the octagon inside a
360 square (Fig. 2.6) through the following
𝜃=
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 two steps,

Step 1 Construct a square and locate its

Fig. 2.3 The regular polygon
center C. Construct two arcs from
3- Hexagons
opposite corners that will pass through,
Examples of inscribed and
circumscribed hexagons are shown C.
in Fig. 2.4. These are drawn with
30o- 600 triangles either inside or Step 2 Repeat this step by using the
outside the circles. Note that the other corners. Connect the points
circle represents the distance from
located on the square to form the
corner to corner when inscribed,
octagon.

Fig. 2.5 A circle can be inscribed or

circumscribed to form an octagon with a 45o
triangle.

2-2
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions
6- Bisecting lines and angles
Finding the midpoint of a line, or the
perpendicular bisector of a line, is a
basic technique of geometric
construction. A line can be bisected
by using a compass and any radius
or a standard triangle and a
straightedge. Two methods are
Fig. 2.6 Octagon in a square illustrated in Fig. 2.8. The first
method involves the use of a
5- Pentagons
compass to construct perpendicular
Since the pentagon is a five-sided to a line. The compass method can
regular polygon, it can be inscribed in be used to find the midpoint of an
or circumscribed about a circle, as arc as well as a straight line. The
previously covered. Another method of angle in Fig. 2.9 can be bisected with
constructing a pentagon is shown in a compass by drawing three arcs, as
Fig. 2.7. This construction is performed follows,
with the use of a compass and a
Step 1 Swing an arc of any radius to
straight- edge, as follows
locate points D and F.
Step 1 Bisect radius OP to locate point
Step 2 Using the same radius, draw two
A. With A as the center and AC as the
arcs from D and E to locate point 0.
radius Rl locate point B on the diameter,
Line AO is the bisector of the angle.
Step 2 With point C as the center and
BC as the radius R2 locate paint D on
the arc. Line CD is the chord that can
be used to locate the other corners of
the pentagon.

Fig. 2.8 Bisecting a line

Fig. 2.7 The pentagon

2-3
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions
8- Line tangent to an arc

Although you can approximate the

point of tangency between a line and an
arc, the method of finding the exact
point of tangency is show in Fig. 2.11.
Fig. 2.9 Bisecting an angle
The following two steps illustrate the
7- Division of lines method,
It often necessary to divided a line Step 1 Connect point A with center C.
into a number of equal parts when a Locate point M by bisecting AC
convenient scale is not available for Step 2 Using point M and as the center
this purpose. For example, suppose and MC as the radius, locate point T on
a one-inch line is to be divided into the arc.
seven equal parts. No scale is Step 3 Draw the line from A to T that is
available that divides an inch into tangent to the arc of point T
sevenths, and mathematical units Point A and the arc are given. Point A
involve hard-to measure decimals. is connected to the center n tep1. AC is
The method shown in Fig. 2.10 is bisected in Step 2, and T is located in
an efficient way to solve this Step 3. This is the exact point of
problem as follows; tangency. The point of tangency could

Step 1 Line AB is divided into 7 equal also have been found by using a

divisions by constructing line through A standard triangle, as shown in Fig. 2.12,

and dividing it into 7 known units with and following these steps,

your dividers. Point C is connected to Step 1 A line can be drawn from point

point B. A tangent to the arc by eye.

Step 2 By rotating your triangle, the
Step 2 A series of lines are drawn point at tangency (T) can be located at a
parallel to CB to locate the divisions 90o angle with lines CT and AT. One
edge of the triangle is aligned with TA
along line AB.
while the straightedge is held firmly.
The triangle is rotated to construct a
line through the center that is
perpendicular o T, locating the point of
tangency T.

Fig. 2.10 division at a line

2-4
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions
drawn. A perpendicular to CD is drawn
at T to locate the center at O.The
method is performed in two Steps,
Step 1 If an arc must be tangent to a
given line at a certain point and pass
through P, find the perpendicular
bisector of line TP.
Step 2 Construct a perpendicular to the
line at T to intersect he bisector. The arc
is drawn from center O with radius OT.

FIG. 2.11 A line from a point tangent to an arc

Fig. 2.13 An arc through two points

A similar problem in Fig. 2.14 requires
you to draw an arc of a given radius that
will be tangent to line AB and pass
through point P. In this case the point of
tangency on the line is not known until
the point has been solved. The

FIG. 2.12 A line from a point

following steps illustrate the method of
tangent to an arc. construction,
Step 1 when an arc of a given radius is
9- Arc tangent to a line from a point to be drawn tangent to a line and
If an arc is to be constructed through point P, draws a line parallel to
tangent to line CD at T (Fig. 2.13) AB and R from it.
and pass through point P, a
Step 2 Draw an arc from P with radius
perpendicular bisector of TP is
P to locate the center at C. The arc is
drawn with radius R and center C.

2-5
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

Fig. 2.14 An arc tangent to a line and

a point

10- Arc tangent to two lines

An arc of a given radius can be
constructed tangent to two
nonparallel lines if the radius is Fig. 2.15 An arc tangent to two tines

given. This construction aye used

The same steps are used to find an arc
to round a corner of a product or to
that is tangent of two lines that form an
design a curb at a traffic
obtuse angle (Fig. 2.16). In both cases,
intersection. This method is shown
the points of tangency are located with
in Fig. 2.15, where two lines form
thin lines drawn from the centers
an acute angle, and illustrated
through the points of tangency.
through these steps,
Step 1 Using the specified radius, R,
Step 1 Construct a line parallel to DE construct a line parallel to CD.
with the radius of the specified arc, R. Step 2 Construct a line parallel to DE
that is distance R from it to locate
Step 2 Draw a second construction line
center O.
parallel to AB to locate the center C

Step 3 Construct thin lines from center

Step 3 Thin lines are drawn from C
O perpendicular to lines CD and DE to
perpendicular to AD and DE to locate
locate the points at tangency. Draw the
the points of tangency. The tangent arc
arc using radius R and center O.
is drawn using the center C.

2-6
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

Fig. 2.17 An arc tangent to perpendicular

5- Arc tangent to an arc and a

Fig. 2.16 An arc tangent to two tines
line
A different technique can be used to When a radius is given, an arc can be
find an arc of a given radius that is drawn that is tangent to an arc and a
tangent to perpendicular lines line. These steps of construction are
(Fig.2.17). This method will work only given in Fig. 2.18.
for perpendicular lines. These are the Step 1 Construct a line parallel to AB
steps of construction, that is R from it. Use thin construction

Step 1 Using the specified radius, P, lines.

locate points D and F by using center A. Step 2 add radius P to the extended
radius through point C Use this large
Step 2 Swing two arcs using the radius radius to locate point O.
P that was used in Step 1 to locate point
C Step 3 Line OC and OT arc drawn to
locate the tangency points. The arc with
Step 3 Locate the tangent points with radius R and center O is drawn.
lines from the center, C. Draw the arc
with radius R and center C.

2-7
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

Fig. 2.19 An arc tangent to an arc and a lune

5- Arc tangent to two arcs

Fig. 2.18 An arc tangent to an arc and a line
A third arc is drawn tangent to two
A variation of this principle of
given arcs in Fig. 2.20. Thin lines are
construction is shown in Fig. 2.19,
drawn from the centers to locate the
where the arc is drawn tangent to an arc
points of tangency. This tangent arc is
and a line with the arc in a reverse
concave from the top. These are the
position. The steps of construction are;
steps of construction;
Step 1 The specified arc, R, is Step 1 The radius of one circle is
subtracted from the extended radius extended, and the radius R is added to it
through the arc's center at O. A the extended radius is used for drawing
concentric arc is drawn with the a concentric arc.
shortened radius. Step 2 The radius of the other circle is
extended, and the radius R is added to
Step 2 A line parallel to 1-2 is drawn a
it. The extended radius is used to
distance of R from it to locate the
construct an arc and to locate point O,
center, point C.
the center.
Step 3 The tangent points are located Step 3 The centers are connected with
with lines from O through C and point O to locate the points of tangency.
through C perpendicular to 1-2. Draw The arc is drawn tangent to the two arcs
the tangent arc with radius R. with radius R.

2-8
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

Fig. 2.20 An arc tangent to two arcs

Fig. 2.21 An arc tangent to two arcs
A convex arc can be drawn tangent to
the given arcs if the radius of the arc is A variation of this problem is shown in
greater than the radius or either of the Fig. 2.22, where an arc of a given radius
given arcs (Fig. 2.21). The steps of is drawn tangent to the top of one arc
constructing such are; and the bottom of the other. The two
arcs are of different sizes. These are the
Step 1 The radius of each arc is
steps,
extended from the arc past its center,
Step 1 The specified radius, R, is laid
and the specified radius, R, is laid off
off from the arc along the extended
from the arcs along these lines.
radius to locate point D. Radius AD is
Step 2 The distance from each center to used to construct a concentric arc.
the ends of the extended radius are used Step 2 The radius through center B is
for drawing two concentric arcs to extended, and the radius R is added to it
locate the center O. from point F Radius BE is used to
locate the center, C.
Step 3 Thin lines from O through
centers C1 and C2 locate the points of Step 3 The tangent arc is drawn from
tangency. The arc is drawn using point center C with radius R. The points of
O as the center. tangency are located with thin lines
from C through the given centers.

2-9
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

Fig. 2.23 Ellipse-parallelogram method

The second methods

Step 1 Two concentric circles are
drawn, with the large one equal to the
major diameter and the small one equal
to the minor diameter divide them into
equal sectors.
Step 2 plot points on the ellipse by
projecting downward from the large
curve to intersect horizontal

Fig. 2.22 An arc tangent to two circles

construction lines drawn from the
Intersections on the small circle,
13- Ellipse

The ellipse can be constructed by two Equal

divisions
methods; ellipse-parallelogram method
(Fig. 2.23) and ellipse-circle method
(Fig. 2.24). These are the steps of both
methods,
Minor Dai
Major Dai
The First method: Step 1 Step 2

Step 1 An ellipse can be drawn inside a Fig. 2.24 Ellipse-circle method

rectangle or a parallelogram by dividing

the horizontal center line into the same
number of equal divisions as the shorter
sides. AR and CD.

Step 2 The construction of the curve in

one quadrant is shown by using sets of
rays from E and B to plot the points.

2-10
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions
14- Spirals them to the rant view. Lay out the
The spiral is a coil that begins at a point circumference and the height f the
and becomes larger as it travels around cylinder, which is the lead. Divide the
the origin. The spiral lies in a single circumference into the same number of
plane. The steps of constructing a spiral equal parts by taking the measurements
(Fig. 2.25) are, from the top view. Project the points
along the inclined rise to their
Step 1 Draw a circle and divide it into
respective elements to find the helix.
equal parts. The radius is divided into
the same number of equal parts - six in
this example.

Step 2 By beginning on the inside.

Draw arc 0-1 to intersect radius -1.
Then swing arc 0-2 to radius 0-2 and
continue until the last point is reached
at 6, which lies on the original circle.

Fig. 2.26 The helix

The steps of construction about a

cone are;
Step 1 Divide the cone's base into equal
Fig. 2.25 The spiral
parts. Pass a series of horizontal cutting
15- Helixes plans through the front view of the cone
The helix is a curve that coils around a use the same number as the division on
cylinder or a cone at a constant angle of the base, 12 in this case.
inclination. Examples of helixes are
corkscrews or threads on a screw. A Step 2 Project all the divisions along

helix is constructed about a cylinder in the front view of the cone to line C9,

Fig. 2.26 and about a cone in Fig. 2.27. and draw a series of arcs from center C
to their respective radius in the top view
The steps for the construction about to plot the points. Project the points to
the cylinder are; their respective cutting planes in the

Divide the top view of the cylinder into front view.

equal divisions and project

2-11
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions
Step 2 The center of the arc is moved
from O4 to O3 locate point A3, then too
O2, etc. the points O2, etc. The points
are connected to form the cycloidal
curve.

Fig. 2.28 The cycloid

Fig. 2.27 A conical helix

16- Cycloids

The cycloid is a plane curve formed by

a point on a circle as the circle rolls
along a straight line. In Fig. 2.28, the
distance from 1 to 9 must be equal to
the circumference of the circle. The
circle is located at the center point, 5,
and it is rolled to the left to locate
points A4. A3, A2, and A1, as the center
move from O4 to O1, These points are
connected with a smooth curve to
complete the left side of the cycloid.
The same construction is repeated as
the circle moves to the right to complete
the symmetrical curve. These are the
steps used to draw Fig. 2.28,

Step1 A circle is centered on a

horizontal tangent line. It is divided into
a number of equal divisions. The
circumference of the circle is laid off
along line 1-9, which is divided into the
same number of parts as the circle.

2-12
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

2-13
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

2-14
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

1 2

3 4

2-15
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

2
1

3 4

5 6

2-16
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

2
1

3 4

5 6

2-17
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

1 2

3
4

5 6

2-18
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

1 2

3 4

5 6

2-19
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

1 2

3 4

5 6

2-20
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

1 2

1 2

2
1

2-21
Chapter Two Geometric Constructions

2-22
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Chapter 3
Theory of Projection

3.1 Introduction:
Since engineers are confronted with the task of recording shapes and sizes of three
dimensional objects on the plane of sheet of drawing paper, it is obvious that
recognized procedures must be followed if their drawings and sketches are to be easily
understood.

Size description and shape description are equally important, but in order to simplify
the presentation of the fundamentals of making drawings and sketches, this chapter is
concerned entirely with the methods commonly employed in describing shape.

Each of the different methods (Axonometric, Oblique, and Orthographies) is based on

same forms of projection. The theory governing and method should be understood
thoroughly before it is used.

3-1
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

3.2 Pictorial Projection:

Projection is a method of representing visually a three-dimensional object on two-

dimensional drawing paper. A pictorial projection is a method of producing two-
dimensional views of a three-dimensional object that shows three main faces indicating
the height, width, and depth simultaneously, as in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1 Representation of three-dimensional object

3.2.1 Perspective projection:

Appreciation of perspective is essential for learning the fundamentals of freehand

sketching (witch discussed in chapter four). In perspective projection, the projection
lines (visual rays) converge to a point, as shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 Perspective projection

Perspective projection is not suitable for working drawings because a perspective views
does not reveal exact size and shape. It is used to some extent by engineers in preparing
preliminary sketches.

3-2
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Objects at a distance appear to be smaller than those which are near. Two parallel lines
representing the edges of a straight road seem to come closer

together and then meet at a point on the horizon. The point is called the vanishing point
(VP). Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Perspective projection

Perspective projection involves a number of receding lines called projectors converging

at one, two, or more vanishing points. The objects sketched are then presented as they
would appear when observed from a particular point in real life.

Fig.3.4 (a) one-point, (b) two-point and (c) three-point perspective

In Fig. 3.4(a), one-point perspective is shown, where one of the principal faces is
parallel to the picture plane.

In Fig.3.4 (b), Two-point perspective is shown, where all principal faces are inclined.
This method is commonly used for industrial sketching

In Fig.3.4 (c), three-point perspective is shown, where on vanishing point is outside the
picture frame.

3.2.2 Isometric projection:

Isometric sketching starts with three basic axes equal-spaced as shown in Fig. 3 5(a).
For practical reasons, the isometric axes are usually represented as shown in Fig.3.5 (b).
Fig. 3.5 (c) shows a cube drawn in isometric projection; the edges receding to the right
and to the left are parallel to the isometric axes.

3-3
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
When sketching or drawing in isometric projection, proportions and measurements can
be made only along these three axes.

Fig.3.5 Isometric axes

3.2.3 Oblique projection:

A pictorial view of an object can be produced in oblique projection, where the front
face is sketched as a true shape without distortion.

Sketching in this projection is much easier than in isometric projection, since all the
circles in the front face are sketched as plane figures instead of ellipses as in isometric
projection.

Oblique sketching starts with two axes-one vertical and one horizontal together with a
third axis which is usually drawn at 45° to the horizontal and along which all
measurements are reduced to half true length (TL), as shown in Fig.3.6.

Fig.3.6 Basic oblique axes

All proportions and

measurements can be made

only along these three axes.

A comparison of three

pictorial projections is shown

Perspective Isometric Oblique
in Fig.3.7.
Fig.3.7 Pictorial projections

3-4
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
3.3 Orthographic Projection:

Orthographic projection is a method of producing a number of separate two-

dimensional inter-related views which are mutually at right angles to each other.

Orthographic projection is a multi-views projection. Using this projection, even

the most complex shape can be fully described. This method, however, does not create
an immediate three-dimensional visual picture of the object as doe's pictorial
projection.

The ability to visualize or think in three dimensions is essential to the competent

reading of drawings and should be developed even before the skills required producing
neat and accurate engineering drawings.

Visualization is best achieved through the use of models in conjunction with

drawings, to promote an understanding of reading drawings and three-dimensional
thinking.

Orthographic projection is based on two principal planes-one horizontal (HP)

and one vertical (VP)-intersecting each other and forming right angles and quadrants as
shown in Fig.3.8.

Fig.3.8 Principal of Orthographic projection

Only two forms of orthographic projections are used: first-angle (European) and third-
angle (American)

3-5
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
3.3.1 First-angle projection:

In first-angle projection, an object is positioned in the space of the first-angle quadrant

between two planes Fig. 3.9(a). A view of the object is projected by drawing parallel
projecting lines, or projectors, from the object to the vertical principal plane (VP). This
view on VP is called a front view or elevation. A view similarly projected on the

Fig.3.9 First-angle projection

For the complete description of the object, and additional plane, called the
auxiliary vertical plane (AVP) or side view, is used at 90° to the principal planes, and
the view projected on to that plane is called end view.

By means of projectors, all three planes can be unfolded and three views of the
object can be shown simultaneously on drawing paper as in Fig.3.9(b). The end view is
projected horizontally and the plan view vertically from the front view.

In the first-angle projection, the object always comes between the eye of the
observer and the projection plane of view, as shown in Fig 3.10.

The symbol used to indicate first-angle projection is derived from view of a

circular taper as shown in Fig. 3.11

Sometimes it is necessary to show six views of an object, as in Fig.312. To show

hidden detail, a thin line short dash is used.

3-6
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Fig.3.10 Principal of first-angle projection

Fig.3.11 First-angle projection symbol

Fig.3.12 Six views in first-angle projection

3-7
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
3.3.2Third-angle projection:

In third-angle projection, an object is positioned in the space of the third-angle quadrant

between two principal planes, Fig. 3.13. The planes are imagined to be transparent, and
the projected views of the object are viewed through the planes as shown in Fig.3.
14(a).

Fig.3.13 Principle of orthographic projection

Fig.3.14 Third-angle projection-glass-box method

3-8
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
By means of projectors, all three planes of glass box' can be unfolded and three views
of the object can be shown simultaneously on drawing paper as in Fig.3.14 (b).

In both first and third-angle projection the views are identical, but the positioning of
each is different.

In third-angle projection, the transparent projection plane or view always comes

between the eye of the observer and the object, as shown in Fig.3.15.

Fig.3.15 Principle of third-angle projection

The symbol used to indicate third-angle projection is derived as for first-angle

projection, but the views are positioned differently, as shown in Fig.3.16.

Fig.3.16 Third-angle projection symbol

3-9
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
In common practices, only three of the six possible views (Fig.3.17) are used for a
complete description of an object, as in Fig. 3.18.

The advantage of third-angle projection is that the views drawn are positioned close to
the surfaces or parts they represent.

Fig.3.17 Six views in third-angle projection

Fig.3.18 Three views in third-angle projection

3-10
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Exercises
The figure shows the components A, B, C, D, E, and F in pictorial projection, the
direction of viewing indicated by arrow corresponding to the front view (elevation).

Select from the given orthographic views 1 to 18 the relevant front views (FV), end
views (EV), and plan views (PV), and insert your answers in the table like the one
provided.

3-11
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
The figure shows the components A, B, C, D, E, and F in pictorial projection, the
direction of viewing indicated by arrow corresponding to the front view (elevation).

Select from the given orthographic views 1 to 18 (in the third-angle projection) the
relevant front views (FV), end views (EV), and plan views (PV). and insert your
answers in the table like the one provided.

3-12
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Draw or sketch. Full size, in the first angle projection the components shown in the
figure. Select the views (front view, side view and top view) to show most to the
feature as visible outlines, and include hidden details where necessary. Each
construction square represents 10 mm measurement.

1
2

3
4

5 6

3-13
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8
9

10 11 12

3-14
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

2
1

3
4

5 6

3-15
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
1 2

3 4

5 Solved 6 Solved

6
7

3-16
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

1 2

3 4

5 6

3-17
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Draw the three view or four view in the first angle orthographic projection the
components shown in the figure. Use 10 mm grid for measurement.

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

3-18
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each isometric, draw the three projections choosing suitable dimensions
1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12

3-19
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each isometric , draw the three projections choosing suitable dimensions

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12

3-20
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, make complete orthographic projections with dimensions

1 2

3 4

5 6

3-21
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, make complete orthographic projections with dimensions

1 2

3 4

5 6

3-22
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, make complete orthographic projections with dimensions

1 2

3 4

5 6

3-23
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, make complete orthographic projections with dimensions

1 2

3 4

5 6

3-24
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, make complete orthographic projections with dimensions

1 2

3 4

5 6

3-25
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Make complete orthographic projections of each model with dimensions

1 2

3 4

3-26
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Make complete orthographic projections of each model with dimensions

1 2

3 4

3-27
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Make complete orthographic projections of each model with dimensions

1 2

3 4

3-28
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Make complete orthographic projections of each model with dimensions

1 2

3 4

3-29
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Make complete orthographic projections of each model with dimensions

1 2

3 4

3-30
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

2
1

4
3

6
5

8
7

3-31
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

2
1

3 4

5
6

7 8

3-32
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

2
1

4
3

5 6

7 8

3-33
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
3-4 Pictorial Drawing with Instruments:
Pictorial drawings are an essential part of engineering drawing. They are technical
illustrations by which the shapes of articles, parts and components can be clearly
described in a picture form. Two methods of pictorial drawing are shown in this part
isometric drawing and oblique drawing. Many other methods of pictorial drawing are
used by technical artists.
3.4.1 Isometric drawing:
Isometric drawings can be produced on
isometric grid papers or with the aid of
the 30o angle of 30o, 60o set square.
Both methods have been employed
throughout this part, in which there are
a large number of isometric drawings
The drawings (1 to 4) show how an
A KEY drawn in First Angle projection
isometric drawing of KEY is produced
on a 10 mm isometric grid and with the
aid of 30o, 60o set square,
Drawing 1
A first Angle projection of a
KEY
Drawing 2
A 10 mm isometric grid. Isometric grid A 10 mm isometric grid
papers can be obtained with 5 mm, 10
mm, or 20 mm spacing
Drawing 3
The KEY shown in drawing 1 is drawn
by counting along the spacing of 10 mm
isometric grid to obtain the dimensions
of the key. Thus the 40 mm length of
the key is obtained by counting 4 of the
The KEY drawn on an isometric grid
10 mm

3-34
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
spaces, the height by counting2 x10 mm
and the depth by2 x10 mm. The outline
of the shape of the key can then be
drawn with the aid of a straight edge
Drawing 4
The vertical and 30° angles of an
isometric drawing can be drawn with The KEY drawn with the aid of a set square
the aid of 30° angle of a 30°, 60° set
square.
After drawing lines along the edges of the set square, the lengths of the key are
measured along the lines with the aid of a ruler.

Stages in making an isometric drawing

Drawings 1 to 4 show the stages necessary to produce an isometric drawing of a small
CLAMP with the aid of a 30°, 60° set square.

1 An isometric outline 'box' is drawn

with the aid of set square. The outline is
drawn in fine, thin pencil lines. The
overall dimensions of the 'box' are the First Angle projection of a CLAMP

same as those of the CLAMP

3-35
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

2 The dimensions of the bevels and of 2

the grooves along the vertical and the
30o axes.

Note: measurements should only be

taken along these axes.

3
3 Thin, fine pencil lines are drawn at
these measured points.

4
4 The outline of the CLAMP is lined-in
with firm block pencil lines.
Unwanted construction lines are
erased.

Drawing 5 shows the same isometric

drawing made on a 10 mm grid.
When making drawings on isometric
grids, dimensions such as the 6 mm
and 8 mm of bevels must be
estimated along the grid lines.

3-36
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Curves in isometric drawings
The stages by which curved lines are produced in isometric drawings are shown in
drawings 1 to 5 as the following:

1 A three-view orthographic drawing

of a BUTTON. An isometric
drawing of the button is required.
The drawing is to be produced with
the aid of 30o, 60o set square.

2 The outline of the shape of the

BUTTON is drawn, using the
methods already described here.
The center lines of the hole in the
button are added.

3 The circle of the hole in the button

is drawn (drawing3 a), with its
center linen. Several vertical lines
are added to the circle. The spaces
between these verticals are lettered
a, b, and c on drawing 3a From the
point where the isometric center
lines on drawing 3 cross each other,
the distances a, b and c are
measured along one of the center
lines. Thin pencil lines are then
drawn through these measured
points at the opposite 30° angle.

3-37
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

4 The lengths of the verticals

on drawing 3a are
measured with a compass,
or with dividers, each side
of the horizontal center
line. These measurements
are them transferred to 30°
lines of the isometric
drawing. Thus the drawing
4
3a are transferred to 1, 2, 3
on drawing 3a are 5
transferred to the isometric
drawing 4.

5 The isometric curve of the

hole can now be drawn
through the points 1, 2 and
3. The resulting curve is an
ellipse. Good isometric
curves can be obtained by
careful, neat freehand
drawing.

Isometric curves in other positions

Drawings 6 and 7 show how the isometric curve for the button hole can equally as
will be plotted with the button drawn in different positions to that shown in
drawing 5.

6 7

3-38
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Isometric curves on grids
Drawing 8 shows the application of the same method of constructing isometric
curves to a drawing made on 5 mm isometric grid. Note drawing 8a made on a 5
mm square grid to enable estimations of the lengths a, b and c and then 1, 2 and 3,
to be made.

3.4.2 Oblique drawing:

The type of oblique drawing shown here is known as cabinet drawing. Cabinet
oblique drawing is a simple method of producing a pictorial view of an article.
Four stages need to be followed when making a cabinet drawing.
1 Draw a front view of the article.
2 Draw lines at 45° from corners of the front view and from all its centers of
circles and arcs.
3 Measure half of the actual depth along each 45° line.
4 Complete the drawing by joining up the lines of the rear of the article.

Note: Cabinet drawing is only one method of oblique drawing. If full scale
measurements are taken along the 45° lines, the resulting drawing looks distorted.
Half scale measurements minimize this distortion. Cabinet drawing is, however,
the most popular form of oblique drawing.

3-39
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Cabinet drawing on a square
grid
A First Angle drawing of a
MACHINE SLIDE is given
together with a cabinet drawing of
the SLIDE drawn on a 5mm square
grid. The 45° angles of cabinet
drawing are easily found on a
square grid by drawing the
diagonals of the squares of the
grid.

Cabinet drawing with a set

square
Drawing 1 and 2 show how a
cabinet drawing of the SLIDE is
produced with the aid of a set
square.

1 Draw the front view of the

SLIDE. From each corner and
from the centers of the circles,
draw lines at 45° with the aid
of a set square.

2 Measure half the depth of the

slide along each 45° line and
complete the drawing as
shown. In this example the
distance to be measured along
the 45° line is 30/2 = 15 mm.

Note. If a number of arcs, circles or holes appear in one face of an article, the student
should consider whether a cabinet drawing might be preferred to an isometric drawing.

3-40
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the oblique.

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

3-41
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the oblique.

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

3-42
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the oblique.

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

3-43
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the isometric.

1 2

3 4

3-44
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the isometric.

1 2

Solved

3 4

3-45
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the isometric.

1 2

3 4

3-46
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
For each model, draw the three projections and the isometric.

1 2

3 4

3-47
Chapter Three Theory of Projection
Solved Problems

Problem 5 page 3-16

Problem 6 page 3-16

3-48
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Problem 7 page 3-17

Problem 12 page 3-17

3-49
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Problem 4 page 3-25

Problem 6 page 3-25

3-50
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Problem 4 page 3-30

Problem 4 page 3-39

3-51
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Problem 8 page 3-39

Problem 7 page 3-40

3-52
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Problem 1 page 3-43

Problem 3 page 3-44

3-53
Chapter Three Theory of Projection

Problem 1 page 3-44

3-54
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Chapter 4
Missing Views and Dimensions

Constructing a third projection from When reading a to view drawing of a

two given projections is the basic model the later should be
exercise in making and reading dismembered mentally into
drawing To successfully solve the elementary geometrical solids whose
problems of the present chapter, the profile projections should be
student has first to master the pictured. After the preparatory stage
methods of constructing a third we can proceed with a third
projection (with the two projections projection of the model by gradually
given) of the following geometrical making all the necessary
elements: construction in the order of
increasing complexity. In reading the
1- Point. drawing, the use of both of the given
2- Straight line in different projections is mandatory, since one
positions with respect to the projection is insufficient for this
projections planes (parallel to purpose. Thus, it is impossible to
plane H, perpendicular to plane conceive a clear idea as to a shape of
H, inclined to plane H, parallel the model shown in Fig. 4.1a,
to plane V, perpendicular to judging only by one projection, say,
plane V, and so on). the vertical one presented in Fig.
3- Plane figure , triangle, rectangle, 4.1b, since a Varity of figures can be
quadrilateral and circle in imagined, whose profile projections
various positions with respect to are given in Figs. 4.1c, to 4.1.e. If,
the planes of projection, in reading the drawing, consideration
4- Simple geometrical solids, right is given to both of the given
prism, pyramid, right circular projections (Fig. 4.2a), then only one
cylinder, cone and sphere. shape (shown in Fig. 4.1a) can be
Prior to solving such problems, read singled out in our imagination.
the two views drawing of the given Constructing a third projection of the
model so as to visualize the model as in Fig. 4.2b checks the
geometrical shape of the model. solution of this problem.

4-1
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-2
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Dimensioning
Working drawings must indicate all drawing outlines. Avoid intersection
the necessary dimensions in a way of extension and dimension lines.
most convenient for the workman.
When a series of parallel dimension
The size of the object or its separate lines are in close proximity to one
parts is usually indicated in drawings another, the dimensions should be
by means of dimension lines, complete staggered, as shown in (Fig 4.3a).
with figures showing the actual Center lines and cross-hatching lines
measurement irrespective of the scale. must be broken where figures are to be
As a rule, dimensions in machine placed (see Fig. 4.3a).
drawings are given in millimeters
without adding the abbreviation mm. Dimension lines must not be the
continuation of outlines, axial center
Dimension lines are made with fine or extension lines. On the other hand,
continuous lines, so as to contrast with the outlines, axial center and extension
the heavier outline of the drawing. lines must not be used as dimension
They are drawn parallel to the sections lines.
whose length they indicate and are
terminated by carefully made Arrowheads terminating the
arrowheads at the ends of the dimension lines must just touch the
dimension line. corresponding outlines, or center lines,
or extension lines. The size of
Dimension figures must be written arrowheads depends on the thickness
clearly and neatly to avoid confusion of visible outlines and must be one
and possible errors. They should be and the same for all dimension lines of
written above the and parallel to the a given drawing. Arrow-heads should
dimension line and as close to its be made as shown in (Fig. 4.4a)
center as possible (Fig. 4.3a).
Extension lines must extend 2 to 5 mm
The figures may also be inserted in a beyond the ends of the arrowheads. If
gap in the dimension line. If a view there is not enough space for an
has a break, however, the dimension arrowhead because two lines of the
line must be drawn without a gap. as visible outline are too close to each
in (Fig. 4.4 d). other, one of the lines may be broken
(see Fig. 4.3a, dimension 64 and Fig.
Each dimension in a drawing must be 4.5 b, dimension 10)
given only once; duplicate dimensions
should be avoided.

Dimension lines are preferably (but

not obligatory) drawn outside the

4-3
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
When dimensioning very narrow Fig. 4.6a illustrates dimensioning
spaces do as shown in Fig. 4.3 c. circular arcs, while Fig.4.6 b
(dimensions 6 and 3) or as in Fig. shows how spherical surfaces are
4.4 b. (dimensions 3, 2 and 3). As dimensioned.
is seen from latter figure, if there
is no room for arrowheads at the A 45- degree Chamfer is
ends of dimension lines arranged dimensioned using a dimension
in a continuous chain, they may be line (as in Fig. 4.4d). The figure is
replaced by dots. the linear dimension of the side of
the right triangle formed by the
On half-sectioned views with an chamfer. Chamfers cut at other
axis of symmetry it is permissible angles are dimensioned according
to dimension as in Fig. 4.3 b to the general rules: either with the
(dimensions 32 dia, and 36 dia.). linear dimensions of the two
In this case the dimension line triangle legs, or with one linear
must extend somewhat beyond the and one angular dimension.
axis of symmetry.
Fig. (4.7a and 4.7b) shows the
Squares (or square holes) are recommended practice for placing
dimensioned in the following angular dimensions.
manner: 36x36 where 36 is the
dimension of the side, or the Extension lines should be
dimension is preceded by a small perpendicular to the dimension
square, for example, Φ18 (see Fig. lines. In certain cases, by way of
4.3 d.). exception, extension lines may be
drawn not at a right angle to
For a circle the diameter is the dimension lines, but as is shown in
only essential dimension. The Fig. 4.3 c (dimension 18 dia.). In
diameter, not the radius, should this case the extension lines must
always be given for a circle; since be parallel to each other.
this is the dimension the workman
will use whether he is turning a In cases such as shown in Fig. 4.3
cylinder on a lathe or drilling a c (dimension 54 dia.) the extension
hole. The correct method of lines are drawn from the points of
placing dimension lines and intersection of the continuations of
numerals for diameters is shown in the visible outlines.
Fig 4.5 a-d. Dimension lines drawn as in Fig.
When dimensioning a number of 4.7 c may indicate the coordinates
equal-spaced similar elements of a of points on a non-circular curve.
machine parts, say, holes, proceed
as in fig. 4.5c (usually only one
hole is dimensioned and the
number or holes indicated)

4-4
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-5
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Where space limitations do not
permit giving a separate line for
each dimension, the dimensions
may be placed in one line as
shown in Fig. 4.8 b and c. In this
method, called progressive (or
consecutive) dimensioning, there
is only one arrow for each
dimension, thus indicting that each
dimension goes back to the
original base line, say zero.

4-6
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-7
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-8
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Freehand Sketching
The art of freehand sketching is most important, even to the accomplished draughtsman
who is some-times required to go to a factory site armed with a sketch pad and
measuring instruments. It may be that new work is being undertaken, or modifications
to existing plant or machinery are required. The draughtsman must be capable of
producing reason-able freehand sketches that can be readily understood. He may be
able to make only one trip to the site and his sketches must be made into working
drawings, so there is little margin for error.

Many people shy away from sketching under the impression that it is very difficult to
master the art It is difficult, but following a few simple rules can help to ease the
difficulties as they arise.

The first thing to do is to draw a faint scaffold or framework into which the finished
outline can be drawn. The dimensions should be as accurate as possible whether the
sketch is full size or drawn to scale. It is also frequently helpful to be able to sketch in
pictorial or three-dimensional form so that anyone using the sketch can appreciate what
it is meant to portray.

Figs. 4.10 show pictorial sketches of machined blocks, all of which are the same size.
Beside each large sketch are shown three views of the machined block: an elevation
aside and a plan.

The method of producing the sketches is the same for each one. Each figure labelled (a)
is first lightly etched with a framework of a cube the finished, darker outline is drawn
over the faint lines after all necessary detail has been accurately drawn Three flat views
are the sketched in each area labelled (b).

The three fiat drawings are projected from one another to a scale. This scale nail as a
means of measuring, the faint lines which are sketched from one view to another in
order to determine height, width and depth are called projection lines. These need not
be created: in fact it is a good rule to try and sketch the framework so lightly that any
erasures become unnecessary once the correct shape has been finally settled.

Further examples of free hand sketching are shown on the next pages.

Fig. 4.11 shows a woodworker's mallet. The sketch at (a) is the first step. Never try to
make a finished drawing straight away. The light lines indicate that, initially, a
rectangular block can be drawn. Mark off the position of the handle. The firm outline at
(b) can now be produced.

Figs. 4.12a and b show sketches of a screwdriver, while Figs. 6.13a and b indicate a
method of producing a sketch of a twist drill.

4-9
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Fig 4-9

4-10
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Fig 4-10

4-11
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Figs. 4.14 to 4.17 indicate sketches chisel and a sketch of a cast
of a double-ended spanner, bearing including its dimensions
Spanner in which shading has
been used to improve the three-
dimensional effect, woodworking

Fig 4-11

Fig 4-12

Fig 4-13

4-12
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Fig 4-14

Fig 4-15

Fig 4-16

Fig 4-17

4-13
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
SOLVED PROBLEMS FOR YOUR REVISION

4-14
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-15
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-16
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-17
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-18
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-19
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-20
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-21
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
EXERCIESES

Draw the isometric or oblique for the following views on the plain paper with the aid of
instruments. Use 10mm grid for measurement.

1 2

3 4

4-22
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-23
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-24
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-25
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-26
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-27
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-28
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

1 2

3 4

4-29
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-30
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-31
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-32
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-33
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-34
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-35
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-36
Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

4-37
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-38
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

Missing view

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-39
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-40
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-41
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-42
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-43
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

Solved

1 2

Solved

3 4

5 6

4-44
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

Solved

3 4

5 6

4-45
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-46
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view

1 2

3 4

5 6

4-47
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

Solved
2
1

Solved

3 4

5 6

4-48
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 Block

2 Body

4-49
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

Solved

1 Fork

2 Bearing

4-50
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 Sl

Solved
2 Support

4-51
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 Brocket

2 Cover

4-52
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Given two projections for each model, redraw them and construct the third view.

1 Fork

2 Pivot

4-53
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions
Solved Problems

Problem 2,page 4-44

Problem 4,page 4-44

4-54
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Problem 5,page 4-44

Problem 3,page 4-45

4-55
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Problem 1,page 4-48

Problem 4,page 4-48

4-56
 Chapter Four Missing Views and Dimensions

Problem 2,page 4-50

4-57
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Chapter 5
Sectioning and conventions

Standard orthographic views that show description. Only solid material which
all hidden features may not effectively has been cut is sectioned.
reveal the true or the interior details of
an object in these views hidden details A section of an object is produced by
of a component are represented by cutting through it along a cutting plane,
broken lines (type D) lines. Where these or planes, removing one or more parts
hidden features are numerous, and drawing a view of the effects of the
overlapping or in any way confusing, cutting plane on the parts remaining A
then sectional views are drawn. cutting plane is selected which will
enable a complete visualization of the
This sectional view can be done using a component.
technique that a portion of the object
nearest to the observer is imagined to be An example of a sectional view is seen
removed by means of a cutting plane or pictorially in Fig 5.1a, where imaginary
planes and looking at the cross- cutting planes are passed through the
sectional view. That means, looking at object to show its internal features. The
that part of the object, which remains object sectional elevation and its side-
after a portion has been removed. Such view are shown in Fig. 5.1b. The
a cut-away view is called a section. method of drawing a sectional elevation
is shown, where the elevation view has
Prior to constructing a sectional view, it been converted to a full section and the
is necessary to form a mental image of cut portion is cross-hatched. Hidden
the external and internal construction of lines have been omitted since they are
the machine part to be depicted. not needed.

Except in the case of very elementary However, sectioning a solid object is

components it is likely that at least one done to achieve a number of things
sectional view will be helpful and in
some case necessary for complete shape By cutting-open an object, it is possible
to see its inside construction

5-1
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

(a) Pictorially, example of a sectional view

(b)

Fig 5-1

5-2
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Fig 5-2

5-3
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
• Sectional views can dispense with the the section can only be taken through
need to use dotted lines to represent one location Fig. 5-4 shows a sectional
hidden detail. view, which is obviously taken on the
centerline of the other view
• The number of views required to give
a complete picture of the object is often However, depending upon the position
reduced. of the cutting plane relative to the
horizontal plane of projection sectional
• A sectional view of a mechanism can views, or sections are divided into
show much more easily now that
mechanism works i. Vertical, a cutting plane is said to be
vertical when it is perpendicular to
In addition to the sectional elevation the horizontal plane of projection as
view shown in Fig. 5.1b, other main shown in Fig 5-5a A vertical
two types of sectional views can be sectional view is said to be sectional
illustrated as in Fig. 5.2. elevation, If cutting plane P is
SECTION CUTTING PLANE parallel to the vertical plane of
projection, and sectional side-view,
A cutting plane is selected which will if plane P is parallel to the side-view
enable a complete visualization of the plane of projection, and
component. Section cutting planes are ii. Horizontal, a cutting plane is said to
denoted by a chain line [type H] drawn be horizontal when it is parallel to
across the part as shown in the elevation the horizontal plane of projection as
view as shown in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2. shown in Fig. 5-5b.
Arrow- heads indicate the face of the
section and the direction of viewing. The cutting plane is drawn as a
heavy line with short dashes at
A specific section is identified by letters intervals; this can be thought of as a
placed near the arrows, and reference to knife-edge cutting through the object.
the section view is made by the letters, Spacing of the dashes dep ends upon
separated by a hyphen, for example the drawing size. The weight of these
section A-A. Where only one cutting lines is the same as that of a visible
plane is used on a drawing, the letters object line. Letters can be placed at
may be omitted. each end of the cutting plane to label
the sectional view, as labled by A-A in
The chain line may be simplified by
Fig. 5-1.
omitting the thin part of the line, if
clarity is not affected. Arrowheads may SECTIONING CONVENTIONS
also be omitted when indicating
symmetrical sectional views or when Sectioning Lines
the sectional view is drawn in the
These are light lines (type B), and are
correct projection indicated on the
normally drawn at 45° to
drawing as seen in Fig. 5.3.

The identification of a cutting plane

may be omitted when it is obvious that

5-4
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Half
Section

Fig 5-4

Fig 5-3

Fig 5-4

(a) (b)

Fig 5-5

5-5
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
the horizontal, right or left. If the shape Rules Exceptions
of the section would bring the
sectioning lines parallel to one or more As a general rule, all material cut by a
of the sides, another angle may be used sectioning plane is cross- hatched in
as shown in Fig. 5-6. orthogonal views but there are some
exceptions. When a sectioning plane
Adjacent Parts passes through parts, which have no
internal features, sections through them
When an assembly of several parts is
would be of no value
sectioned, it is important that the
section lines be drawn at varying angles For example, when a cutting plane
to distinguish the parts. In sectioning, passes through the centers of webs, ribs,
adjacent parts should have their shafts, bolts, rivets. keys, pins and
sectioning lines at right angles as in Fig. similar parts, they are not shown
5-7a. When more than two parts are sectioned.
adjacent, as in Fig. 5-7b, they may be
distinguished by varying the spacing or Figure 5-11a shows two views of an
the angle of the hatching lines. assembly of parts making up an
operating handle. In the interests of
Dimensions clarity certain of the features lying in
the sectioning plane A-A are not
Dimensions may be inserted in sectioned. These features are; the main
sectional areas by interrupting the shaft, the key 1 fixing the shaft and
hatching lines, as shown in Fig. 5-8. handle, the strengthening web, the main
Sectioning Large Areas spindle for the handle and the nut and
washer fixing the handle to the main
These can be shown sectioned by casting. Items such as these should
placing section lines around the edges never be sectioned, otherwise
of the area only, as shown in Fig. 5-9. misreading of the drawing could occur.

Sectioning Thin Areas Another examples for these exceptions

are shown in Fig. 5.11b
Sometimes the section plane passed
through very thin areas, which cannot Part or Local Sections
be sectioned by nor mal 45° hatching
lines, for example, gaskets, washers, A part or local section is used to show
plastic sheets, packing, sheet metal and interior features by cutting away a
structural shapes. These parts are portion of a view.
sectioned by blacking in the areas Part or local sections may be taken at
completely rather than using hatching suitable places on a component to show
lines. These areas should be filled in as hidden detail. The boundary of the
shown in Fig. 5-10a. If two or more thin sections is drawn
areas are adjacent, a small space should
be left between them as shown in Fig.
5-10b.

5-6
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Scribe line with dividers 2 mm

from long edge

Fig 5-6

45o

30o

(a) (b)

Fig 5-7

75 mm

Fig 5-8 Fig 5-9

5-7
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

(a) (b)

Fig 5-10

(a)

WEB

Section A-A A

SPOKE
SPINOLE
WHEEL
SHAFT
RIB
THICK WASHER

THIN WASHER
(b)
WEB
NUT
KEY

Fig 5-11

5-8
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

The shaft and web are lying The shaft and web are lying
along the cutting plane X-X across the cutting plane Y-Y

An alternative method of section-lining webs and to is shown

Spaced section lining may be used for the same purpose. The space
lining shown is necessary to distinguish between the tid that is out and
the rib that is viewed behind the cutting plane in the section
Fig 5-11 b (continued)

5-9
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Part section

Fig. 5-12

Revolved Interposed
Section section
Revolved
Section

Fig. 5-13

Removed Section

Section
A-A

Fig. 5-14

5-10
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
freehand using a type "C" line, as The Conventional Breaks
shown in Figure 5-12.
One use of conventional breaks is to
Revolved and interposed shorten a long piece that has a uniform
cross section. The long part shown in
A revolved section is used to describe a Figure 5.15 has been shortened and
cross section of a part by revolving it drawn at a larger scale for more clarity
about an revolution axis and placing it by using conventional breaks as shown
on the view on that axis. in Figure 5.15. The dimension specifies
the true length of the part, and the
breaks indicate a portion of the length
The shape of the cross-section of a bar, has been removed.
arm, spoke or rib may be illustrated by
a revolved or interposed section. The Conventional Revolutions

The interposed section has detail In order to include detail on a sectional

adjacent to it removed, and is drawn view, which is not located along one
using a thick line; type A. plane, the section plane may be bent or
revolved to pass through the cutting
The revolved section has the cross- plane. The sectional view when shows
sectional shape revolved in position the detail along the line of the bent or
with adjacent detail drawn against the rotated cutting plane without any
revolved view. It is drawn using a thin indication that the plane has been bent
line; type B. Fig.5- 13illustrates these or rotated. The principle is illustrated in
two sections. Fig. 5.16a. Note that when indicating
the cutting plane on the elevation view,
Removed Sections
heavy lines are used where the cutting
A removed section is a revolved section plane changes direction.
that has been removed from the view
Fig. 5.16b illustrates another use of an
where it was revolved.
aligned section, where detail such as
These are similar to revolved sections holes located on a pitch circle are
except that the cross- section is considered to be rotated into the cutting
removed clear of the main outline for plane and projected on to the sectional
the sake of clarity The removed sect-ion view at their actual distance from the
may be located adjacent to the main center line.
view as shown in Figure 5.14 or away
Number of Sectional Views
from it entirely. In the latter case it must
be suitably referenced to the view and Except in the case of very elementary
section to which it refers. The outline of components it is likely that at least one
a removed section is a thick line type A sectional view will be helpful, and in
some instances necessary, for complete
shape description.

5-11
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

True length

Less than true length

Revolved section
Fig. 5-15

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5-16

5-12
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
In most cases, the normal out-side full sectional view. Interior detail,
views obtained from orthogonal which lies along one plane only, is
projection are not sufficient to complete revealed. Sometimes it is desirable to
the shape description of a component, show detail, which lies along two or
both inside and out. Hence other views more planes, and this is done by means
of a different type must be drawn in of the offset sectional view
conjunction with, or instead of the
normal outside views. These special Figure 5.19 is an isometric view of a
views are called sectional views and the shaft bracket, which has been cut by an
main types used in mechanical drawing offset sectioning plane to reveal the
are described in this section detail of the two bosses The offset
sectional view in this
The Full Sectional View
case is taken looking down on the
A full sectional view is a view formed bottom piece as shown. Figure 5.20
by passing the cutting plane completely illustrates a normal elevation view and
through an object and removing half of an offset sectional plan of the bracket;
it. the course of the sectional plane is
shown by A-A.
Figure 5-17 illustrates an isometric
view of a machined block, which has Note that there is no line shown on the
been cut through the center and moved sectional view where the course of the
apart. The shape and detail of the sectioning plane changes direction.
counter bored holes are revealed along
The Half Sectional View
the face of the cut. This is the purpose
of the sectional view to reveal interior A half-sectional view is a view that
detail. A normal view would be taken results from passing a cutting plane
from position X. halfway through an object and
removing a quarter of it to show
Figure 5-18 shows a sectional elevation
external and internal features.
view and a side view taken from
position Y in Fig. 5-17. The sectioning This type of view is often used on
plane is labeled by A-A on the side objects, which are symmetrical about
view. The direction of the arrows on the centerline. The cutting plane effectively
section plane A-A indicates the removes a quarter of the object as
direction from which the section is shown in Figure 5.21. The resulting
viewed. view provides two views in one, as one
half shows interior detail and the other
The Offset Sectional View
half shows external detail. This is
An offset sectional view is a full section illustrated in Figure 5.22.
in which the cutting plane is offset to
It is standard practice to place the
pass through important features. With a
sectioned part to the right of an

5-13
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Sectional view

Fig. 5-17

Left side view Sectional elevation at A-A

Fig. 5-18

5-14
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Offset sectional
view

Fig. 5-19

Offset sectional plan at A-A

Fig. 5-20

5-15
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Half sectional view

Fig. 5-21

Half sectional elevation at A-A

Plan
Fig. 5-22

5-16
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
axis of symmetry. It can be done 4. As a general rule, dimensions are
such that the cross-hatched part in not inserted in crosshatched areas,
the sectional elevation view on the but where it is unavoidable, it
left-hand side and the cross-hatched may be done as previously
part in the sectional side view on the mentioned
right-hand side as shown in Fig. 5.21
EXERCISES
As with the offset sectional view, the
The following are miscellaneous
division between the external half
problems on sectioning and
and the internal half of the view is
conventions. These problems are
not indicated by a full line, but by a
intentionally graded in approximate
center line. Hidden detail is omitted
order of difficulty. The exercises
from the sectioned half of the view,
may also be used for both the
but may be shown on the extemal
construction of the third view and/or
half if by so doing the internal shape
for the sectioning training that have
description is made clear. This is the
be already taught in the present
case in Fig. 5.22, where the hidden
chapter.
detail completes the internal holes
revealed in the sectioned half. The available problems in this
chapter are two groups. The first
RULES TO REMEMBER WHEN
group is of two views with missing
SECTIONING
lines, and without dimensioning. In
1. A sectional view shows the part this group, the student is required to
of the component in front of the complete the missing lines and to
sectioning plane arrows. In third- cross-hatch the sectioned areas. For
angle projection the sectional the second group, the student is
view is placed on the side behind required to complete the missing
the sectioning viewing plane, lines, cross-hatching the sectioned
while in first-angle projection it is areas and finally to construct the
placed on the side in front of the third view.
sectional viewing plane. The third group is completely
2. Material, which has been cut by dimensioned views. The student is
the sectioning plane, is cross- required to complete the missing
hatched. Standard exceptions are lines, cross-hatching the sectioned
given previously. areas.
3. A sectional view must not have
any full lines drawn over cross- As a fourth group, on sectioning and
hatched areas. A full line conventions, the student has to go
represents a corner or edge, which back to chapter two and solve all
cannot exist on a face which has problem parts that are labeled with
been cut by a plane. letters B.

5-17
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

SECTIONAL VIEWS
SOLVED PROBLEMS AND
EXERCISE FOR YOUR
REVISION

5-18
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-19
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-20
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Web

5-21
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

9 10

from the lettered drawings choose the correct

Sectional view for each numbered drawing.
Sketch the view in the space provided.

5-22
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Draw the following:

1- Sectional elevation.
2- Side view
3- Plan.

Draw the following:

1- Sectional elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Plan.

5-23
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Draw the following:

1- Elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Sectional Plan at A-A.

Draw the following:

1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

5-24
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Draw the following views:

1- Elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Sectional Plan at A-A.

5-25
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the following figure, draw:

1- Sectional Elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Plan.

Draw the following views:

1- Sectional Elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Plan.

5-26
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Draw the following views:

1- Sectional Elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Plan.

5-27
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
ALL FILLETS R6

UNLESS STATED

B
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-28
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Draw the following:

a) Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

B
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

5-29
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Draw the following:

a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

Draw the following: B

a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

5-30
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

A
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

Draw the following:

a) Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

5-31
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Draw the following:

a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Sectional Plan.

Draw the following:

a) Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Sectional Plan.

5-32
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

A
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Side view. c) Plan.

B
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

5-33
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-34
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Required
Draw the following views:
1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

A
Required
Draw the following views:
1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

5-35
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

Draw the following:

a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

5-36
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Draw the following: A

a) Sectional Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

B
Draw the following:
a) Elevation. b) Sectional Side view. c) Plan.

5-37
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

A
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Side view. c) Plan.

B
Draw the following:
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Side view. c) Plan.

5-38
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

A
Required:-
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Plan. c) Side view.

B
Required:-
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Plan. c) Side view.

5-39
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Required:-
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Plan. c) Side view.

B
Required:-
a) Sectional Elevation. b) Plan. c) Side view.

5-40
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

A
Required:-
a) Sectional Elevation at A-A. b) Plan. c) Side view.

For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-41
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

Required

5-42
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Draw the following views:
1- Sectional Elevation.
2- Side view.
3- Sectional Plan at A-A

5-43
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
ALL FILLETS R3
UNLESS STATED

For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-44
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-45
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-46
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Required
1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

Base
Required A
1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

Base
B

5-47
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Required
1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

Required

1- Elevation.
2- Sectional Side view.
3- Plan.

5-48
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-49
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-50
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-51
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
For the given views, draw the missing one and cross-hatch the sections according to the
projection angle symbol show.

5-52
 Bracket
Chapter Five

5-53
Dim. In millimeters
Drawing scale 1:1

Given two views of shown

machine part, draw the following
views in first angle projection

(a) A sectional elevation view in direction A-A

(b) A sectional Side view through the circles center line
(c) A plan
(d) A side view in direction B
Sectioning and Conventions
 Chapter Five

Bracket

5-54
Dim. In millimeters
Drawing scale 1:1

Given two views of shown

machine part, draw the following
views in first angle projection

(a) A sectional front view in direction B-B

(b) A sectional Profile view through the circles center line
(c) A Top view
Sectioning and Conventions
 Chapter Five

Bracket

5-55
Dim. In millimeters
Drawing scale 1:1

Given two views of shown

machine part, draw the following
views in first angle projection

(a) A sectional front view in direction A-A

(b) A sectional Profile view at B-B
(c) A Top view
(d) A left profile view
Sectioning and Conventions
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-56
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-57
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-58
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-59
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-60
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-61
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-62
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-63
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-64
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-65
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-66
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-67
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-68
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-69
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-70
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-71
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

5-72
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions
Solved problems

Problem B page 5-47

5-73
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Problem A Page 5-52

5-74
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Problem B Page 5-52

5-75
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Problem B Page 5-54

5-76
Chapter Five Sectioning and Conventions

Problem 2 Page 4-51

5-77
References

1- 1988 ،‫ جامعة الملك عبد العزيز‬،‫ راغب البدراوي واخرين‬.‫د‬.‫ ا‬،‫تمارين الرسم الهندسي‬

2- ‫ كلية الهندسة جامعة‬،‫ أعضاء هيئة التدريس بمجموعة التصميم الميكانيكي‬،‫أساسيات في الرسم الهندسي‬
1997،‫المنيا‬

3- S. Bogolyubov, A. Voinov, Engineering Drawing, Mir publisher, 1976.

4- Staff Members of Faculty of Engineering, Design Dept. Mattaria-Cairo، Engineering

Drawing, 2003.

5- Oleh Ostrowsky, Engineering Drawing, Edward Arnold, 1995.

6- El-Shereif, Engineering Drawing, Cairo, 1995.

7- John R. Walker, Exploring Metric Drafting. Willcox Company Inc., 1980.

8- El-Hadidy, A. F., Engineering Drawing, Cairo, 1996.

9- Elhag Hassan El-Dannanh, Faculty of Engineering, Design Dept. Mattaria -Cairo,

Engineering Drawing, 2011-2012.

10- Staff Member of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Engineering

Drawing, 2018-2019.
 ‫‪Gaspard Monge‬‬ ‫غاسبار سونج‬
‫)‪۱۰‬مايو ‪ ۲۸ - ۱۷46‬يوليو ‪(۱۸۱۸‬‬

‫عالم رياضيات فرنسي‬

‫مخترع الهندسة الوصفية و الرسم الهندسي‬
‫كان رئيسا لعلماء الحملة الفرنسية التي قدمت الى مصر عام ‪۱۷۹۸‬‬
‫وكان يسكن في منزل السناري الذي كان مقر لبعض علماء الحملة الفرنسية و الذي أنشاه‬
‫ابراهيم كتخدا السناري سنة ‪ ۱۷94‬وكائن حاليا بحــارة مونــــج بالســــــيدة زينــــــــــب‬
‫وبهذا البيت تم عمل البحوث والرسوم التي نشرت في كتاب "وصف مصر"‬

‫ويرجع اليه الفضل في وضع أساس ونظريات علم الهندسة الوصفية و الرسم الهندسي‬
‫الذي جمع األسس والنظريات في كتابه المشهور الذي نشر سنه ‪ ۱۷۷۹‬وهو بعنوان‬
‫" اختبارات على الهندسة الوصفية "‬

‫‪Essais sur La Geometrie Descriptive‬‬