1.

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING
1.1 Introduction
Topography can be defined as the shape or configuration or relief or roughness or three
dimensional quality of the earth’s surface. Topographic maps are made to show this
information, together with the location of manmade and natural features of the earth
including buildings, highways, streams, lakes, forests and so on. Topographic maps have
importance in: planning large projects (buildings, highways, dams, irrigation systems,
bridge, sewer systems, canals, town plans, pipelines etc); soil conservation projects;
forestry plans; and geological investigations etc.
1.2 Topographic surveying
 Definition: Topographic surveying is the process of determining the positions of natural
and manmade features of a given locality and determining the configuration of the
terrain. Topographic surveying is mainly used to determine the configuration (ups and
downs) of the terrain by means of scientific measurement of lines called contours which
can be used as the basis for planning engineering projects.
 Purpose: The purpose of a topographic survey is to find the necessary data for the
graphical portrayal (plotting) of topographic features (such as hills, valleys, buildings and
roads) and contour lines. These topographic features and contour lines are plotted in a
certain map scale. Such topographic map shows the horizontal distances between the
features and their elevations above a given datum. Generally topographic surveying and
the preparation of a topographic map of the terrain is the first step in the planning and
designing of majority of engineering projects.
1.3 Scale of topographic maps

Since a topographic map is a representation of the surface of the earth, the distance
between any two points on the map must have a known definite ratio to the
corresponding distance between the points on the ground. This ratio is known as the
scale of the map. The scale of topographic map can be stated in three different ways as:
statement, representative fraction, or graphical scale. Topographic map scale falls
roughly in to three classes:
 Large scale 1:1000 or larger
 Medium scale 1:1000 to 1:10,000
 Small scale 1:10,000 or smaller
1.4 General methods of topographic mapping

Three methods are applied to gather the necessary data for the subsequent preparation
of topographic maps:

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 1. Ground method also known as transit stadia : In this method the collection of
the data is done by means of traditional surveying instruments such as total
stations, theodolites (stadia tacheometer), levels and tapes. This method is
economic and suitable for relatively small projects.
2. Photogrammetric method: In this method aerial photographs are used to gather
the necessary ground data. It is an economic method for larger areas and
projects and it overcomes the sometimes difficulty of access problem common in
ground methods. In this method the terrestrial (ground) work is only limited to
establishing horizontal and vertical ground control points (e.g. through traversing
and levelling) and must be clearly defined and well distributed over the target
area.
3. Plane table method: The measurements are made in the same way as those in
the transit stadia (ground method) but the data are plotted in the field on paper
that is attached to the drawing board that is mounted on a tripod. This device is
called plane table.
1.5 Methods of representing topography or relief

1.5.1 Contour, Contour lines and Contour interval

A Contour is an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface

The graphical portrayal of the configuration of the land surface (relief) is most
commonly done with contour lines. A contour line is a line that connects points of equal
level on the surface of the earth.

Figure 1 Contour line

The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contour lines is called the
contour interval. The proper choice of the contour interval depends on the slopes of the
terrain to be represented, the scale of the map and the purpose of the survey. If, for
example, the terrain is very hilly and the contour interval is too small in relation to the
scale, the contour lines become too crowded. In addition, the smaller the contour
interval the more points have to be measured in the field and the more time consuming
is the plotting. As a result of that the topographic map would become more expensive.
Table 1 gives an overview about which contour interval should be selected for the
different map scales and terrain types:

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 Table 1 Contour interval, scale and terrain relationships

Scale of the map Type of terrain Contour interval

Large Flat 0.2 -0.5 m
1:1000 or larger Rolling 0.5-1.0 m
Hilly 1.5-2.0 m
Intermediate Flat 0.5-1.5 m
1:1000-1:10000 Rolling 1.0-2.0 m
Hilly 2.0-3.0 m
Small Flat 1.0-3.0 m
1:10000 or smaller Rolling 2.0-5.0 m
Hilly 5.0-10.0 m
Mountainous 10. 25 or 50 m

Table 2 Contour interval, Scale and purpose relationships

Purpose of survey Map scale Contour interval
Building sites 1:1000 or less 0.2 - 0.5 m
Town planning and Reservoir 1:5000-1:10000 0.5 - 2.0 m
planning
Survey of extensive area, 1:5000-1:20000 2.0 - 3.0 m
earthwork, etc.

1.5.2 Characteristics of contour lines

The contours have the following characteristics:

 The contour lines are closed lines. However, they may close either on the map itself or
outside the map, depending upon the topography.
 As the perpendicular distance between two contour lines is the shortest distance,
contours are always perpendicular to the direction of the steepest slope.

Figure 2 Shortest distance

 In case of a valley lines or streams, the contours run roughly parallel to the valley line or
stream and form V's pointing uphill where they cross the valley line or stream.

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 Figure 3 V shaped contours

 The spacing between contour lines is closer when the slope is steep and wider for gentle
slopes.

Figure 4 spacing between contour lines

 Contour lines never cross one another or branch into two contour lines of the same
elevation because a point on the ground cannot have two elevations; they may overlap
and appear to meet only at vertical walls or cliffs.

Figure 5 Contour lines never cross one another

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  Depression contours form closed loop contours around the lowest point. The elevations
of the contours decrease from outside to inside.
 Summit contours form closed loop contours around the highest point. The elevations of
the contours increase from outside to inside.
1.5.3 Interpolation of contours

Interpolation refers to the process of determining intermediate values between observed data
points. The assumption is made that the ground slope between two adjacent points is constant
(in a straight line). The interpolation is therefore linear. Interpolation is necessary because the
series of points observed in the field do not necessarily lie exactly on the contour lines shown
on the map; it is not practical to locate and measure every point on a “round” or whole-number
contour.
 Two methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation:
1. Mathematical Interpolation and
2. Graphical Interpolation
No matter which method is applied, the linear interpolation is always done along the
direction of the steepest slope.

1. Mathematical method
It is also referred to as calculation method.

 Figure 6 Contour interpolation

 Figure 6 illustrates a vertical section through the ground. Point A and B are observed
ground points with its elevations 125.40 m and 127.70 m respectively. The horizontal
distance between the two points is 24.00m. Wanted is the position of the “round-
number” contour lines 126.0 m and 127.0 m along the line AB:
X1: (126.0-125.4) = 24.0: 2.30 X2: (127.0-125.4) = 24.0: 2.30
X1 = 6.26 m X2 = 16.70 m
Therefore, the contour line 126.0 m passes at a distance of 6.26 m from Point A towards point
B, and the contour line 127.0 m passes at a distance of 16.70 m from the same point.

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In the topographic map the two distances (X1 and X2) are set out with a scale along the straight
line AB, marked with a point and labelled with its elevations. The same calculation, carried out
in the reverse direction (from point B to point A) serves as a check.
The mathematical interpolation is a very accurate method and shall be applied in cases where a
high accuracy is demanded. At the beginning the student may find it time consuming and
tedious, but with some practice the speed increases.

2. Graphical method
With this interpolation method the work is done very quickly and also quite accurate, with
some practice provided. A sheet of tracing paper is needed on which parallel lines a drawn to
represent the desired contour interval. The distance between two parallel lines on the tracing
paper must be chosen such a way that the distance perpendicular to the parallel lines on the
tracing paper for the elevation difference between point A and B is shorter than the distance
AB itself. Figure 7 illustrates the method.

Figure 7 Graphical method

The tracing paper is used as follows: Suppose points A and B are two points with the elevations
125.40 m and 127.70 m respectively, and it is desired to interpolate the 1 m contour lines
between the two points. The tracing paper is shifted in such a way, that point A takes up a value
of 125.40 m between the lines 125.0 and 125.5 on the tracing paper (this is done by

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estimation). The point A is then fixed by means of a needle or pin to the tracing paper. Now, the
tracing paper is rotated around point A until point B takes up a value of 127.70 m between the
lines 127.5 and 128.0 on the tracing paper (this is done again by estimation).
In this position, the contour lines 126.0 and 127.0 are found at the intersection of the 126.0 and
127.0 lines on the tracing paper with the plotted line AB. These points are fixed by pricking with
a needle through the tracing paper into the drawing.

1.5.4 Sketching of contour lines

After locating the points of various contour lines as described previously, the contours can be
sketched. To see clearly the course of each contour, the points of same elevation are joined
with straight lines. Then, the points of same elevation are connected with a smooth curve. This
is best accomplished by using French curves. It is positioned on the paper to pass through as
many points as possible and a portion of the curve is drawn. The French curve is then
repositioned for drawing another portion of the contour.

Figure 8 Sketching contours

1.5.5 Labelling of contour lines

Intermediate contour lines are drawn with a continuous line. The intermediate
contour lines depend upon the character of the terrain. In hilly or mountainous areas
contours divisible by 10, 20, 25, 50 or 100 m are considered as intermediate contour
lines. However, in flat terrain an intermediate contour line can be divisible by 1, 2 or 5
m.

An index contour line is a main contour line that helps the map user to quickly
interpret the height situation portrayed on the map. It is drawn with a continuous line
of thicker width. Most commonly every fifth contour line is an index contour. In the
example, illustrated in figure 9, those contours whose elevations are multiples of 5 m
are shown with a heavier line (120, 125, 130 etc.) and are therefore index contours.
When the contour interval is 10 m, the index contours have elevations that are
multiples of 50 m.

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 Supplementary contour lines are contour lines drawn with a dashed line of the same
width as the intermediate contour lines. In flat terrain the 0.5 or 0.25 m contour lines
are drawn in that manner.
A small gap is left for writing the elevation.
The elevation of a contour should be so written that the foot of the text shows
towards the lowest point.
The amount and the location of elevation labels should be so selected, that the
map will have a neat appearance.

Figure 9 Labelling contours

1.5.6 Other methods of representing relief

 In surveying, the relief is generally represented by contours. However, in some cases

other methods are applied:
 Spot heights: These are accurate altitudes for individual points along roads,
mountaintops etc. There is no artificial physical evidence in the field of the presence of
such a spot height. They are marked on the map, usually with a dot followed by a
number giving the accurate altitudes in meters.

Figure 10 spot height

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  Hachures: These are short lines drawn in the direction of the ground slope. An examples
for hachures, applied in the case of a road cutting and embankment is illustrated in
figure 11. This method can also be applied in the case of a ditch.

Figure 11 Hatures

1.6 Field work procedure in ground methods

 The following are the steps followed in most topographic mapping projects using ground
techniques:
1. Reconnaissance
2. Establishing horizontal and vertical control points
3. Stadia data collection
4. Map compilation (developing and presenting) actually this is done in office

1. Reconnaissance surveying

 It is a first (preliminary) field inspection of the entire area to be surveyed in terms of

existing control points, possible site for new observations, detection of possible
obstacles and solutions, type of instrument to be used, estimation of the duration of the
whole fieldwork, and collection of information regarding communication, water, food,
labour and health facilities. In reconnaissance the surveyor goes over the area and
decides best plan of working.
2. Establishing horizontal and vertical control points

 Establishing horizontal and vertical control points is the most essential part in
topographic surveying since the three dimensional coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each point to
be surveyed can only be determined with respect to well established reference points.
This is done if the area has no control points or the existing control network is not dense
enough. Most commonly traversing and/or satellite technology (GPS) is applied for
establishing reference points. With a level, the elevations of the traverse stations are
determined.

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 3. Stadia data collection

 Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are

determined by angular observations with tacheometer (theodolite or transit). The word
tacheometer is derived from Greek words tachus meaning swift (quick or fast) and
metron meaning measure. As the name implies, the methods of tacheometeric
surveying are very rapid but usually of lower order of accuracy than conventional
methods (tapping and levelling) but, it:
 Is adequate where taping is difficult
 Is useful for rough terrains (rivers, valleys, steep slopes, broken grounds)
 Eliminates tapping
 Instruments used in tacheometry are:
 Tacheometer (theodolite or transit)
 Levelling rod (staff or stadia rod)

Principles of stadia tacheometry:

 The principle of tacheometry, in which the parallactic angle 2α remains fixed and the
staff intercept S varies with distance D, is shown in Figure 12. The parallactic angle is
defined by the position of the stadia hairs, c and e, each side of the main cross hair b,
then by similar triangles:

Figure 12 Stadia principle

AB Ab
=
CE ce
Substituting ce=i
f
Then D=( )S=K 1 S
i

In modern telescopes f and i are so arranged that K1 = 100. The above Equation is
basically correct for horizontal sights taken with any modern instrument. The telescope
will now be examined in more detail. In Figure 13 f is the focal length of the object lens
system, d is the distance from the object lens to the centre of the instrument, ce is the

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 stadia interval i, and D is the distance from the staff to the centre of the instrument;
then by similar triangles:

Figure 13 on right, view through telescope illustrating the stadia lines at C and E

BP Op
=
CE c ' e '
f
∴ BP=S( )
i
f
Now D=Bp+(f +d )=S( )+(f + d )
i

The value of (f+d) is called the additive constant and it is taken as zero for modern
f
( )
instruments, K2 and i is called the multiplying constant, K1. Thus for horizontal sights:
 D=K 1 S+K 2

Figure 14 line of sight horizontal

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 RL of staff station P = HI-h
HI = RL of BM + BS
HI=height of instrument
h = central hair reading
BS=Back sight

Tacheometry would have very little application if it was restricted to horizontal sights; thus the
general formula will now be deduced for inclined sights.

When the line of sight is inclined and staff is held vertically.

Here, the measured angle may be the angle of elevation or that of depression.

1. Considering angle of elevation (positive)

Figure 15 inclined line of sight with angle of elevation

 T = instrument station
 T1 = axis of instrument
 P = staff station
 A, B, C = position of staff cut by hairs
 S = AC = staff intercept
 h = central hair reading
 V = vertical distance between instrument axis and central hair
 D = horizontal distance between instrument and staff
 L = inclined distance between instrument axis and B
 θ = angle of elevation
 α = angle made by the outer and inner rays with central ray
A’C’ is drawn perpendicular to the central ray, T1B.

Now, inclined distance,

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 f
L= ( A ' C ' )+( f +d )
i
Horizontal distance
D=L cos θ ,
f
D= ( A ' C ' )cos θ+(f +d )cos θ
i
Now A’C’ is to be expressed in terms of AC (i.e., S)

In Δ ABA ' and CBC ',

∠ ABA ' =∠CBC '=θ
∠ AA ' B=90∘+α
∠BC ' C=90∘−α
The angle α is very small.

∠ AA ' B and ∠ BC ' C may be taken equal to 90∘

So AC '= AC cosθ=Scosθ
Substituting to the above Equation
f
D= ( S cosθ )cos θ+( f +d)cosθ
i
f
∴D= Scos 2 θ+( f +d )cosθ
i
V =L sin θ

{
f
= S cos θ+( f + d ) sin θ
i }
f
= S cos θ sin θ+( f +d ) sin θ
i
f sin 2θ
V= S +(f +d )sin θ
Again i 2

Also V =D tanθ

RL of staff station P=RL of axis of instrument + V −h

2. Considering angle of depression (negative)

In this case also figure 16, the expressions for D and V are same as in case (1). That is

f f sin 2θ
D= S cos2 θ+( f +d )cos θ V = S +(f + d )sin θ
i , i 2
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RL of staff station P=RL of axis of instrument − V −h

Figure 16 inclined line of sight with angle of depression

The following is sample field book for stadia data collection.

Type of Instrument:__________________ Observer:_____________________ Date:_____________

Additive Constant K2 = 0 Multiplying Factor K 1= 100
Instrument station:___________ Station height (BM) =___________ Instrument height________
S = Upper - Lower = Staff intercept D = K 1S Cos2 Ɵ + K2 Cos Ɵ where: Ɵ = vertical angle
V= ½K1 S Sin2 Ɵ + K2 sinƟ = D(tanƟ) D = Horizontal Distance
RL = BM + hi + V - Middle hair reading (if the vertical angle is angle of elevation or positive)
RL = BM + hi - V - Middle hair reading (if the vertical angle is angle of depression or negative)
RL = height of the new point
Vertical Stadia readings
Ins. Targ Horizontal
angle S D V RL Remark
St. et angle
(Ɵ) U M L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Map compilation (developing and presenting)

1.7 Plotting the map

 Plotting refers to the transfer of survey data to the map. Before starting the plotting the
required size of the map sheet can easily be determined by examining the extreme station
coordinates. For example, if the western most station has an Easting of 5800 m and the
eastern most station has an Easting of 6200 m. The coordinate difference is therefore
6200m-5800m = 400 m. If a scale of 1:500 is used, a paper length of at least 0.8 m (400m

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 *1/500) is needed to accommodate the drawing in the East-West direction. In the same
manner the needed North-South extension of the paper is examined. However, one should
never select a too close-fitting paper size, but always select a paper size that is a bit bigger
than the minimum paper size in order to have more space for the plotting of the
surrounding topographic features and for a border.

 In the preparation of a topographic map, the first plotting task is to define accurately the
position of the horizontal control points on the plot. This is best accomplished by preparing
a rectangular grid and plotting each traverse point by means of the computed coordinates.
The procedure to prepare the rectangular grid is as follows (see also figure 17):
1. The four corners a, b, c and d of the drawing medium (most commonly paper) are
connected diagonally by means of a T-square and a hard pencil. The size of the paper
should be considered before the plotting and depends upon the scale of the drawing, as
well as upon the extension of the area to be plotted.
2. From the resulting intersection point “ S ”, four equal distances are set out along the
four diagonals by means of the T-square and the pencil. The result are the four points
are A; B; C and D on the diagonals.
3. The four points A, B, C and D form a rectangle and are to be connected.
4. Based on this rectangle the grid is developed by setting out the grid width along the four
sides of the rectangle. The grid width is usually 10 cm on the map. The resulting points
are marked either with a needle or with a small pencil line and are subsequently
connected. Later each grid line is labeled with its corresponding coordinate value.
5. Checking the grid, all grid points have to lay on one line, both, in the horizontal and
vertical direction, as well as diagonally. In addition, the diagonal distances between two
grid points must be equal to √ 2 *grid width. The deviation from this value should not

exceed 0.2 mm.

Figure 17 Rectangular grid
1.8 4.2. Plotting Traverse Points

The plotting of the traverse points is carried out as illustrated in figure18:

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 Figure 18 Plotting traverse points

 Point P has got the (reduced) coordinates X=761.71 and Y=853.94. It has to be plotted in
the rectangular grid in scale 1:1000. The nearest grid lines to point P are therefore in the
eastern direction 700-800 and in the northern direction 800-900. By means of a scale
the distances AE and DF =53.94 are set out. Then, in the same manner, the distances AH
and BG are set out. Where the lines EF and GH intersect the traverse point to be plotted
is located. The point P is marked either with a needle or with a small circle drawn with a
sharp pencil. The point is then labelled with its number. In the same manner all other
traverse points are plotted. To detect a possible mistake while plotting the traverse
points, the side lengths and the angles of the traverse are checked with a protractor and
scale after plotting them on the map.

1.9 4.3. Plotting of the topographic features

 The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights, can be done most easily
with the use of a protractor and a scale. The centre of the protractor is held with a hand
exactly over the observation station. Then, either the zero degree mark or the known
azimuth is lined up with the respective traverse side in order to orient the protractor
properly. The desired angle or azimuth of the points is then taken from the field notes
and noted along the edge of the protractor, and fine points are marked at these
positions (to avoid mixing up of points, the point numbers are written next to the
points). With a scale, the distances, also taken from the field notes, are then set out
from the protractor centre (traverse station) and going through the respective
previously marked points. The end points are marked with a sharp pencil (just a point
with a small circle around), and labelled with their point numbers and elevations. When
all points of one station have been plotted, the protractor is moved to the next position,
and the process continues. The points are then connected as illustrated in the field
book. Plotting and drawing for surveying purposes has nothing to do with architectural
drawing, and therefore an artistic portrayal of the topography should be avoided.
However, a map title with the map scale, a north arrow and a legend (explanation of the
used symbols) are indispensable items of each topographic map.

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