FIT Notes-1

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B.Com.(Computers/CA)-I/1 Fundamentals of Information Technology
(Affiliated with Osmania University)
COMPUTERS DEPARTMENT
B.Com. (Computers/C.A.) – I Year/ I Semester

Academic Year 2020-21
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 1

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UNIT – I (INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS)
1Q) WRITE THE COMPUTER DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION ABOUT COMPUTERS?

COMPUTER-DEFINITION: Computer is an electronic device. It is used (designed) for
✓ Accept (Input/ Take) the data,
✓ Process the data,
✓ Display (view/ output/ show) the data and
✓ Store (save) the data (information)
ABBREVIATION OF COMPUTERS:
C-Common T-Technical and
O-Operated/ Oriented E-Educational/ Electronically
M-Machine R-Research
P-Purposively S-System
U-Used for
• The term ‘computer’ has been originated from the word ‘compute’ which means to calculate.
• It is a device used for collecting, storing and processing the user information with higher speed and
accuracy.
• A computer typically performs its work by accepting the input from the user, processing the input into
some useful information by applying some predefined rules (programs) to it and eventually producing the
output.
Figure displays various components of computer.
✓ TV like component is called Monitor/ VDU (Visual Display Unit)/
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
✓ Box like component is called CPU (Central Processing Unit).
✓ Type Machine like component is called as Keyboard.
✓ Remaining components are Mouse and Speakers.
COMPUTER
Hard Ware (CPU, Monitor, Key Soft Ware (OS, Applications,

Board, Mouse, …, etc) Packages, …, etc)
A computer is mainly classified as two parts, hard ware and software.

HARD WARE: Hard ware is the physical component of a computer system. Which we can touchable and
seeable are called Hard ware.
Ex: CPU, Monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, Printer, Speakers, …, etc.

SOFT WARE: Soft ware is a collection of programs or instructions. Which we can’t touchable and seeable are
called Soft ware. Software deals with the tools/ devices/ instruments, which are connected to the computer system
(like keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, speakers, …, etc).
2Q) EXPLAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS & LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER?

The key characteristics/features of a computer can be determined depending on its size, type, cost,
performance, speed, reliability and storage capacity.
1) Speed: Computers are works with very high speed. It takes only few seconds for calculations that
we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of
computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond (10-9 part of a second).
From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work. We cannot measure speed of
computer in normal units like hours, minutes and seconds. So, special units were introduced to
calculate the speed of the computers and named as “NANO SECONDS”.
1 NANO SECOND = 10-9 Seconds
2) Accuracy: The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the
same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in
computer are due to human and inaccurate data. Computers are 100% accurate machines. It doesn’t do
any mistake at any time. But the mistakes can be done only by negligence of human beings (computer
operators).
3) Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every
calculation with the same accuracy. Unlike human beings Computers doesn’t feel any bore, tiredness and
doesn’t lose concentration.
4) Versatility: Computers are capable to perform almost any type of work (task). So, computers are called as
“Multi-Tasking Machines”. It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may
use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to
prepare electric bills.
5) Storage: Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be
stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how
much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data. Computers are capable
to store large volumes of data (information). Hundreds of books information can be stored inside a single
computer.
6) Performance: Performance of the computer includes its processing speed, accuracy and reliability. The
performance also varies depending on the type of computer being used.
7) Reliability: A computer system of the present generation is much reliable in terms of storage and
processing. The results obtained by using a computer are much accurate and faster than the results
obtained manually. The output generated by the computer is very reliable, but it is reliable only when the
data, which is passing as input to the computer and the program, which gives instructions are correct and
reliable.
8) Automation:- Once the instructions fed into computer it works automatically without any human
intervention until the completion of execution of program until meets logical instructions to terminate the
job.

LIMITATIONS: Computers are mainly 3 types of limitations.

1) Lack of Commonsense: Computer is only a machine. It doesn’t think itself. So, it cannot judge “What is
right/ what is wrong”.
2) In-ability to Correct: When we give the input data to the computer, we must give the correct information.
Otherwise computer cannot correct the wrong information on its own, because computer cannot have any
brain.
3) Depending on Human Instructions: Computer cannot work its own. Computers can work by depending on
human instructions. Computers cannot have any power to “Write the data, Change/ Modify the data, Add new
data or Delete the data”.
3Q) DISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS?
→ Computers have evolved over the years from simple mechanical device to powerful digital computers.
→ The first mechanical device used for addition was invented by Pascal in 1642.
→ This machine was improvised by Baron Gottfied in 1671 and invented a device capable of performing
multiplication.
→ In 1880, Herman Hollerith introduced the concept of punched cards for providing input.
→ This concept was continuously adopted till late 1970s.
→ In 19th century, Charles Babbage was named as “Father of Computer” as he proposed an idea of automatic
machine capable of performing arithmetic calculations.
→ The ideas suggested by him were considered as the basic principles of producing a digital computer.
• The Mark-I Computer
It was a machine of length 50 feet and height 8 feet capable of performing addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
• Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC)
This computer used vacuum tubes for performing logical operations where as capacitors for storing
instructions. It was capable of solving some mathematical equations.
• Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
This computer was the first fully electronic computer which occupies around 20 x 40 sq.ft of space and is
capable of performing mathematical calculations in microseconds.
• Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)
This computer works on the stored program concept and is capable of storing both instructions and data in
binary format.
• Universal Automatic Computer-I (UNIVAC-I)
This computer was the first digital computer developed for commercial purpose.
• IBM-650
This computer was the commercial computer developed by IBM (International Business Machine).
4Q) EXPLAIN THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER?
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE COMPUTER

A)Input Unit :This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This
unit creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information
into a form understandable by the computer.
B)CPU (Central Processing Unit) :CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all
types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components –
➢ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) :

This unit consists of two subsections namely, Arithmetic Section and Logic Section
Arithmetic Section: Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section: Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.
➢ Memory Unit or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types
of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
▪ It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
▪ It stores intermediate results of processing.
▪ It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
▪ All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
➢ Control Unit:
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
▪ It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
▪ It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

▪ It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
▪ It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
▪ It does not process or store data.
C)Output Unit :The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information
from the computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate
the computer's output into a form understandable by the users.
5Q) EXPLAIN ALL THE GENERATIONS OF THE COMPUTERS?

The generations of computers refers to the stages of innovation or development done in the field of
computers. This innovation resulted in much smaller, less expensive, more powerful and reliable devices.
There are 5 generations.
Gen Time Electronic
No Period Component Advantages Dis-Advantages
st
1 electronic computers. Very large size and Slow speed.
1946- Easy to access. More Heat generated, A/C
I Vaccum Tubes
59 required.
Only arithmetic problems solved.
Faster and Smaller than I Heat generated, A/C required.
1959-
II Transistors generation. Only math problems solved.
65
All math related problems solved.
Faster and smaller than I and II Heat generated and A/C required,
gens. if more computers exists.
Introduced PCs(Personal Not suitable for great
Computers). technologies.
1965- Integrated
III Introduced PLs(Programming
71 Circuits (IC)
Languages) Ex: BASIC, COBOL,
PASCAL, …, etc.
Less heat generated
Perform many types of operations
Faster than I, II and III gens. Less storage.
Large Scale
No A/C required. Some environments will not
1971- Integrated
IV Introduced Mainframes. supported.
80 Circuits
More PLs introduced. Only suitable for Engineering
(LSIC)
Applications.
Very Large Introduced Super Computers. Super computers only used for
1980- Scale Introduced Laptop, Notepad, Pen scientific applications.
V Till Integrated computers, …, etc
Now Circuits Very faster than all other gens.
(VLSIC)
6Q) CLASSIFY THE COMPUTERS BASED ON USAGE OF DATA, SIZE AND PERFORMANCE?

Computers are classified as 3 parts on the basis of

➢ Which type of data processed
➢ Designed for which purpose
ANALOG Computers: Analog means continuous data, measuring along a continuous scale.
Ex:- Temperatures, Speedo Meters, Monitor Pressures, …, etc.
DIGITAL Computers: Digital means discrete data. Digitals computers are commonly used in business
applications.
Different types of digital computers are:
i) Micro computers: Micro computers are smaller in size, inexpensive general purpose digital computers.
These computers consist of components like microprocessors, storage unit, input channel and output channel
mounted on a single chip. These computers can be used by individual users in homes, educational institutions,
small business organizations etc.
Ex: IBM-PC pentium 100, Apple Macintosh, desktop, Laptops, hand-held computers etc.
(a) Desktop Computers/Personal Computers: Desktop computers are used by individual users from a single
location. These computers are used in small business organizations, educational institutions, homes, railway
department hospitals etc. Personal computers consist of Monitors, Keyboard, Mouse, Internal hard disk and
Other peripheral devices.
(b) Laptop: Laptops are smaller in size and portable computers. These computers are basically preferred while
travelling. These computers consists of rechargeable battery and donot require any external power supply.
(c) Hand-held Computers: Hand-held computers are very small in size and can be stored in a pocket. These
computers use pen or electronic system as an input device rather than keyboard. Handheld computers use
small cards for storing data as well as program files. They styles bigger in size than a conventional calculator.
ii) Mini computers: Mini computers are a type of digital computers that are capable of storing more data than
micro computers. These computers are mainly designed with dual processor. The main purpose of these
computers is to carry out auxiliary operations by connecting to mainframes with speed and efficiency. They
are considered as centralized store house or network server. It is also a single user computer system, similar to
personal computer however has a more powerful microprocessors. Workstation is a computer used for
engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt
network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a
disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-
user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be
used as stand-alone systems. Mini computers are used in,
(i) Industries and Educational institutions
(ii) Research organizations and Small or medium business organizations.
Example PDP11, IBM (8000 services) and VAX 7500.
iii) Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are second largest, ultra high performance computers. These
computers are designed to fulfill large scale needs of business organization. These systems are capable of
storing and processing huge amount of data. A mainframe computer consists of following components.
(a) High speed computer processor
(b) High performance online transaction processing systems

(c) Extensive data storage and retrieval system equipments.

(d) Mainframes computers are used in large business organizations as well as in scientific areas.
Example IBMs ES000, VAX 8000 and CDC 6600.
iv) Super computers: Super computers are those computers which are designed with high speed processing
capabilities and huge storage capacities. They are the first largest general purpose computers that are capable
of performing several billions of calculations per second. The processing speed of these computers is very
fast as they comprise of multiple CPU’s that are operated concurrently. These computers generally occupy
large rooms and are operated by many professional engineers.
Super computers are mainly used in,
(i) Weather forecasting
(ii) Nuclear energy research
(iii) Designing of machines, weapons, supersonic aircrafts etc.
Example: CRAY, PARAM and PACE.
HYBRID Computers: These are very efficient.
 Used in business and scientific application.
 Very fast access
 More storage capacity
 Used to create robots, satellites and other advanced technologies
7Q. EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS?

1. Educational Institutions
Computers are incorporated in various educational institutions like schools and colleges for easy learning.
The computer based learning allows students to gain knowledge about specific topic.
The development of computers helped the students in preparing projects and essays, in performing
mathematical calculations etc.
Besides this, web based learning also facilities in obtaining information about various topics (via internet
browsing), filling application forms, writing online exams etc.
2. Science: Computers are used by scientist in the fields of research and development. It facilitates in
analyzing new theories, predicting natural calamities like tsunami and earthquake.
3. Communication: Computers enable multiple users to transfer data from one system to another system.
Internet is considered as a common communication media that provides interactions among various users.
4. Business: Computers are used in various business organizations inorder to maintain records of their
accounts, their inventory and about profit and loss. In addition to this, computers can also be used for
conducting meetings among users residing on different remote locations via web conferencing. Apart from
this, computer and internet also helps in carrying out online business.
5. Banking: Computers are used in banks to facilitate online banking. This helps in easy transfer of money from
one account to another, bill payments etc. Beside this, computers are also used for maintaining records of
financial transactions being performed in bank.
6. Entertainment: Computers can be incorporated in entertainment industries for creating interactive graphics,
animations and video games.
7. Government: Computers can also be used in various government departments like revenue, defense,
industry, census, police etc., for betterment of people. The term e-governance is extensively growing
popularly in the world.
8. Health: Computers are used in hospitals so as to,

(i) Keep track of patients records and generating bills

(ii) Diagnose different diseases and ailments
(iii)Monitor the patients condition using various analog and digital devices
(iv) Examine the internal parts of the body.
9. Military: Computers are useful in designing weapons, targeting ballistic muscles and controlling access to
atomic bomb etc.
10. Weather Forecast: Computers are used to analyze and forecast the weather.
8Q. DISCUSS THE ROLE OF I/O DEVICES IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM?

Input/ Output devices (I/O devices) are used to communicate with the computer.
They surround the central processing unit.
For this reason, they are called peripherals or peripheral devices of computer.
The role of these devices is to input the data to the computer are different from output devices.
However, some I/O devices are capable of performing both input and output functions.
I/O devices are slower in terms of speed when compared to CPU.
The reason for this is the movement of mechanical parts present in these devices.
Some of the I/O devices are
1) Key Board
2) Mouse
3) Scanner
4) Joy Stick
5) Monitor
6) Printer
7) Plotter
8) Projector
9) Speaker
10) Touch Screen
9Q) EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS INPUT DEVICES?

INPUT DEVICES: The process of entering data and instructions
into computer system is “INPUT”. Which devices are used to enter
the data into the computer system are called as “INPUT
DEVICES”.
Following are some of the important input devices which are
used in a computer −
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader

• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

KEYBOARD: Keyboard is a standard input device. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional
typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet.
Keyboard has classified into 5 sub-parts called as Keypads. They are
➢ Type Writer Keypad (A-Z)
➢ Numerical Keypad (0-9 and Arithmetic Symbols)
➢ Directional Keypad (Up/ Down/ Left/ Right)
➢ Special Keypad (Insert/ Delete/ Home/ End/ Page-Up/ Page-Down)
➢ Functional Keypad (F1-F12)
Webcam:
Webcam is an abbreviation of Web Camera.
It is a portable video camera which is responsible for capturing live images/ videos and streaming them in real
time to a computer.
This captured image/ videos can be watched over the internet.
This device is similar to digital camera and usually built into computer hardware like laptop. Web cams are 2
types.
They are Streaming webcam and Snapshot webcam.
TERMINALS (Q. Define terminal. Discuss various types of terminals?)

Terminal or visual Display Terminal (VDT) is a device capable of performing input and output operations.
It carries a monitor (screen) and a keyboard for output and input respectively.
The functionality of older terminals were dependent on main frame computers where they are connected over a
cable.
However, in personal computers, they perform independently.
Following are the various types of terminals,
1) Dumb Terminal: The terminal which is capable of providing only input from keyboard to the computer and
displaying output on the screen is called a dumb terminal. It is not capable of processing any input provided
by the user. It is used only on mainframe computers
2) Smart Terminal: The terminal which is capable of performing limited amount processing a part from
input/output operations is called smart terminal. These processing capabilities usually include editing and
verifying the data. A limitation in these terminals is the lack of programming capability.
3) Intelligent Terminal: The terminal which carries an inbuilt processor is called intelligent terminal terminal
or user programmable terminal. These terminals act as personal computers and are connected over a LAN
through switches. These terminals can access mainframe computers and can also perform their own set of
operations. It carries keyboard, monitor, communication links, memory and software.
POINTING DEVICES (Q. Explain about pointing devices?)

The computers of initial generations were completely based on text and type which made them complex, time
consuming and constrained in terms of their functionalities.
Designers overcome these difficulties by introducing Graphical User Interface (GUI).
This interface offers an interactive and user friendly environment that attract user attention.
One of the important feature of this interface is the usage of pointing devices and their interface.

Ex: Mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen and touch screen.
MOUSE: (Q. Write about Mouse and its types?)

Mouse is a pointing device.
 Mouse moves across a monitor screen.
 It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons
are pressed.
 Mouse contains 2 buttons named as LMB (Left Mouse Button) and RMB
(Right Mouse Button).
 Mouse has 1 wheel named as Scroll Wheel used to move up and down of a
screen.
 Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
The different types of mouse are,
(i) Mechanical mouse
(ii) Optical mouse.
(i) Mechanical Mouse:
Mechanical mouse is one of the simple type of mouse which was used by the computer users earlier. It
consist of a small round shape rubber ball and two fly wheels. The rubber ball is present at the bottom
which comes in contact with a mousepad.
(ii) Optical Mouse:
Optical mouse is quite opposite of mechanical mouse. It does not have any moving parts as that of
mechanical mouse. It makes use of lasers or LEDs for detecting the movement of mouse.
The optical mouse mainly comprises the components such as inbuilt optical sensor, high speed camera
and Light Emitting Diodes (LED).
The optical mouse contains in-built optical sensors that are used for reading its movements.
The movements are read by means of light rays coming out from LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes).
Joystick :
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket.
The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen :
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Touch Screen: (Q. Write short notes on touch screen?)

Touch screen serve as an input device that detects the presence and location of a touch within the display area. It
consists of a special surface screen on which the objects are pointed and selected.
It is very sensitive to objects like finger or stylus. Now-a-days two types of touch screens are available.
The first type involves selection by placing finger on screen without selecting and by lifting the finger away from
the screen.
This selection permits election of time more precisely.
The other type involves selection by the cursor movement following with the finger movement.
With the help of cursor, there is a fine position and selection of items.
Benefits
1. Touch screen is used to establish a direct relationship between hand and cursor movements relative to its
direction, speed, and distance.
2. Touch screen movement is direct with respect to the plane on screen.
3. No additional desk space is required.
4. The highly used environments or regions are well suited for touch screens.
SCANNER: (Q. What is scanner? Discuss various types of scanners?)

Scanner is device used to input text/pictures/ any other data as images (graphic mode). Scanner is
an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer
for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that
can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Scanners are 2 types. They are Flat-bed scanner and Hand-held scanner.
1) Flat-bed Scanner: Flat-bed scanner is one of the most commonly used input device for
scanning the documents. It is similar to a xerox machine. It is a box that consists of a
transparent glass plate at the top and a covering lid. In a flat-bed scanner, a document can
be scanned by placing it on to the glass-plate and closing the lid. This document is then enlighten by using a
lamp (i.e., Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp (CCFL) is mostly preferred). A scan head (or scanner head)
consist of mirrors, lens, CCD (Charge Coupled Device) and filters.
2) Hand-held Scanner: Hand-held scanner carries a set of LEDs. To scan a page, user needs to manual hold the
scanner in the hand and slowly drag it over the page. The quality of scanning completely relies on the
steadiness of scanning. For this reason, it is less preferable over flat-bed scanners.
Voice Recognition Systems (Q. Write short notes on voice recognition systems?) .
They allow the users to input the data to the computer through their speech/voice.
They make use of microphones for this purpose.
Speech/voice recognition systems are used for capturing or creating t sound such as music, speech, etc
It requires the input to be given in a proper way with appropriate accent, vocabulary and grammar.
This makes it a less preferable and complex system.
Applications of Voice Recognition System are,
1. In hospitals where doctors might be busy in surgeries and require to perform some other operation.
2. Dictating a long passage to the computer to avoid typing.

3. Speech input authentication.

4. Users with disabilities.
Vision Input Systems (Q. Write short notes on vision-input systems?)

Vision input or video input system allows the users to provide input to the system in the form of a visual or video
format.
This system recognizes various shapes and attributes of objects to recognize them.
The input is given from a video camera and the computer performs the following activities,
❖ Captures a picture of the object by focusing on it.
❖ Creates a digital image and stores it in the computer.
❖ Matches the captured image with the images present in its database.
❖ Performs a specific action based on the match results.
The system is getting highly adopted robots that uses artificial intelligence technology.
10Q. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON VARIOUS INPUT DEVICES BEHAVE AS READERS LIKE OCR,
OMR, MICR AND BARCODE READER?
(i) Optical Character Recognition (OCR):
 It is one of the most sophisticated type of optical recognition.
 An optical card reader works in the similar way as the human eye.
 It uses a device that reads preprinted characters in a particular font and converts them to digital code.
 A set of optical characters used on merchandise tags that can be read using an OCR want reader to
process the sales transaction.
 The information on the tag, such as item price and the inventory number can be automatically entered at a
point of sale terminal.
 Data can be saved and transferred to the company’s main computer system to be used in activities such as
managing inventories and analyzing sales.
 The primary advantages of OCR is that it sliminates some of the duplications of human efforts required to
get data into the computer.
(ii) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
 The process of extracting the data from marked fields like fill-in fields of checkboxes is
called OMR.
 It contains mark sensing to scan and translate a series of pen or pencil marks in OMR sheet
into computer readable form based on its location.
 An example of it is the objective type multiple choice question paper of bank recruitment exam.
 A computerized optical mark reader generates scores by identifying the position of the mark.
(iii) Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)
 Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) checks the legitimacy of the paper documents, such as bank
checks.
 It has magnetic ink printed characters that are captured by the high speed magnetic recognition devices.
 They provide some important information to the receivers for processing.
 They promote security and speed up in the document sorting process.
 They decrease the chances of check fraud.
(iii)Barcode Reader
 Barcode reader is an input device that captures and reads the information that is on bar code.

 It contains a scanner, decoder and cable. It reads and converts the barcode into integers or alphabets.
 It is connected to the computer through serial port, keyboard port or interface device.
 It emits a light on the bar code and measures the amount of light that got reflected.
 The white spaces reflect more light than the dark bars. This light energy is converted into electrical
energy.
 These signals are again converted into the data and sent to the
computer for processing.
11Q. DEFINE OUTPUT DEVICES?
OUTPUT DEVICE: The process of displaying the results from CPU is
known as “OUTPUT”. The devices which are used to display results
from CPU are called as output devices. Output can be represented in the form of hard copy or soft copy.
Ex:- Monitor, Printer, Speakers, ….., etc.
MONITORS (Discuss about monitors and its types?)
 Monitor is a standard output device, used to show the result as soft copy on screen.
 The components of the monitors usually include display device, circuitry, casing and power supply.
 The monitors are most commonly used output device.
 They are widely available in variety of shapes, designs and colors.
 There are different types of monitors.
Monitors are 2 types based on color display. They are
 Black & White (Mono-Chrome)
 Color (Poly-Chrome)
Based on light technology monitors are,
(a) CRT Monitor: The CRT monitor is the most common type of monitor and looks and works just like a
television. This type of monitor uses a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
(b) LCD Monitor: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors are flat panel displays that occupies less space. They
are preferred over CRT monitor because they are light weight and consume less power. They produces
flicker-free images on the screen so as to minimize the eyestrain by drawing the entire image at one time.
They can be used in small devices such as laptops, calculators, watches, microwave ovens and so on.
(c) LED Monitor: Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a flat panel display that uses a grid (matrix) of diodes
representing the pixel positions in the display, LED displays are very much similar to LCD displays with only
a difference of light source which is present at the back of the screen. It consist of small semiconductors (light
emitting diodes) that illuminates the display when it is exposed to electric current. It produces better quality
picture than LCD. It is light weight and has longer life span. However, the LED light used in this display is
much more efficient than the traditional lights like incandescent light and fluorescent light. But the cost of
LED is twice of a standard LCD. It is used in applications such as billboards, signs on public transparent
vehicles, display boards for displaying information at hospitals, hotels, schools and so on.
Differences between CRT and LCD

CRT Mointor LCD Monitor
1. It produces image using cathode ray tube. 1. It produces image using liquid crystals.
2. It consumes high power. 2. It consumes low power.
3. It gives more brightness. 3. It gives less brightness.
4. It is either flat or rounded in shape. 4. It is only in flat shape.

5. It cannot be used in laptop displays. 5. It can be used in laptop displays.

6. Its cost is less when compared to LCD 6. Its cost is more when compared to CRT
monitor. monitor.
PRINTER (Q.Discuss about printers and its types?)

Printer is used to get output on paper (Hard Copy).
 Printer is a “Permanent Output Generated Machine”.
 Characters printed form the electronic signals sent by CPU.
 Printers are 2 types, based on printing mechanism.
I) Impact Printers: Characters to be printed by the print head striking on inked ribbon.
• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• These printers are of two types − Character printers, Line printers
Ex: Dot-Matrix Printers, Daisy Wheel Printers, …, etc.
Character Printers:
A) Dot Matrix Printers:
 Dot matrix printer is one of the primitive types of printing technology that prints a single character at a
time.
 These printers are capable of printing the characters of any shape, font or density onto a paper.
 The dot matrix printer not only prints special characters but also prints graphics like charts and graphs.
 The speed of printing character is from 200 to 500 characters per second.
B) Daisy wheel printers:
 Daisy wheel printers are used when it is required to generate formal (i.e., professional letter quality
documents.
 These printers consist of a print head whose shape is similar to that of a daisy flower.
 These type of printers are known as letter quality printers because the quality of printing is similar to
the high-quality typewriter.
 The speed of printing the character is 90 CPS.
Line Printers :Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. These are of two types −
• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
A) Drum Printer: This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface
of the drum is divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for
a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One

rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.
Advantage: Very high speed
Disadvantages: Very expensive, Characters fonts cannot be changed
B) Chain Printer: In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer.
A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages: Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages: Noisy
II) Non-Impact Printers: These are more capable and give better quality
outputs.
Ex: Ink-Jet Printers, Laser Printers, …, etc.
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers. They are not noisy.
• High quality. Supports many fonts and different
character size.
Ink-Jet Printers:
 Ink-jet printers are most commonly used printers.
 They are used to prints the image by spraying tiny droplet of ink onto a
paper by using a sequence of nozzles.
 These types of printers are not only capable of printing monochromatic
images but can also print the images in different combination of colors called CMYK (cyan, magenta,
yellow, black).
Advantages: High quality printing. More reliable.
Disadvantages: Expensive as the cost per page is high
Slow as compared to laser printer
Laser Printer:
 Laser printers are used to print text and images that are of high quality.
 Such printers are also known as page printers.
 These pinters are capable of printing both text as well as graphics with a resolution of 300 to 1200 dpi.
Advantages of Laser Printer
1. It is the fastest among all the other non-impact printers.
2. It have the multi-font capability i.e., it can print characters in different fonts.
3. It can print 4 to 32 textual pages per minute.
4. It produces very high quality output.
5. Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
1. It is more expensive.
2. It requires high maintenance cost.
SOFT COPY AND HARD COPY DEVICES (Q) Explain the soft copy and hard copy devices?)

Soft copy output devices give screen displayed output that is lost when the computer is shut off. Some
examples of soft copy output devices are monitors, projectors, video display terminals. Soft copy is an
electronic display of digital information, such as files viewed on the pc monitor.
Soft copy- It is the information not printed on the paper but that is being stored in a computer as a file and
which can be only displayed on the computer. Hard copy is simply a document which is printed copy like
printed notes. In other words, we can touch it i.eits in physical form.
Hard copy: It is provide output on printed paper or other permanent media that is human readable
(tangible). Examples of devices that produce hard copy are printers, plotters and microfiche.
PLOTTERS (Q. What is the plotter? Discuss the various types of plotters?)
✓ Plotters are used for creating vector images by using a pen which is attached to a computer.
✓ Because of this, plotters are referred to as pen-based output device.
✓ Vector images are the images that are created by a series of many straight lines.
✓ Plotters are very much similar to printers except that the former draw the lines using a pen.
✓ Plotters are expensive
i) Drum Plotter:In drum plotter, the paper on which the output is to be printed is placed over a drum. Such
plotters consist of at least one pen that is mounted on a carriage. The carriage is placed horizontally across the
drum which can be rotated in both clockwise and anti clockwise direction. These type of plotters are generally
preferred when it is necessary to print output continuously such as plotting the earthquake activities.
ii) Flat-bed Plotter: Flatbed plotter comprises of stationary horizontal plotting surface over which a paper
cannot move (i.e., it is static). A pen is mounted on a carriage. This carriage can move horizontally, vertically,
leftward or rightward in order to draw lines. Since the paper is responsible for providing all the necessary
movements. Flatbed plotters are generally used in designing of ships, aircraft, buildings etc. The main
drawback of flatbed plotters is that the speed of printing the output is very slow.
SPEAKERS (Q. Explain about speakers?)
 It is an output device that takes audio input from the sound card of computer and gives audio output in the
form of sound waves to the user.
 They are external to the computer and usually contains low-power internal amplifier.
 The computer speakers are available in verify of quality and price.
 Some speakers supports power amplifiers for bass speakers and small satellite speakers.
 Basically, PC speakers can be grouped into two types,
(a) Passive speaker
(b) Active speaker
(a) Passive speaker:
A passive speaker is the standard speaker incorporated by most of the PCs. It does not contain amplifier.
(b) Active Speaker:
An active speaker contains amplifier i.e., the amplifier is built-in the PC. And, it eliminates the need for
external amplifier.
SOUND CARD (Q. Write short notes on sound cards?)
 A sound card can be defined as an expansion card that is capable of producing sounds using certain
computer programs.
 Hence, it can be also called as an audio card.
 It is a peripheral device that can be attached to a motherboard.

 The following are the functions of a sound card.

(i) Produce sounds
(ii) Converts analog-to-digital
(iii) Converts digital-to-analog
There are three methods that can be used for generating the sounds, they are Frequency Modulation (FM), wave
table and physical modelling.
Anolog Vs Digital
 The best examples for anlog and digital are the sounds and data of the computer respectively.
 Analog signals are collection of waves.
 Digital signals are nothing but the electrical impulses containing 0’s and 1’s.
 Hence a sound card can be used for converting computer digital data into analog data.
For this purpose, it contains four components that are present on its printed circuit board. They are,
(a) Anolog-to-digital converter (ADC)
(b) Digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
(c) PCI interface that can attach the sound card to the motherboard.
(d) Input and output connections for the microphone and speakers.
However, there are some sound cards that contain a CODEC chip (Coder/Decoder) instead of different ADCs
and DACs. This chip has the ability to carry out both the conversions.

UNIT – II (COMPUTER ARITHMETIC & STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS)
1Q. WRITE ABOUT DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS?

A. The two different types of number systems are as follows,
1. Non-positional number system
2. Positional number system
1. Non-positional number system
Non-positional number system is an additive approach used for counting purpose. Previously, people
used their fingers for counting. If the count is more than 10, then stones, sticks etc., were used.
Characteristics
Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4, IIIII for 5, etc
Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the number
The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number
Difficulty: It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system
2. Positional number system

Positional number system consists of some symbols known as ‘digits’. The value of each digit depends on
their position in the given number. The considerations to find the value of a number are as follows,
(i) The digit.
(ii) The position of each digit in the given number.
(iii) The base of the given number which is the nothing but the number of digits present in the respective
number system.
Characteristics
Use only a few symbols called digits
These symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number
The value of each digit is determined by:
1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system (base = total number of digits in the number system)
The maximum value of a single digit is always equal to one less than the value of the base
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Characteristics
A positional number system
It has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its base = 2
The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less than the value of the base)
Example: (10101)2
OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics
It has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7). Hence, its base = 8
The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less than the value of the base
Example: (2057)8

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Characteristics
It has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9). Hence, its base = 10
Example: (2586)10
HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics
It has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively
Example: (1AF)16
2Q) EXPLIAN ABOUT NUMBER CONVERSION FROM ONE NUMBER SYSTEM TO ANOTHER
NUMBER SYSTEM?
Convert Decimal to Binary
Divide the number by 2 for repeating times. Collect remainders in each level.
(16)10 = (?)2 10000
Convert Binary to Decimal

Multiply each digit of binary number by 2 with powers (increasing from RHS to LHS). Starting power is zero.
(1010)2 = (?)10 10
=(1x2 )+(0x2 )+(1x2 )+(0x20) = (1x8)+(0x4)+(1x2)+(0x1) = 8+0+2+0 = 10.
3 2 1
Here 20 = 1.
Binary to Octal
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting from the right
Step 2: If any additional bits required, then add zeros at LHS.
Step 3: Divide the groups from RHS → LHS.
Example
(110010)2 =(?)8 62
Octal Number Binary Code Octal Number Binary Code
0 000 4 100
1 001 5 101
2 010 6 110
3 011 7 111
Octal to Binary:
(62)8 =? 110010. Here 6=110 and 2 = 010.

Binary to Hexa Decimal

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four starting from the right
Step 2: Combine each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal digit
Example: (111101)2 = (?)16 3D
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four starting from the right
0011 1101
Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit
Hexa Decimal Number Binary Code Hexa Decimal Number Binary Code
0 0000 8 1000
1 0001 9 1001
2 0010 A 1010
3 0011 B 1011
4 0100 C 1100
5 0101 D 1101
6 0110 E 1110
7 0111 F 1111
Hexa Decimal to Binary
Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number
Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) in a single binary number
Example
(2AB)16 = (?)2 (001010101011)
Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number
2 = 0010 A= 1010 B= 1011
Step 2: Combine the binary groups. (001010101011)
3Q) EXPLAIN THE BINARY ARITHMETIC SYSTEM?
Binary arithmetic is simple to learn as binary number system has only two digits – 0 and 1
Following slides show rules and example for the four basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers
BINARY ADDITION
Rule for binary addition is as follows:
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 plus a carry of 1 to next higher column
Example 1:
Add binary numbers 1010 and 0101 in binary form
BINARY SUBTRACTION
Rule for binary subtraction is as follows:
0-0=0
0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow from the next column
1-0=1
1-1=0

Example: Subtract binary numbers 0101 from 1010 in binary form
BINARY MULTIPLICATION
Table for binary multiplication is as follows:
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1
Example
Multiply the binary numbers 1010 and 101
BINARY DIVISION
Table for binary division is as follows:
0 ¸ 0 = Divide by zero error
0¸1=0
1 ¸ 0 = Divide by zero error
1¸1=1
As in the decimal number system (or in any other number system), division by zero is meaningless
The computer deals with this problem by raising an error condition called ‘Divide by zero’ error.
1. Start from the left of the dividend
2. Perform a series of subtractions in which the divisor is subtracted from the dividend
3. If subtraction is possible, put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the divisor from the corresponding digits of
dividend
4. If subtraction is not possible (divisor greater than remainder), record a 0 in the quotient
5. Bring down the next digit to add to the remainder digits. Proceed as before in a manner similar to long division
Example: Divide 1010 by 101

4Q. WHAT IS MEMORY? LIST ITS FUNCTIONALITIES. ALSO LIST THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STORAGE?
A. Memory
Memory is a storage area in a computer. The function of memory is to store data or programs on
temporary or permanent basis.
Functionalities of Memory
❖ It is a device which stores data and program temporarily or permanently.
❖ It basically takes data from an input device and generates result before it is passed to the output
device.
❖ It stores data in digital format and can read only two binary digits i.e., a sequence of 0’s and 1’s.
❖ It has the capacity to store very huge amount of data and retrieve it quickly whenever necessary.
❖ It is capable of performing various operations such as booting up or starting up programs.
❖ It provides unique memory addresses which are accessed by the CPU.
❖ It allows the CPU to directly interact with the programs.
Differences between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory
Primary Storage/Memory Secondary Storage/Memory
1. The memory which is directly accessible by the 1. The memory that is not directly accessible by the
CPU for storing and retrieving information is CPU is known as secondary memory.
known as primary memory.
2. A computer cannot work without a primary 2. A computer can work without a secondary
3. memory. 3. memory.
It is also known as main memory. It is also known as auxiliary memory or backup
4. 4. memory.
5. It is internal to CPU. 5. It is external to CPU.
It basically stores programs and data which are It can store huge amount of data.
6. currently in use. 6.
7. It is connected to computer through “slots”. 7. It is connected to computer through cables.
It is classified as volatile (RAM) and non- It is always non-volatile memory.
8. volatile (ROM) memories. 8.
9. It acts as the working memory of computer. 9. It acts as the storage device in the computer.
10. It loses data on power failure or system crash. 10. It holds data even on power failure or system
11. It is faster than secondary memory. 11. crash.
12. It is expensive. 12. It is slower than primary memory.
Examples of primary memory are RAM and It is cheaper.
ROM. Examples of secondary memory are hard disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.
5Q. DISCUSS ABOUT DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL METHODS?

A. Data Storage and Retrieval
Data storage and retrieval refers to the ways in which data is stored, accessed and retrieved to/from the
computer.
Various storage and retrieval methods are as follows,

1. Sequential Access Method

Among all the methods, it is considered as the simplest method. As the name itself suggests that it is the
sequential (step by step processing of information present in a file). Due to its simplicity, most of the
compilers, editors etc., use this method.
In this method, processing is carried out with the use of two operations namely, read and write.
Read operation is responsible for reading. Write operation is responsible for writing at the end of the file
and proceeds towards the new end.
In this method, while processing the records sequentially, some of the records can be skipped in
both the directions (either forward (or) backward) and can also be reset to the head of the file (beginning).
2. Direct Access Method
This method is also called as real time access where the records can be read irrespective of their sequence.
A major example of this type of file access is the database where the corresponding block of the query is
accessed directly for instant response.
The read next and write next operations of sequential access are modified to read n and write n where n is
the block number. For example, relative block number 0, 1, 2, … can be allotted to block numbers 72,
1423, 20 etc. This approach is adopted by some of the operating systems while others use either
sequential (or) direct access.
3. Indexed Access Method
This method is typically an advancement in the direct access method which is the consideration of index.
A particular record is accessed by browsing through the index and the file is accessed directly with use of
a pointer.
To understand the concept, consider a book store where the database contains a 12-digit ISBN and a four
digit product price. If the disk can carry 2048(2 KB) bytes per block then 128 records of 16 bytes (12 for
ISBN and 4 for price) can be stored in a single block.
4. Indexed Sequential Access Method
To overcome the drawback associated with indexed access, this method is used where an index of index is
created. Primary index points to the secondary index and secondary index points to the actual data items.
An example of such a method is ISAM (Indexed-Sequential Access Method) of IBM which carries two
types of indexes. They are a master index and a secondary index. Master index carries pointers to
secondary index whereas, the secondary carries blocks that points directly to the disk blocks. Two binary
searches are performed to access a data item. The first one is performed on a master index and the second
one on the secondary index. This type of method can be considered as a combination of two direct access
read method.
6Q) EXPLAIN ABOUT MEMORY AND ITS TYPES (PRIMARY AND SECONDAY)?
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage
space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The
memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which
varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 32k words, then this memory unit
has 32 * 1024 = 32768 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 32767.
If the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Primary Memory (Main Memory) :The main memory occupies the central position because it is equipped to
communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through Input/output processor
(I/O). Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working.
It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile (Temporary) memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
A) RAM (Random Access Memory): It is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the
machine is switched off, data is erased.
RAM is volatile (Temporary), i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure.
B) ROM (Read Only Memory) : The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile (Permanent). A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also
in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
The various types of ROMs and their characteristics:

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) :
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are
burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) : EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-
violet light.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) :
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand
times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can
be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the
entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
• Non-volatile in nature
• Cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Memory) :Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is
slower. It normally stores system programs, instruction and data files. It is also known as secondary memory.
Secondary memories cannot be accessed directly by a processor. First the data/information of auxiliary memory
is transferred to the main memory and then that information can be accessed by the CPU.
Ex: Floppy disc, Hard Disc CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
Magnetic Disk :Magnetic disk is a device that write/reads data to and from a magnetic tape. It has two
heads. These are write head and read head. The write head encodes the magnetic signals on the magnetic
tape. Similarly, the read head reads the stored data from magnetic tape and transfers it into the RAM.
Magnetic disks are the most commonly used secondary storage medium.
Advantages of Magnetic Disks
1. They provide high storage capacity because of their high data recording densities and compact size.
2. They are much reliable.
3. They are used to transfer the data from one computer to another.
4. Easily portable.
Limitations
1. Not all the types of magnetic disks are portable.
2. The cost of magnetic disks is high compared to magnetic tapes.
3. They are very sensitive and they must be stored in dust-less environment.
4. Magnetic disks should be named properly while keeping them for offline storage. Otherwise, it leads to
confusions.
Types of Magnetic Disks are Floppy disks and Hard disks
Floppy Disks :
Floppy disks are a storage medium made of a thin magnetic disk. They were widely used from the
1970s to the early 2000s. They are very easy to use and are portable. Data is stored as electromagnetic
charges on a metal oxide film coating the Mylar plastic. There exist several types of floppy disks but the
most common one is the 3.5 inch floppy that can store data up to a capacity of 1.44
megabytes, something like 400 typewritten pages. A floppy drive is required to access a
floppy disk.
Hard Disks:
Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged one over the other almost
½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminium alloy and
coated with magnetic material. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A
magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HD has
capacity in terabytes (TB). Hard disks store very high volume of data. Currently hard disks can store
gigabytes of data (e.g. 500GB). Most operating systems are stored in hard disks and all materials
(application software, documents, images, music files etc) that you save on your computer are stored in
the hard disk. Similar to floppy disks, data is stored in closed concentric circles called tracks.
The metal platter is sealed inside a disk drive. Sometimes some hard disk may fail due to a head crash,
resulting in loss of data and this is due to various reasons such as: improper handling of hard disks, voltage
problems, … etc.

Optical Disks :
An optical disk is primarily used as a portable and secondary storage device. It can store more data than
the previous generation of magnetic storage media, and has a relatively longer lifespan. Compact disks
(CD), digital versatile/video disks (DVD) are currently the most commonly used forms of optical disks.
Optical disks have very less cost-per-bit. The mostly used optical disk with storage capacity of 700MB/
800MB. These disks are generally used to:
▪ Distribute software to customers
▪ Store large amounts of data such as music, images and videos
▪ Transfer data to different computers or devices
▪ Back up data from a local machine
Optical Disk Drive
Optical disk drive is used to read and write data from an optical disk. It consists of all the electrical, electronic
and mechanical components to hold an optical disk while reading or writing data from or to the optical disk.
Access Time
The optical disks have continuous spiral track sectors. The accessing of data randomly is very slow
Optical disk is a removable media.
Types of Optical disks are:
• Compact Disk (CD)
• Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)
Compact Disks (CD): Compact disks are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read and
write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into
CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you.
There are three types of CDs
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by the
manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
2. CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user only once on the CD-R. It cannot
be deleted or modified later. Some example applications include creating a backup of your hard disk,
creating your own music CD or saving your family album.
3. CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these optical disks again
and again. Also known as erasable disks. CR-RW (rewritable) can be used to save data several times. This
type of optical disk is particularly useful to save large files that need to be updated regularly.
Digital Versatile Disk(DVD): DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times more than CDs. They are
usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in 3 varieties
– read only, recordable and rewritable.
Magnetic Tape :Magnetic tape has been in use for more than 50 years. Modern magnetic tape is
packaged in cartridges or cassettes and is used for storing data backups, particularly in corporate settings.
The average amount of storage is 5 MB to 140 MB.
Uses of Magnetic Tapes
❖ They are often used for data backup from online devices to offline-devices.
❖ They are used for migrating data among different computers which are not linked with each other.

❖ They are used for distributing software copies or software products.

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes
❖ They are cost-effective as they use low cost reels and cartridges. They also support erasing and rewriting
of data.
❖ They are light-weight and making them easy to manage physically.
❖ They offer storage of large amount of data within a small space.
❖ They are highly portable.
Limitations of Magnetic Tapes
❖ They offer sequential access to data and therefore, they lack in accessing the data randomly.
❖ They can generate read errors when they are exposed to dust, extreme temperature or twisted.
❖ They need to be named manually to identify the data stored in the disks.
Some of the common types of magnetic tapes are as follows,
1. Tape Reel: In this type of magnetic tapes, the tape ribbon is rolled in a reel format. The size of this ribbon is
half-inch. The ribbon is moved/rolled up from one reel (supply) to another reel (take-up).
2. Cartridge Tape: This type of tape carries a ribbon of length ranging from 60 to 90 meters and width of 4mm.
It is covered with a catridge. The storage capacity ranges from 4 GB to 14 GB.
3. Digital Audio Tape (DAT): The working and appearance of tape drive is very much similar to audio/video
cassettes. It is considered as the compact and faster version of tape reels. The process of inserting and ejecting
these tapes in the tape drives is same as that of audio and video cassettes.
Zip Disk Drive: The drive which is used to play the zip disk is called Zip Disk Drive. The capacity of these disks
ranges from 8GB to 500GB. The drive use to run or connect these disks with computer is called zip drive. These
drives can be of fixed type or portable type. The fixed type of zip drives cannot be disconnected from the system
while the portable drives can be easily removed and connected with other systems. The zip disks can be inserted
and removed from the zip drives as easy as inserting and ejecting a CD drive in a CD player.
Flash Drive (Pen Drive): Pen drive is also called as USB flash drive which is a secondary storage device. It
comprises of the components like USB connectors. Pen drives use EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory) that enables to read, write and erase the data easily. Pen drives are available
with 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB and 64GB capacities.
Working of Flash Drive or Pen Drive: It is often identified as a plug and play device as it does not require any
kind of external power supply, a software or a battery for its functioning. The user can start using it by just
directly plugging it into the system’s USB port which is then automatically recognized by the operating system.
As soon as the operating system detects the device, a new drive is created in “My computer” icon of the system.
Now, the user can read, transmit or rewrite the data from a pen drive to computer and vice versa. Finally, after
completing the task, eject/remove the device safely from the computer for future use.
Furthermore, a pen drive is a readable, writable and removable device where the user can access
data (read and write), listen audio and watch videos as well. It can have varied storage capacity. And due
to its compact size, longer life span and faster accessibility, pen drives are preferred more than floppy disks
and CD-ROMs.
Off-line Storage Memory Card : An electronic flash memory storage disk commonly used in consumer
electronic devices such as digital cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones, and other small portable devices.

UNIT – III (SOFTWARE)

1Q. DEFINE SOFTWARE. MENTION ITS NEEDS?
A. Software
Soft ware is a collection of programs or instructions. Which we can’t touchable and seeable are called Soft ware.
Software deals with the tools/ devices/ instruments, which are connected to the computer system (like keyboard,
mouse, monitor, printer, speakers, …, etc).
Software is referred as an organized set of instructions which when executed by means of a given
computing device that delivers the desired result by considering various processes and functions.
It is an organized set of instructions capable of accepting inputs, processes them and delivers the result in
the form of functions and performs as expected by the user. it is now-a-days delivered in the form a package
accumulating the design documents, source code, installations implementation manuals, operations system
manuals.
Needs of software
A software is considered as an essential component that performs various tasks based upon its type.
However, certain types of softwares implement operations others are used for running the system.
Moreover, a software is a set of instructions which helps the system to process the information.
It allows a system user to also interact with underlying hardware and enables the users to perform task.
Basically, software implements all the necessary functions of a computer. So, due to this a computer without a
software is considered to be a useless material that is made up of metals and plastic.
SOFTWARE
System Software (O/S, System Application Software (Windows

Files) Accessories, Games, MS-Office)
Types of Software
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories:
a. System Software
b. Application Software
System Software: System software includes general programs written for a computer. It consists ofpre-
writtenprogramsanddocumentationsuppliedbythemanufactureralong with the computer. These programs are
held permanently in the machine. The primary objectives of this software are
➢ Enhance the efficiency of hardware utilization and
➢ Make the computers simple to use.
The first objective is realized by that component of system software which is commonly known as operating
system. System Software is a set of instruction to the machine to interpret and execute application software,
for example, language translators (called compilers and interpreters), operating systems, utilities and special
purpose software.
OPERATING SYSTEM : An operating system (OS) is a software, that manages the computer
hardware, and provides common services for execution of various application software. For hardware
functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary
between application programs and the computer hardware. An operating system (sometimes abbreviated
as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all
the other programs in a computer.

2Q. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON UTILITY PROGRAMS?

A. Utility program is a set of programs that are required for proper maintenance of computer system. It also helps
in supporting and enhancing the program and data in the computer. Some of the examples include anti-virus
utility, data compression utility, cryptographic utility, disk compression utility, disk partitioning utility and disk
cleaner utility, backup etc.
The utility programs can be requested by application programs while executing them. Some of them are
as follows,
❖ Disk cleaners are used to identify the files that are not useful and allow users to delete them.
❖ Disk partitions will divide the individual drive into various logical drives.
❖ Disk checkers are used to identify the corrupted hard disk contents and delete them.
❖ Disk compression is used to improve the disk capacity by compressing or decompressing the disk
contents.
❖ Antivirus utilities are used to scan the system for virus effected areas.
File managers are used to provide methods to perform routine management tasks like moving, deleting, copying,
modifying the data sets.
Some of the Utility programs are:
• Language Translators
• Assemblers
• Compilers
• Interpreters, etc.
Language Translator
Alanguagetranslatorisasystemsoftwarewhichtranslatesacomputerprogram written by a user into a machine
understandable form. The most elemental form of programming uses only the binary digits 0 and 1,
whichisdirectlyunderstoodbytheelectroniccircuits.Aprogramthathaveonly binary digits is called a machine
language program. It is difficult to write or understand machine language programs, as these consist of 0s
and1s.
3Q. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES?

The programming languages are a set of instructions that a programmer can understand and also accessed
by many computer devices. It solves problems by breaking down them into single and simple steps. These steps
include certain fundamental operations like input operations, output operations, arithmetic operations, logical
operations etc. Within the programming languages, the syntax structure should be strictly followed by the
programmers otherwise the system cannot execute the instructions. The programming languages are developed
from machine oriented language to problem oriented languages. The different types of programming languages
are,
• Machine-level language
• Assembly language
• High-level language
MACHINE LANGUAGE: We think of computers as being quite complicated, but actually their basis is
very simple. It is based on the concept of electricity being turned "on" and "off". From this on/off, two-
stage system, representing data have been constructed using the binary system of numbers. The binary
system is based on two digits 0 and1. In one system, the letter A is represented as 1000001. Commas,
semicolons and other special characters are also represented as bunches of 0s and 1s. 0s and1s that

electrically set the switches, with 0 representing off and 1 responding on. This has made changing from one
program to another considerably easier. Machine Language is also called as First Generation Language.
Advantages
1. It is easily understood by the CPU.
2. The time taken for executing the program is very less.
3. The computational speed is very high.
Disadvantages
1. It is very difficult for a human to understand.
2. The length of programs written in machine language is very large.
3. It is difficult to correct or modify the programs.
4. It is a machine dependent language.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE: An assembly language is a low-level language used basically for programming
computers. This language not only implements a symbolic representation of numeric machine code but also
implements other constants that are required to program a specific CPU architecture.
Initially, assembly languages were developed in 1950’s. This language was referred to as Second Generation
Language (2GL). The purpose of developing such languages is to eliminate the problems encountered while using
first generation languages. Assembly language is generally used for,
1. Performing direct hardware manipulation
2. Accessing the processor’s instructions
3. Addressing critical performance issues.
If a program is written in assembly language, then it comprises of sequence of instructions called mnemonics.
These instructions correspond to a series of executable instructions. A utility program known as assembler is used
for converting these executable instructions into machine language instructions. Every instruction written in
assembly language comprises of opcode and at least one operand. Opcode is the symbolic name given to a single-
executable machine language instruction. Operands refer to the address of data situated in the storage.
Most of the complex and highly-developed assemblers provide additional functionality in order to facilitate
program development, to control the assembly process and to assist in debugging.
Generally, many of the modern assemblers are responsible for creating object code. This is done by
converting the assembly instructions (mnemonics) into opcodes and by resolving the symbolic names for
memory locations.
Advantages
1. Assembly languages reduce the cost of associated ROM chips because of the reduced code size.
2. Assembly language helps the programmer to understand the way the computer operates.
3. Assembly language programs are easy to understand and use.
4. It is easy to perform modifications.
5. It is easy to identify the errors, locate and correct the errors.
Disadvantages
1. The execution time is more
2. It is a machine-dependent language.
3. A programmer requires proper knowledge of the hardware.

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES
A high-level language is a language used for computer programming. High-level languages are very much
similar to human languages. These languages are easier to read, write and maintain. Compiler or interpreter is
responsible for converting the programs written in high-level languages into machine language instructions.
These languages are said to be machine-independent. The main feature of high-level language is that, this
language is not bound to a specific processor. High-level languages are transportable, which means that the same
high-level language can be used in making multiple computers comprising of different processors.
In 1950, the first high-level programming language was developed. But today there are many different
high-level programming languages are ALGOL, BASIC, C, C++, FORTAN, PASCAL etc. These languages
allow programmers to write programs using simpler terms.
Advantages
1. These languages are easier to read.
2. These are machine-independent languages.
3. Corrections and modifications can be done easily.
Disadvantages: The execution time is more since the HLL instruction needs to be converted into assembly
language and then to machine language.
4Q. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT APPLICATION SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES?
A. Application Software: The software that helps the user in some specific task is referred to as application
software. A single program or a set of programs forms the application software. An application software can be
built for any kind of application like graphics, word processors, media players, database applications,
telecommunications etc.
1. Word Processor: Word processor is a special program used for performing work processing. It is capable
of processing the text based documents. It enable a user to create, edit an manipulate the text document.
2. Spreadsheet: Spreadsheets or worksheets can be defined as a work space that consists of interrelated
columnar, complex reports. They are built with cells arranged in the form of rows and columns. The rows
are aligned horizontally across the screen and columns are aligned vertically down.
3. Database Management: A database management system is a software that defines a database, stores the
data, supports a query language, produces reports and creates data entry screens.
4. Graphics Software: Graphics is a software which is implemented through a system in order to create,
view, store, edit and print the pictures, drawings, graphs etc.
5. Entertainment Based Software: A computer system can be used as an entertainment tool. Computer
video games are the examples belongs to this category.
6. Educational Based Software: When a computer is installed with education software, it can be used as a
teaching and learning tool. Some of the examples of such software are teaching mathematics, grammar,
language or any other subject.
7. Personal Assistance Software: This type of software is mostly used in personal computers for various
purposes such as,
(i) Storing and retrieving the personal information.
(ii) Planning and Managing the contacts, finances schedule etc.
5Q. DEFINE WORD PROCESSING. ALSO, EXPLAIN ITS FEATURES?
MS-Word is a most commonly used word processing application. This application can be used to prepare
documentation, notes, reports, officials, letters, files, memos, etc. A Ribbon is present at top of a word document.
It arranges group of tools and commands into various categories referred to as tab. The various other features of
MS-Word are formatting text in a document, Moving, Copying, Saving, Searching words and Mail Merge.

FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSING:

1. Word-wrap: automatic arrangement of text in lines of specified length without the necessity of touching the
return key.
2. Justification: automatic alignment of text to both the left and right margins.
3. Alignment: positioning text or numbers to specified margin and tab settings.
4. Centering text on a line.
5. Pagination: automatic division of a document into pages of specified numbers of lines.
6. Page Numbering: automatic sequential numbering of pages.
7. Headers and Footers: option of creating standard blocks of text that will automatically appear at the top or
bottom of each page in a document.
8. Mail Merging: automatic combining a letter with a mailing list to generate multiple copies of the letter with the
different addresses and other variable information filled in.
9. Automatic Spelling Checker and Corrector. Program that compares words in the text against an on-line
dictionary, flagging items not found in the dictionary and offering alternative spellings and a means of correcting
the errors.
10. Entering Text: When entering text in word, users make some mistakes, which is not a matter of concern in MS-
Word. This is because incorrect or mistyped words are highlighted with a red marker. Another feature of MS
Word is the ‘automatic word wrap’, i.e., users need not have to press enter at end of each line, word automatically
starts a new line on behalf. There are certain points that should be considered when typing text in word,
❖ Use ruler instead of TAB or SPACE BAR to indent paragraphs.
❖ Use center-alignment button instead of SPACE BAR to position the text in center.
❖ Use tables or word multi column features instead of SPACE BAR to make column.
❖ Use break command from insert menu to begin a new page instead of repeatedly pressing ENTER.
11.Editing Text: Editing is a powerful feature of MS Word that allows user to rectify their mistakes made at the
time of typing text. The mistakes can be either spelling mistakes or grammatical errors. The different options for
editing documents are as follows,
12.Insert and Delete: Insert command is used for adding an object, picture, file, clip art to the document. The
user simply places the cursor wherever he wants to add text and starts typing, the existing characters will be
pushed along. Whereas, Delete command is used for removing text by using the Del or Backspace keys.
13.Cut/Copy and Paste: Select (highlight) the portion of text they want to copy or move. Then, they can use the
copy or cut command to move it to a special area in the computer’s memory called the clipboard. Once the
material is on the clipboard, they can “paste” or transfer it anywhere in the existing document or to a new
document.
14.Find and Replace: Find/search command is used to search and locate a specific text or part of a text in the
document. Whereas, replace command is used to substitute a particular text in a document with some other text.
APPLICATIONS OF WORD PROCESSING:

1. Business and Workplace : – In Business word processing is used for generate bills, cash memos, joining letters,
receipts, letterhead and all various types of accounts management related work.
2. Home based and Education : – In Home, word processing is used for writing letters, create a birthday card ,
invitation card by using text, word art, shapes, colors, and images. Like a diary for personal use, in which you can
write your day to day actives. Such as you can type and print the shopping list in the paper. In Education, create
notes and assignments, create lecture script by using text, word art, shapes, colors, and images.

3. Help to create resumes, notes, and assignments: – We can create notes and assignment. It’s easy to write and
format by using various text formatting options such as paragraph, fonts, styles etc. You can insert a cover page,
you can insert watermark and tables in your assignment according to your choice.
6Q) WHAT ARE SPREAD SHEETS (WORK SHEETS)? GIVE A OVERVIEW OF SPREAD SHEETS?
Excel is a spreadsheet program in the Microsoft Office system. You can use Excel to create and format workbooks
(a collection of spreadsheets) in order to analyze data and make more informed business decisions. Specifically,
you can use Excel to track data, build models for analyzing data, write formulas to perform calculations on that
data, pivot the data in numerous ways, and present data in a variety of professional looking charts.
Features of M S EXCEL:
In the Microsoft office package, all the applications have their own dedicated features, these features help the user
to work with the applications smoothly and they also resemble the importance of the application.
Features:
1. Workbook (Worksheets): Excel provides a workbook which contains worksheets. These worksheets contain
cells (combination of rows and columns) where the user can enter the data in an order of row wise or column wise.
These worksheets make the data look more uniform and attractive. User can create add desired number of
worksheets in desired number of workbooks as per the requirement.
2. Normal and Page break view: We are provided with two types of views in excel, normal view is used to
view the worksheet in a normal way, simply it means the worksheet will appear with a default zoom level and
default cell sizes. Page break view will provide an opportunity to set the page breaks as desired by the user.
3. Chart Wizard: Chart wizard feature enables the user to insert a chart on the worksheet. With this feature we
can create a chart on our own as per the data in the worksheet.
4. Function: This feature provides us with predefined formulas that perform calculations by using specific
values, called arguments, in a particular order, or structure. They can be used to perform simple or complex
calculations.
5. Picture: This feature enables the user to insert pictures from clipart, from file and from scanner or camera
onto the worksheet. With this feature we can also insert AutoShapes, WordArt and Organization Chart.
6. Diagram: This diagram feature is used to create an Organization chart, Cycle diagram, Radical diagram,
Pyramid diagram, Target diagram, Venn diagram. This feature will help to make the worksheet more attractable
and the details in the diagrams more understandable.

7. Symbol: This will help the user to insert symbol like custom numbers, Wingdings, etc., and also insert
special characters on the sheet.
8. Comments: By using this feature the user can add comments to a cell in the worksheet and the user can also
see the name of a person who had given the comment.
9. Spelling: Spelling is one among the special feature provided by ms excel for checking the spellings entered
by the user if there are any mistakes. This feature is sophisticated with an internal dictionary which helps in
modifying the spellings like synonyms etc.,
10. Formula auditing: MS Excel provides this feature to correct any problem with the formulas provided. This
feature also helps to graphically display or trace the relationships cells and formulas with blue arrows.
7Q: Parts of the MS-Excel 2010 or Components of MS- Excel 2010?
ACTIVE CELL : When you click on a cell in Excel, the active cell is identified by its black outline. You enter
data into the active cell. To move to another cell and make it active, click on it with the mouse or use the arrow
keys on the keyboard.
FILE TAB: The File tab is new to Excel 2010. It is a replacement for the Office Button in Excel 2007, which was
a replacement for the file menu in earlier versions of Excel. The File tab options are mostly related to file
management such as opening new or existing worksheet files, saving, printing, and a new feature saving and
sending Excel files in PDF format.
FORMULA BAR: The formula bar is located above the worksheet, this area displays the contents of the active
cell. It can also be used for entering or editing data and formulas.
NAME BOX: Located next to the formula bar, the Name Box displays the cell reference or the name of the active
cell.
COLUMN LETTERS : Columns run vertically on a worksheet, and each one is identified by a letter in the column
heading.
ROW NUMBERS : Rows run horizontally in a worksheet and are identified by a number in the row heading.
CELL: Cells are the rectangular boxes located in central area of a worksheet. Data entered into a worksheet is
stored in a cell. Each cell can hold only one piece of data at a time. A cell is the intersection point of a vertical
column and a horizontal row. Each cell in the worksheet can be identified by a cell reference, this is combination
of letters and numbers such as A1, F456, or AA34.

SHEET TABS: By default, there are three worksheets in an Excel file, although there can be more. The tab at the
bottom of a worksheet tells you the name of the worksheet, such as Sheet1 or Sheet2. Switch between worksheets
by clicking on the tab of the sheet you want to access
ADD SHEET ICON: Adding additional worksheets can be done by clicking on the add sheet icon next to the
sheet tab at the bottom of the screen or you can use this keyboard shortcut to add a new worksheet.
QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR: This toolbar can be customized to hold frequently used commands. Click on the
down arrow at the end of the toolbar to display the toolbar's options.
STATUS BAR: The status bar, which runs horizontally along the bottom of screen, can be customized to display
a number of options, most of which give the user information about the current worksheet, data the worksheet
contains, and even the user's keyboard - such as whether the Caps Lock, Scroll Lock, and Num Lock keys are turned
on or off.
ZOOM SLIDER: Located in the bottom right corner of the Excel screen, the zoom slider is used to change the
magnification of a worksheet by dragging the slider box back and forth or by clicking on the Zoom Out and Zoom
In buttons located at either end of the slider.
RIBBON: “The Ribbon” is the professional term for the Microsoft Word toolbar, and is a part of many Microsoft
programs, including Outlook, Excel, and PowerPoint. The ribbon holds all of the information in previous versions
of Microsoft Office in a more visual stream line manner through a series of tabs that include an immense variety
of program features.
Ribbon contains commands organized in three components:
Tabs: These appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related commands.
Home, Insert, Page Layout are examples of ribbon tabs.
Groups: They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group on the Ribbon. For example,
group of commands related to fonts or group of commands related to alignment, etc.
Commands: Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.
8Q: WHAT IS POWERPOINT PRESENTATION? EXPLAIN THE COMPONENTS OF MS-POWER

POINT WINDOW?
PowerPoint is a tool you can use to communicate your ideas effectively through visual aids that look
professionally designed yet are easy to make. With PowerPoint, you can create slides for your presentation in the
output you require: blank and white overheads, color overheads, 35mm slides or on-screen electronic slide shows.
In addition, you can prepare speaker’s notes, print an outline and print audience hand outs. All these components
in one file make up a Power Point Presentation.
PowerPoint offers a host of tools that will aid you in creating a presentation. These tools are organized
logically into various ribbons in PowerPoint. The table below describes the various commands you can access
from the different menus.
Components of MS-Power point Window:
Quick Access Toolbar (QAT) Notes Section
Title bar Slide View Buttons
Ribbon Zoom Options
File menu Tab Vertical scroll bar
Vertical scroll bar Slide Area
Status bar Help

9Q) EXPLAIN VARIOU OPTIONS AVAILABLE IN POWER POINT?

Create a Presentation:
➢ Blank Presentation: Same as New option in MS Word.
➢ Design Templates: File → New →Installed Templates/ Installed Themes →select any one from available
templates/ themes → click on Create button.
➢ Saving a Presentation
➢ Closing a Presentation
➢ Exiting from Power Point
➢ Open an existing Presentation
Note: Create, save, open and closing the presentation is same as MS-Word.
Add Text and Edit Text

 Add text to slides: Click on item like “Title/ sub-title/ … / etc” to add the text.
 Select the text of slides:
 Move over the item on slide.
 Mouse pointer will change like black arrowed plus symbol.
 Click on it to select.
 Delete the text from slides: After selecting the item, press “Delete” button from keyboard.
 Change case of the text: Same as MS-Word.
 Check Spelling: Same as MS-Word.
 Font options are same as MS-Word.
Working with Slides

✓ Add / Insert a Slide: ✓ Change Slide Color:
▪ Press Ctrl, M shortcut keys to add new slide OR  Select the slide.
▪ Select home menu  Click right mouse button.
▪ Select slides tab  Select the format background option.
▪ click on New Slide option  Dialogue box appears.
✓ Delete a Slide:  Click color option.
 Select your required slide from left side pane.  Select your required color.
 Press “Delete” button from keyboard OR  Click on apply to all button.
 Click right mouse button on slide  Again click on close button.
 Select “Delete slide” option from menu.  If you want to remove the background color,
then click on reset background button.
10Q) Explain in detail about graphic packages?

A. A graphics package allows user to utilize a computer system for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving
and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphics, etc which can be designed in a traditional format.
Characteristics of Graphic Packages
Following are the characteristics aided by graphic packages.
1. Draw Designs
It allows users in outlining the graphics objects like lines, circles, rectangles, are and so on inorder to
draw diagrams designs. It reduces the overhead of the user in drawing exact shapes of objects like straight

lines or fully rounded circles. However, package generates the lines and round circles because it
automatically links them with one another properly. Additionally, it also permits users to perform move,
copy, delete, rotate, tilit, flip horizontally/vertically, increase/decrease the size of objects. Therefore, the
above mentioned characteristics makes simple for the user to generate complex designs.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is an environment which is mainly dependent on this feature of graphics
software. Architects and engineers make use of CAD system for producing architectural drawings, product
designs, landscaping plans and several other types of engineering drawings. Therefore, user can generate
actual designs within less time period rather than designing them several days.
2. Paint Drawings and Pictures
It helps users to alter the drawings and pictures in the form of an image.
The images that are linked over the screen mainly depends on the binary bits called as bit
mapping. The images that are represented in terms of pixels are referred to as bitmap images graphics.
Each pixel represents a particular color. Bitmapped editors are used to create or edit the pictures. Adobe
Photoshop, Flash, Corel Draw, Corel photo point, Lview pro, GIF 89a, Paint shop pro are some of the
commonly used bitmap editors. Bitmapped file format is used to store the bitmap images. The formats
GIF, JPEG, Bitmap (BMP), Post Script (PS), IRIS and Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) can store the
bitmap graphics files.
Images or graphic objects that are represented using mathematical tracks are referred to as vector
graphics. Image attributes such as lines, points, circles, arcs, few geometric shapes are represented in
terms of geometrical equations. The image that needs frequent resizing and repositioning should be
represented using this technique. Vector graphics can be created or modified using vector editors. Most
often vector editors are used to create or modify more complicated graphics like photographs. In raster
graphics, images are produced in the form of dots known as pixels. This technique is used by the painting
software through organizing the screen pixels positions.
However, raster graphics images occupy more memory when compared with vector graphics, it is
more flexible and provides high degree of creativity in drawing typical shapes and using of colors.
3. Present Graphs
It allows users to design graphs and charts by importing the numerical information from software
like a spreadsheet or a database. Line graphs, bar charts and pie charts are mostly used by the users for
representing numerical data graphically. Line graphs consists of several lines which internally links the
data points placed over horizontal and vertical axes. Bar charts utilize more than one bar that exists on
horizontal and vertical axes to display the values through lengths of the bars. In certain cases, each bar
segregated is into various component parts and the addition of these parts is a result of the total length of
the stacked bar.
Pie chart is a circle divided into sectors which shows the sharing of each component in the entire
circle. But, bar graphs shows bette proportion estimates. This is used by the analysts, decision makers as it
helps in easy understanding of the relationships, modifications, trends that hidden in respective
geometrical data and defines decision making.
4. Drag-and-Drop Objects
It allows user to develop all the designs and pictures quickly by enabling them to use ready-made
graphic objects or images that are provided with a software. For instance, drawing software is provided
with additional ready-made shapes such as line, rectangle, circle and so on which can be utilized by the
user while designing based on their requirement.

The steps for adding a clip-art are as follows,

1. Select the slide to which the user need to add the clip-art or insert a new slide.
2. Choose insert/clip-art command then power point displays the clip-art gallery.
3. In clip-art gallery, choose one of the images by double-clicking on it. Power point adds the selected image
to the current slide.
4. Drag one corner of the image inorder to change its size.
5. Drag the image itself to replace its position.
6. To replace the image with another image, just double-click on it. The clip-art gallery will appear and from
there a new image can be selected.
7. The size and position of the newly added image is same as that of the old one.
5. Import Objects
It allows users to develop all the designs and pictures much quickly by enabling them to not only
access graphic objects or images provided along with a software but also those objects that are provided
by some other software.
The general steps for importing the images are as follows,
1. In power point presentation, select the slide to which the user need to add the image or insert a new slide.
2. The commands like Insert/Picture, Insert/Clip art, Insert/Object are used to select the images.
3. Select the format of the file, which the user want to import.
4. Select the file name of the intended image.
5. Click OK then power point adds the selected image to the current slide.
6. Drag the mouse to define the desired size and position of the chosen graphic.
7. Edit the image, if required by double clicking on it.
6. Screen Capture
This technique allows user to capture the screenshot of a display screen and translate it into an
image referred as a bit-mapped image which can be saved in a file and can be imported later whenever
required. This is beneficial at the time of writing books or manuals which involves the screen images.
11Q) Define database management system. Discuss in detail about data models and different types of data
models? (OR) Write about Data Manipulation Language (DML)? (OR)
Discuss in detail about the process of creating and using database?
Database management system is a group of programs that are used for facilitating the users to create,
delete, organize, update and manipulate data in the database.
Data manipulation language performs the following operations,

(i) Insertion of new data
(ii) Deletion of stored data
(iii) Retrieval of stored data
(iv) Modifying the data.
Data manipulation language that involves in retrieval of data is called “quety language”.

CREATING AND USING A DATABASE

1. Schema/Structure Definition
Schema definition is the first step in creating a database. In this step, the fields needed to be included in
the database are noted down on a paper and their associated characteristics are determined. These characteristics
can be name, size, type etc.
2. Form Design
Designing of forms is the second step in the creation of database. It helps in providing a user-friendly
platform for the users to enter the data in the database. It provides a set of fields with empty spaces so that users
can enter desired data within those fields.
Forms can be designed with several features like,
❖ Providing a list of options from which a user can select the appropriate one. For example, users can select
the Gender field as either Male or Female.
❖ Converting the case (capital or small) of the data to the required one.
3. Data Entry
The data entry step is started as soon as the forms are designed. It is typically carried out in a record-by-
record manner. The users can start the data entry by calling appropriate form. The records are assigned with a
serial numbers to get identified. These numbers are assigned automatically.
Using Database
Database can be used to view, modify, delete and add new records.
1. Viewing Database
The records of a database can be viewed by forwarding appropriate view command. These records are
retrieved using a specific field value such as student ID. After accessing a record, some additional options
are also given that allows users to go to the next, previous, first and last records. Apart from this, it also
provides, filter options to obtain the most appropriate records from the database.
2. Modifying Database
The records of database can also be modified. When a record is accessed using view option, it can be
modified simply by clicking on the field value. To save the modified record, users can press Enter key on
the keyboard. Based on the type of database, a confirmation message can appear to ensure that the
database is modified.
3. Deleting Records
The saved records of database can be deleted easily by forwarding delete record command to the database
system. The user needs to select the record using its field value. Similar to the modification confirmation,
a confirmation message appears on the screen to avoid accidental deletion of records.
4. Adding New Records
New records can be added within a database by forwarding appropriate command. As a result, a blank
form appears allowing the user to enter the data in the form and save the new record in the database by
pressing Enter key. Once the newly added form is saved, the system automatically displays a blank form
to add another record. To terminate this process, use the mouse or keyboard to select the terminate option.

12Q. Write short notes on (i) Query language (SQL) (ii)Query By Example(QBE).
(i) Query Language
Query languages are supported by the database systems for handling complex queries. These query languages
follow SQL standard.
SQL (Structured Query language) is a database language which is compatible with RDBMS. It provides an
interface to simple relational database. It is a simple portable language that does not require enough learning to
work with its syntax and commands. It performs the following functions,
(a) Creates tables and database structures.
(b) Performs addition, deletion and modification operations on the database structutes.
All these operations are performed using the concept of DML (Data Manipulation Language) and DDL
(Data Definition Language).
Features
1. SQL is an English-like language containing statements in English sentences. Hence SQL statements are
easily understandable.
2. It minimizes the time required in creating and maintaining the database systems.
3. It gives quick solutions to complex queries.
4. It is a portable language and can be executed on various computer systems.
5. It enables communication between clients and servers over a network.
6. It enables programmers to write applications for accessing database.
(ii) Query By Example (QBE)

Query-By-Example (QBE) is query language developed for only for retrieving data from database. But now, this
application is capable of performing operations like insertion, deletion, updating and creation of tables.
Advantages
1. It is a first Graphical User Interface (GUI) language.
2. It is user friendly.

UNIT – IV (OPERATING SYSTEM)

1Q) DEFINE OPERATING SYSTEM AND EXPLAIN ITS FUNCTIONS?
An operating system (OS) is a software , that manages the computer hardware, and provides
common services for execution of various application software. For hardware functions such as input and output
and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the
computer hardware.
An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into
the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

1. Resource Management: The resource management function of an OS allocates computer resources such as
CPU time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output devices for use
2. Process Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
process management:
i. Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
ii. Suspending and resuming processes.
iii. Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
iv. Providing mechanisms for process communication.
v. Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling.
3. Memory Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
memory management:
i. Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
ii. Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory.
iii. Allocating and de allocating memory space as needed
4) File Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with the file
management:
1. Creating and deleting files
2. Creating and deleting directories to organize files
3. Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories.

4. Mapping files onto secondary storage.

5. Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media .
5) Device Management: One of the purposes of operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware
devices from the user.
6). Data Management: The data management functions of an OS govern the input and output of the data and their
location, storage, and retrieval.
7). Communication Management: The OS establishes a standard means of communication between users and
their computer systems. It does this by providing a user interface and a standard set of commands that control
the hardware.
2Q) WRITE ABOUT THE COMPONENTS THAT HELP IN MEASERING THE SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE?
The performance and efficiency of an operating system is measured by the following key components
(i) Throughput: The no.of processes that are completed per unit time by a system is referred as through put. Per
instance, consider a system that carry out ‘m’ processes within ‘s’ then it’s through put is given as m/s processes
per a second in a given interval of time. It is calculated in terms of processes/ hour. Through put of a system
relies on effectiveness and nature of the jobs processed.
In case of long processes, system through put is one process/ hour where as in short processes it can be 100
processes/ hour for the same system.
(ii) Turn Around Time: It defines the difference between completion time and arrival time of each process/ job
in a given system.
(iii) Response Time: It defines the time a submission of a request till the time of generation of first response is
produced in an interactive system.
3Q) EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT ASSEMBLER, COMPILER AND INTERPRETER?

ASSEMBLER
A utility program known as assembler is used for converting these executable instructions into machine language
instructions.
If a program is written in assembly language, then it comprises of sequence of instructions called mnemonics.
These instructions corresponds to a series of executable instructions. This is done by carrying out isomorphic
translation (i.e., one-to-one mapping) from executable instruction to machine instructions.
In contrast to the compilers used in the high-level languages, assemblers are much simpler to write. It is possible
to have multiple sets of executable instructions for a single instruction set.
Every instruction written in assembly language comprises of opcode and at least one operand. Many of the
instructions may refer to either a single value or pair of values. Opcode is the symbolic name given to a single-
executable machine language instruction.
On the other hand, operands refer to the address of data situated elsewhere in the storage.
Most of the complex and highly-developed assemblers provide additional functionality in order to facilitate
program development, to control the assembly process and to assist in debugging.
Many of present day assemblers consist of a macro facility for performing textual substitution because of
which they are referred to as macro assemblers.
Generally, many of the modern assemblers are responsible for creating object code.
This is done by converting the assembly instructions (mnemonics) into opcodes and by resolving the
symbolic names for memory locations.

Assemblers are capable of supporting both pseudo-instructions and pseudo-operations.

Pseudo-instructions are those instruction which generates at least two machine instructions.
Pseudo operations are the directives followed by an assembler during the assembly time but not during the
execution time.
COMPILER
A compiler is a system utility program responsible for converting high-level instructions into machine
language instructions. Where all the instructions are converted at a time. Compilers are capable of generating error
messages encountered during translation. After successful compilation of a program, compiler software is not
required as the machine instruction can be reused several times. Examples of compilers are Pascal compiler, C
compiler, COBOL compiler etc. Inorder to perform translation of a source program, a computer initially loads
compiler and source program from secondary memory to its main memory. This task is carried by loader.
Loader is a program which is responsible for performing the loading function i.e., it brings executable file
into a given memory location. The loader carries out four functions.
1. It loads machine as well as data instruction into its specified memory location.
2. It assign load time storage memory area to the program.
3. It relocations the program so that it can be executed appropriately.
4. It links two separate object programs with each other.
In 1950’s, the first high-level programming language was developed. But today there are many different
high-level programming languages including Ada, Alogl, BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, FORTRAN, PASCAL etc.
High-level languages allow programmers to write programs using simpler terms instead of using raw processor
instruction codes.
Compiler converts only those source programs that are written in specific language which can be translated
by a compiler. For instance, a COBOL compiler can translate only those source programs which are written in
COBOL. So, every computer needs individual compiler for every high level language supported by it.
INTERPRETER
Interpreter is similar to that of a compiler but the difference arises in their conversion format. Interpreter
interprets every individual instruction and executes it immediately rather than executing entire program at once. In
case of any error, the program execution is halted until the error is rectified. The interpreter needs to be stored in
the memory till the program execution is completed. Interpreter is useful while debugging because it displays the
error message soon after interpreting individual instruction.
Interpreter considers the source program as input and generates an output. When compared to an interpreted
program, a compiled program can be executed more quickly. But, this is possible through an interpreter since object
file saved in the memory program must be reinterpreted everytime before execution.
Differences between COMPILER and INTERPRETER
COMPILER INTERPRETER
1 It compiles complete program at a time. It interprets and executes every single statement of a program
separately.
2 it generates errors after compiling program. It terminates interpretation once an error occurs.
3 It performs execution quickly. It consumes more time for code execution.
4 It creates an object file. It doesnot create any object file.
5 It does not require compilation whenever the It performs reinterpretation every time before executing a program.
program needs to be executed.
6 It proforms code translation only. It performs code translation and code execution.

7 It consumes more memory in a storage device It consumes very less amount of memory in a storage device (Memory
(Memory usage is very high). usage is very low).
4Q) EXPLAIN VARIOUS TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS?

Various operating systems have evolved depending on the requirement and the cost bearing capacity of
the users:
1. Single user operating system
2. Multi-user operating system
3. Single tasking operating system
4. Multi-tasking operating system
5. Multi Programming operating system
6. Single processing operating system
7. Multi-processing operating system
8. Time sharing operating system
9. Batch processing operating system
1. Single User Operating System:

➢ A single user operating system is developed and use for a single user at any given time i.e., only one
person can use the machine at a time and operating system is available to the single user at a time.
➢ An example of single user operating system is MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
Advantages:
✓ It is simple to design, implement and maintain
✓ It is relatively bug-free
✓ A computer is dedicated to one particular task at a time.
Disadvantages:
✓ Inefficient use of CPU time.
2. Multi-user operating system:

➢ A multi user operating system allows multiple users on different computers or terminals to access a
single system (CPU) with one operating system on it.
➢ It allows two or more users to run program at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundred
or even thousands of users at a time.
➢ Such operating system is made for machines which are more commonly called sharable machines i.e.,
data from one machine can be shared by other users at other machines.
➢ This operating system is more complex and more costly as compared to single user operating system.
➢ Ex: windows 2000 Server, windows NT and Windows 2003 Server.
Advantages:
✓ It makes better use of resources.
✓ It reduces response time.
Disadvantages:
✓ It has complex configuration
✓ It is difficult to handle and maintain
✓ It requires a lot of memory to process
✓ It is relatively expensive than single user operating system

✓ It is difficult to maintain security of data.
3. Single tasking operating system:

➢ Single tasking operating systems can process one application at one time.
➢ The user can only work on one application at a time i.e., user can’t start another application till the
processing of one application has been finished by the operating system.
➢ Ex: MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating system).
4. Multi-tasking operating system:

➢ A multi-tasking operating system can capable of running more than one application at a time. For
example: at some time you might be downloading something from internet, as well as you are
writing mail to your friend and listening music also.
➢ Multi-user operating systems also have the property of multitasking. It improves the overall
efficiency of the computer.
➢ Ex: Windows2000, Windows XP, Windows-vista and Windows NT.
Advantages:
✓ It increases the overall performance of the system
✓ It increases the overall productivity of the system
Disadvantages:
✓ It requires a lot of memory to execute several programs simultaneously
5. Multi-programming operating system:

➢ Multi-programming refers to execution of two or more different and independent program by the
same computer.
➢ In this two or more program resides in main memory (RAM) and are executed concurrently.
➢ Since there is only one processor, that can be simultaneous execution of different programs.
Instead, the operating system executes part of one program, then part of another, and so on. To the
user it appears that all programs are executing at the same time.
➢ Ex: Windows2000, Windows XP, Windows-vista and Windows NT.
Advantages:
✓ It increases CPU utilization
✓ It decreases total read time needed to execute a program.
Disadvantages:
✓ It is relatively more complicated
✓ It requires CPU scheduling
✓ Proper memory management is required
✓ It requires tracking of all kinds of jobs running concurrently
6. Single processing operating system/ Uni-processor operating system:

➢ Single processing operating systems are designed to work with one processor/ CPU
➢ Desktop computers and laptops are generally uni-processor systems.
➢ These systems can manage the processing needs of a home or a small organizations, but they are
not suitable for high level designing and complex calculations.
➢ Some single processing operating systems are: Windows 98, Windows-ME.

7. Multi-processing operating system:

➢ A multi-processing operating system allows a program to run on more than one central processing
unit (CPU).
➢ If one of the CPU breaks down, then the other CPU will automatically takes over its job. This is
also called parallel processing.
➢ By allowing parallel processing of segments of program, it improves performance of computer
systems.
➢ Some multiprocessing operating systems are: Windows-2000, UNIX and Linux
Advantages:
✓ It increases the reliability of the system
✓ It increases the overall productivity of the system
✓ It has better performance than single-processing system
✓ If one CPU get failed other CPU are used to do that CPU’s job.
Disadvantages:
✓ It is very expensive.
✓ It requires a lot of memory to run and execute several user programs.
✓ If one CPU gets failed, it affects the speed of processing
✓ It is relatively more complex than single-processing system.
8. Time Sharing operating systems:

➢ It helps to provide a large number of user’s direct access to the main computer.
➢ In timesharing, the CPU is divided among different users on a scheduled basis. CPU allocated to
programs on priority basis.
➢ This very brief share of CPU time is called time slice or time slot or quantum, which may vary
from 10 milliseconds to 20 milliseconds. Each program gets a “time slice”.
➢ At end of time slice, current program is set aside and a new one starts.
➢ The timesharing operating system keeps only a few programs in the main memory and rest are
stored in the disk storage. The program remains in hard disk until it is not active and when CPU
time is allocated to it the program is brought to the main memory.
➢ This operation of transferring programs from disk storage to main memory and back is known as
swapping.
➢ Sometime sharing operating systems are: Windows-2000, Windows 2003,UNIX and Linux.
Advantages:
✓ Provide advantage of quick response.
✓ Avoids duplication of software.
✓ Reduces CPU idle time.
✓ Allows the many users to execute their task simultaneously.
✓ It offers better utilization of resources.
Disadvantages:
✓ It is very difficult and expensive to develop.
✓ It is hard to implement
✓ Memory management must be provided to the system.
✓ It has problem of reliability

✓ It is difficult to maintain security and integrity of user programs and data.
9. Batch processing operating system:

➢ The operating system of such a computer had the function to transfer the control from one job to
another.
➢ Batch processing operating systems are ideal in situations where:
o There are large amounts of data to be processed.
o Similar data needs to be processed
o Similar processing is involved when executing the data.
➢ Batch processing is also known as serial, sequential, off line, or stacked job processing. It is the most
appropriate method of processing for many types of applications such as payroll or preparation of
customer statements where it is not necessary to update information on daily basis.
Advantages:
✓ It increases overall performance as a new job gets started on completion of previous job without
human intervention.
✓ It is efficient because these use very little computer processing time to prepare a batch of data.
✓ The job execution is properly organized
✓ It allows sharing of computer resources among many users
Disadvantages:
✓ Lack of interaction between the user and job could enter an infinite loop
✓ It is difficult to debug program
5Q) EXPLAIN BOOTING PROCESS?

Booting: When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed automatically by the
Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting, System will check all the hardware’s and Software’s
those are installed or Attached with the System and this will also load all the Files those are needed for running a
system.
Booting: Process that starts up a computer is called booting. It checks for proper functioning of all the
peripheral devices attached with the system. It searches for the operating system and, when located, loads it into
the main memory.
There are two Types of Booting
Cold Booting is done by turning on the computer.
Warm Booting is performed by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del keys simultaneously
6Q) What is DOS Explain Ten DOS Internal Commands.

DOS is an Operating System. It works as an interpreter between user and computer. We give English like
commands and it converts it into machine language and after the computer has processed the information, returns
the results to you in English
DOS command divided into 2 parts.
1. Internal Commands or Memory-Resident Commands
2. External Command or Disk-Residence Commands

INTERNAL COMMANDS:
There are also called memory-resident commands. These commands are automatically loaded into the
computer’s memory during the booting process. They actually included in the Command.com file. So these
commands are executable immediately after getting the dos prompt.
A few internal commands are
01. VER 02. VOL 03 DATE 04. TIME 05. CLS 06. DIR 07. MD
08. CD 09. RD 10. COPY CON 11. COPY 12. DEL 13. REN
A command can be given in Capitals or Small letters also. The internal commands can execute immediately but
External Commands require special files for their execution without which it is not possible to execute them.
1. VER: - All O/S has its own edition number or release or version number. The version number indicates which
edition of O/S you are working on.
Syntax: VER <Enter>
Example: C:\> Ver <Enter>
Result will be: - Microsoft Windows XP [ Version 5.1.2600]
02. VOL: - It is used to display volume label and serial number of the current drive
Syntax: Vol [drive:]
Example: C:\> VOL
3. DATE: - Used to display the current system date and prompt for entering new date.
Syntax: Date <Enter>
Example: C:\> date <Enter>
4. TIME: - Displays the current system Time and prompt for entering new time.
Syntax: Time <Enter>
Example: C:\> Time <Enter>
5. CLS: - Clears the cluster screen.

Syntax: CLS <Enter>
Example: C:\> CLS <Enter>
6. DIR: - This command displays the list of directories and files with details like date of
creation whether it is directory or file etc.
Syntax: DIR <Enter>
Switches:
/p : To display output by page wise. /w : To display output by column wise
/l : Display all the information in lower case letters.
Example:
DIR *.txt : Display all the files with extension .txt
DIR D???.* : Display all the files starting with D and having less than or equal to four characters in the file name
and any extension.
Here “?” And “*” are called “wild card character”. “*” Stand for any number of the character. “?” Stands for nay
one character.

07. MD: Used to create a new Directory or nested Directories.

Syntax: MKDIR OR MD [DRIVE:] PATH DIRECTORY NAME
Example: C:\> MD SAMS <Enter>
08. CD: - This command allows you to change present directory to another directory.
Syntax: CD [DRIVE:] PATH
Example: C:\> CD SAMS and press <Enter>
09. RD: - To delete the empty directory.

Syntax: RD [DRIVE:] PATH
NOTE: -The directory must be empty when we use RD.
Example: C:\> RD SAMS and press <Enter>
Switches: - 1. /s – Remove with subdirectories and files.
2. /q – Don’t ask to confirm.
10. COPY CON: -We use this command to create a new file.
Syntax: COPY CON <FILENAME>
Example: C:\> Copy Con sams.txt <Enter>
Note: - Typing here and when you are done, press Ctr+Z or F6 key followed by Enter to save the current
document.
11. COPY: - Using this command you can make duplicate files of an exiting file from one location to another or
one directory to another with different name or exiting name.
SYNTAX: COPY < SOURCE FILE NAME> <TARGET FILENAME>
Example: C:\> COPY SAMS.TXT A:\TAJ
Example: C:\> COPY*.TXT +*.BAK TARGET FILENAME And Then Press Enter
Example: C:\> COPY SAMS.TXT C:\SAMS_1\FO\RECEPTION And Then Press Enter
You can also have the option to change the name of files as you copy it.
Example: C:\> COPYold.TXT C:\dos\new.txt And Then Press Enter
12. DEL/ERASE: This command removes one or more files from the disk or current working directories.
SYNTAX: DEL filespec [/p] or ERASE filespec [/p]
Example: C:\> DEL C:*.BAK /P And Then Press Enter
13. REN: Used to change the name of the file or directory.

SYNTAX: REN <file name>
Example: REN sams sams1 <Enter>
Example: REN *.dat *.mst And Then Press Enter
7Q) EXPLAIN THE WILD CARD CHARACTERS IN MS DOS?

Wild character is a special symbol that stands for one or more character. Many operating systems and applications
support wild card for identifying files and directories.DOC, Windows and other Operating Systems use this
wildcard characters.

1. Asterisk (*), which represents one or more characters.

(i) m* - It refers to all files which begin with m.
(ii) *. - indicates any filename.
(iii) * - indicates any extension.
(iv) *.* - indicates any filename with any extension
2. Question mark (?), which represents a single character. Example:-
(i) Listing files in MS-DOS that contain c, mp and any other character in-between. For example,
comp, camp, c2mp, and c- mp would all be matched.
C:\>dir c?mp
(ii) List of files that end with .MP3 file extension. C:\>dir *.mp3
(iii) List any file that ends with data. For example, appdata, mydata, and 123data would all be matched.
C:\>dir *data
(iv )List any file that is four characters long, begins with he, and has any extension. For example,
help.txt, help.mp3, and heck.jpg would all be matched.
C :\> dir he??.*
7Q) EXPLAIN DOS EXTERNAL COMMANDS?

EXTERNAL COMMANDS:
These are also called Disk-Resident Commands. These commands are meant for special purpose. These
are found in separate files on Hard Disk or Floppy Disk, So that they don’t typically consume valuable memory
space. They are loaded into memory only when called.
Some External Command are Edit, Move, Mem and Attrib
1. EDIT: This is the DOS Editor, which you can use to edit the text file and also creating new file.
Syntax: Edit [drive:][path][filename]
EXAMPLE: C:\> EDIT c:\sams\FO.TXT and then press <Enter>
EXAMPLE: C:\> Edit NEW FILE and then press <Enter>
2. MOVE : This command moves a file or group of files from one directory to
another and also one disk to another disk. It can also be used to rename directories.
EXAMPLE: move c:\sams\fo.txt to d:
EXAMPLE: move c:\sams\fo.txt to d:\ new_sams
3. MEM: This command displays amount of total available memory ( low, Expanded and
Extended) and all currently programs.
Syntax: MEM [/f][/p][/m]
Switches:
Example: MEM/p and then press <Enter>
4. ATTRIB: Every File on the Disk has its own description like size, space occupied, the type, the date it was
created, etc. Likewise, every file has few attributes. The attributes of a file indicates whether it is a
i) Read-Only File: r ii) Archive File a

iii) Hidden File: h iv) System File s

With the ATTRIB command you can check the attributes of a file.
SYNTAX: ATTRIB [+r][+a][+h][/+s] [filename]
While Creating a new file every file gets read only attribute and archive attribute by default.
EXAMPLE: C:\> ATTRIB my.txt +R and then press <Enter>
EXAMPLE: C:\> ATTRIB my.txt +H and then press <Enter>
5. LABEL: Displays the current system volume label and it provides a chance to provide a new label(NAME) or
old label.
Syn: LABEL <ENTER KEY>
8Q) EXPLAIN WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM?

Windows Operating System is the most widely used computer program in the world today for personal computers.
The original 1985 version of windows introduced to home and business PC users many of the graphical user
interface (GUI) ideas that were developed at an experimental lab at Xerox and introduced commercially by Apple’s
Lisa and Macintosh computers.
Microsoft Windows is a series of software operating systems and Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) produced
by Microsoft.
Different version of windows are following:
Windows 1.0 Windows NT Windows 2000 Windows Vista Windows 10
Windows 2.0 Windows 95 Windows ME Windows 7 Windows 13
Windows 3.0 Windows 98 Windows XP Windows 8 Windows 16
Windows XP is an operating system introduced in 2001 by Microsoft and is a part of the windows family of
operating systems. The operating system provides a new interface that uses graphics to simplify navigation and
completing common tasks, thus, making learning and working easier.
Microsoft released windows XP in two versions: Windows XP Home and Windows XP professional.
Windows XP Home Edition is designed for home use and small business, while windows XP professional is
specially designed for advanced home computing, business and larger organizations. Windows XP professional is
designed to handle more powerful computing needs by providing more reliability, security and administrative
options.
FEATURES OF WINDOWS:
Windows provides a new interface to simplify navigation and perform common tasks (like crating and opening
of a file) easily, thus, making learning and working easier. These are the various features that make Windows a
powerful, fast, efficient, and stable operating system.
1. Improved interface: Windows provides a completely redesigned interface. Start menu lets you access
programs more quickly. Windows displays the most used items in the start menu while it hides the least used
items.
2. More reliable: Windows is based on the same technology that is used in Microsoft Windows NT and Windows
2000.This makes windows much more stable than windows 95,windows 98 and windows ME and greatly
reduces the number of system crashes and system restarts.
3. Better file and folder management: Windows makes it easier to view and work with files and folders for
example, Thumbnail view lets you preview photos and images and the new file and folder tasks pane lets you

easily copy, move, rename or delete any file or folder.

4. Better help and support: Windows provides efficient help and support with new features such as Remote
Assistance which allows you to contact computer experts and lets them fix a problem on your computer even
if they are miles apart geographically.
5. More secure: Windows provides new security tools that help keep your computer more secure and provide
new technologies that run in the background, making your computer run more efficiently. This operating
system includes the new security center which allows you to check the status of the important security elements
on your computer-windows firewall, Automatic updates and virus protection software- making it convenient
for you to understand how to keep your computer better protected against viruses and other security threats.
6. Clear Type: Windows provides special features called Clear Type that makes the words on
your computer screen look as smooth as the words on a page. This increases the font resolution of the words
written in different programs like Notepad and WordPad.
DESKTOP:- The 1st screen of windows o/s (computer) is called desktop.

ICON:- A graphic symbol present on desktop.
TASKBAR:- A bar located at bottom of desktop. It contains “start” button, time
& opened windows names…..etc.,
MENU:- Menu is a list of commands/options. Menus are of 2 types
a) Pop-up menu ex:- start menu
b) Pop-down menu ex:- Desktop menu, file menus.
BASIC MOUSE OPERATIONS
a) Point:- More the mouse over on the icon/item.
b) Click:- Press & release the left mouse.
c) Double click:- Click twice rapidly. It is used to access/open the icon/item.
d) Drag & Drop:- Hold down the left mouse button while you are moving the mouse and release at the desired
position/location.
9Q) EXPLAIN IN BRIEF ABOUT UNIX OPERATING SYSTEM?

Unix is a powerful computer operating system that acts as base software to control a computer system and
its peripherals. It was basically developed for programmers and scientists whose work was related to hardware.
Its functions are similar to that of the popular operating systems like windows or MAC O/S. It provides
the base mechanism to boot a computer, log in, run an application, store and retrieve files.
It is commonly used in Internet server, workstations and PCs by Solaris, Intel, HPs, etc.
Unix was written in C language and was created to be portable, multi tasking and multi user system in a time
sharing configuration.
Structure of Unix O/S:
Kernel: The kernel is surrounded by the software for executing commands, running the processes under
foreground and background.
It is the central core of Unix.
It can directly interact with hardware.
It schedule processes, control and execute various user jobs.
It manages data storage and access.
It controls the access to the computer by several users.

Shell: The shell which is also called command interpreter. It receives and understands the commands issued by
the user. It acts as an interface between the user and kernel. The user interacts with the shell by issuing shell
commands. There are 2 major parts of shell.
i) Interpreter that interprets the commands given by the user and gets them executed by the kernel.
ii) Programming capability that allows the users to write shell script (shell program).
Utilities: Utilities are the commands defined in the system directories / bin. Utilities are make user job is easy,
particularly in efficient system programming and application development like open the files, process the files
and output the results.
There are numerous tools available
for processing files;
for editing programs such as ed;
for processing text such as cut, copy, paste;
for developing programs;
for communication such as mail, write messages and so on.
The user itself can create his own tools, which are executable files defined in his own directory.
FEATURES OF UNIX O/S:
➢ Multi user accessing / Resource sharing ➢ Communication
➢ Multi tasking ➢ Utilities
➢ Security ➢ Programmer support
➢ Portability
10Q) EXPLAIN ABOUT LINUX OPERATING SYSTEM?
Linux is an open source operating system which is powerful and easy to implement. It can easily installed
onto the computer system. Linux observes POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface) specifications and is
provided with extensions similar to Unix.
Design principles of Linux OS:
 It is multi user, multi tasking and multi programming operating system consisting of tools with traditional
Unix.
 It implements the structure and networking model of unix.
 It is platform independent.
 It is more suitable for architecture of personal computers.
 It can be executed on multiple processors or machines.
Linux Development Process:
The Linux OS involves several components during its development process.
Initially, open source development community generates a source code for an OS kernel and sends it to
kernel developer’s core team.
The main role of this team is to verify the advantages of the additional features that can perform the
modifications be included in existing kernel. If these additional features are found to be advantages to the kernel,
then kernel efficiency is improved.
The programmers and application vendors install the kernel that is easily available and then builds
different types of application software for this kernel.
They perform distribution of company’s package and sell different versions of Linux.
Hardware vendors integrate Linux on respect systems and send those systems with Linux OS and a group
of application software.
Finally, the 3rd party runs Linux and applicatons for full-filling their processing necessities.

B.Com.(CA)-I/1 Fundamentals Information Technology
UNIT – V (DATA COMMUNICATION)

1Q) DEFINE DATA, COMMUNICATION AND DATA COMMUNICATION? WRITE CHARACTERISTICS OF
DATA COMMUNICATION?
Data: Data refers to raw facts which are processed to generate information. Data can be represented either in the form text,
numbers, images, etc.
Communication: Communication is defined as exchanging the information between two different objects. This
information includes messages, pictures, etc.
Data Communication: Data communication refers to exchange the digital information between the devices through a
communication channel.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Delivery: Data is delivered from source computer that must be received by the receiver system without any interruptions.
Accuracy: In the data transmission, the data transferred with full accuracy (without mistakes).
On-Time: The delivery time is very important in data communication, because if it is getting delay may be choice of
adding noises over the network.
Jitter: The packet arrival time is very important in data communication. When we send the data of audio or video through a
network, if any intervals to reach the data packets, it leads to reduce the quality of data.
2Q) DEFINE COMPUTER NETWORK ALONG WITH ITS GOALS AND APPLICATIONS?
Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical fibres or
optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network. The aim of the computer
network is the sharing of resources among various devices. In the case of computer network technology, there are
several types of networks that vary from simple to complex level.
GOALS OF COMPUTER NETWORK
1. Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data among
the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
2. Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central computer
used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access
the information stored in the server remotely.
3. Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users. For
example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees use for daily
communication.
4. E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the internet. For
example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the
internet..
APPLICAIONS (USES) OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 ATM machines in banking
 Ticket booking process in Airways
 Ticket booking and Reservation process in Railways
 Ticket booking process in Buses.
 Ticket booking process in Entertainment sectors like movies.
 Ticket booking process in Devotional sector like TTD.
 Online Job Applications
 Online Education for Learning & Training
 Online Shopping
 Online Marketing

3Q) EXPLAIN VARIOUS BASIC NETWORKING DEVICES?

NIC (National interface card): NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device.
The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
➢ Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
➢ Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.
Hub: Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer requests
for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the
interconnected computers.
Switches: Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network. Switch sends
the message directly from source to the destination.
Cables: Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of cables.
o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1 GBpS or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive than
twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
o Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams. It
provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared to other
cables. Used for Tele communication lines, ..., etc.
Router: Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.
MODEM: Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.
Repeater: A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network.
Gateway: A gateway is used to connect two networks upon different networking models. Gateways are also called
protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router
4Q) WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS?

The following 5 are the main components of communication process.
→ Sender
→ Receiver
→ Message (Data/ Information)
→ Communication (Transmission) Medium
→ protocols
SENDER: Sender is also called as source. Source may be the personal computer, workstation, video camera, … etc.
RECEIVER: Receiver is also called as destination. Destination may be the personal computer, workstation, video camera.
MESSAGE: The important component of any communication is message. Usually a message consists information that can
be possible to transmit through the communication channel. A simple message may be the text/ numbers/ images/ …etc
COMMUNICATION (TRANSMISSION) MEDIUM: Communication medium can be the physical medium of data
communication system. It can be transmits the data between the computers using its physical path. Twisted pair Cables, co-
axial cables and optical cables are examples for communication medium.

PROTOCOLS: Protocols refers to a set of rules to control the communication between two devices. It basically represents
an agreement between the communicating devices.
5Q) WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON DATA TRANSMISSION SPEED?

Bandwidth: Range of frequencies available for data transmission. It refers to data transmission rate. Higher
the bandwidth, the more data it can transmit
Band: Unit of measurement of data transfer rate. Measured in bits per second (bps)
Narrow band: Sub-voice grade channels in range from 45 to 300 baud. Mainly used for telegraph lines and low-
speed terminals
Voice band: Voice grade channels with speed up to 9600 baud. Mainly used for ordinary telephone voice
communication and slow I/O devices
Broad band: High speed channels with speed up to 1 million baud or more. Mainly used for high-speed
computer-to-computer communication or for simultaneous transmission of data
6Q) EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMMUNICATION (OR) TRANSMISSION MODES?

The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission mode.
The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode. Each communication channel has a direction
associated with it, and transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known
as a directional mode. The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer. There are three types of
transmission modes,
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half-Duplex Mode
3. Full-Duplex Mode
1. SIMPLEX MODE
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction. A device can only send
the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the data. The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction. Example: Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of
the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display
the data on the screen.
Advantage of Simplex mode:
o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so that more data
can be transmitted at a time.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can be utilized
during transmission.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.
2. HALF-DUPLEX MODE
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the same
time. The entire capacity of the bandwidth of a communication channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the directions.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode: In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also
can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode: In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another
has to wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.
3. FULL-DUPLEX MODE
In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions. Both the
stations can send and receive the message simultaneously. Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One
channel has traffic moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode: If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of
the communication channel is divided into two parts.
7Q) DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIAS?

Transmission Media: Communication media allows the sender and receiver to be interconnected for the purpose
of sending and receiving messages. Connection media is of two types, such as guided media and unguided media.
GUIDED MEDIA
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded media. In this type of media, a physical path is established between source and destination.
Types of Guided media:
1. Twisted pair: Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted
pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is
a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5 KHz. A twisted pair consists of
two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
Advantages:
o It is cheap in cost.
o Used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
Disadvantage:
o Used for shorter distances.
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
2. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable. The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other. It has a higher
frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.

The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of copper
mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer
conductor. The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from the
EMI(Electromagnetic interference). Coaxial cable is of two types.
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
Advantages of Coaxial cable:
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
3. Fiber Optic: Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication. Fiber optic is a cable
that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of light. The plastic coating
protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring. Fiber optics
provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:
Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a light
transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the cladding is to
provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light
waves are transmitted through the fiber.
Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to
preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fiber protection.
Following are the advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:
Greater Bandwidth: The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore, the fiber
optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
Faster speed: Fiber optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fiber optic cable to carry the
signals at a higher speed.
Longer distances: The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper cable.
Better reliability: The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any temperature
changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more pull pressure than
copper cable.
UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium. Therefore
it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified as follows:

a) RADIO WAVES
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space. Radio waves
are omni directional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the
sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:

A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:

Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
b) MICROWAVES
Microwaves are of two types:
1. Terrestrial microwave
2. Satellite microwave communication.
1. TERRESTRIAL MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION

Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one
ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the
sending antenna are narrowly focused.
In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight of each
other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.

Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in terrain is
quite a difficult task.
Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch the signal in
the air by using its own antenna.
Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This means
that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.
2. SATELLITE MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

Satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height. Satellite communication is more
reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems. We can communicate with any
point on the globe by using satellite communication.
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified
signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the coverage area.
Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
It is easy to install.
It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile
communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite has to be
planned before it becomes non-functional
8Q) WHAT IS MODEM? EXPLAIN IT’S WORKING MECHANISM?

Modem is short for MOdulator/ DEModulator
§ Special device used for conversion of digital data to analog form (modulation) and vice-versa (demodulation)
§ Essential piece of hardware where two digital devices (say two computers) want to communicate over an
analog transmission channel (say a telephone line)
Factors for selecting the MODEM:
• Transmission speed
• Internal versus external
• Facsimile facility

MODULATION TECHNIQUES
• Amplitude Modulation (AM): Two binary values (0 and 1) of digital data are represented by two
different amplitudes of the carrier signal, keeping frequency and phase constant
• Frequency Modulation (FM): Two binary values of digital data are represented by two different
frequencies, while amplitude and phase are kept constant
• Phase Modulation (PM): Two binary values of digital data are represented by shift in phase of carrier
signal
9Q) DISCUSS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEMS?
1. SPEED: It specifies the rate of data transmission. If the rate of data transmission is high, then the speed of modem
can be measured in terms of BPS(Bits per second). Otherwise it is measured in terms of Baud rates. Now a days,
most of the networks uses only high speed modems.
2. FLASH MEMORY: The memory which is used by modems is called as Flash RAM. Flash RAM supports new
protocols whenever they added or updated.
3. DATA COMPRESSION: Modems perform the data compression for transfer the data at high speed. Some of the
modems uses data compression techniques to compress the data and de-compress the data.
4. VOICE/ DATA: Many of the modems are provided with a switch known as voice/ data switch, which is used to
change the mode of the modem either in voice mode or in data mode. If a modem is switched to a data modem, then
it is behaves like regular modem. If a modem is switched to a voice modem, then it is behaves like regular
telephone. A modem in voice mode contains built-in loud speaker and microphone to support the voice
communication.
5. AUTO-ANSWER: Modem processes auto-answer characteristics. This characteristic will enable the system to
receive calls without any external interference in the absence of a user.
6. FAX CAPABILITY: Most of the modems are having the ability of transmitting and receiving the electronic
documents as faxes. A fax modem is similar to that of a regular modem along with the capability of sending
documents to a fax machine or to some other fax modem. These types of modems performs double duty.
10Q) EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT TYPES OF NETWORKS (CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS)?

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. A computer network can
be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. PAN (Personal Area Network)
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such as twisted
pair, coaxial cable, etc.
It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a
range of 10 meters. Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known
as Personal Area Network.
Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network. Personal
Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones,
media player and play stations. There are two types of Personal Area Network.
o Wired Personal Area Network
o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN
to form a larger network. Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line. The most widely used
protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc. It has a higher range than Local
Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.
WAN (Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or countries. A
Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links. The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world. A Wide
Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
Examples of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers in hundreds of cities
by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This network is made by
using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
11Q) EXPLAIN ABOUT DIFFERENT TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES (LAN TOPOLOGIES)?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each other.
There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology. A topology, which is a pattern of
interconnections among nodes, influences a network's cost and performance. There are 6 topologies in network.
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Tree Topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
1. Bus Topology
The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single cable known as a
backbone cable. Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable. When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All
the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies. The backbone cable is
considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the stations. The most common
access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing through a hub.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs
in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide
with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
2. Ring Topology
All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed circle of cable. Messages that are transmitted travel
around the ring until they reach the computer that they are addressed to, the signal being refreshed by each
node. In a ring topology, the network signal is passed through each network card of each device and passed on
to the next device. Each device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable of supporting many devices
in a somewhat slow but very orderly fashion
There is a very nice feature that everybody gets a chance to send a packet and it is
guaranteed that every node gets to send a packet in a finite amount of time.
Advantages
Broadcasting and multicasting is simple since you just need to send out one message
Less expensive since less cable footage is required
It is guaranteed that each host will be able to transmit within a finite time interval
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
Performs better than a star network under heavy network load
Disadvantages
Failure of one node brings the whole network down
Error detection and network administration becomes difficult.
Moves, adds and changes of devices can effect the network
It is slower than star topology under normal load
3. Star Topology:
Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub, switch or a
central computer. Signals are transmitted and received through the Hub. The central computer is known as a
server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are known as clients. It is the simplest and the oldest and
all the telephone switches are based on this. In a star topology, each network device has a home run of cabling
back to a network hub, giving each device a separate connection to the network. So, there can be multiple
connections in parallel.
Advantages
Network administration and error detection is easier because problem is isolated to central node
Networks runs even if one host fails
Expansion becomes easier and scalability of the network increases
More suited for larger networks
Disadvantages
Broadcasting and multicasting is not easy because some extra functionality needs to be provided to the central hub
If the central node fails, the whole network goes down; thus making the switch some kind of a Bottleneck
Installation costs are high because each node needs to be connected to the central switch
4. Tree topology
Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology. A tree topology is a type of
structure in which all the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion. The top-most node in
tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node. There is only one
path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.
We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
Easily manageable: The whole network is divided into segments known as star networks which can be easily
managed and maintained.
o Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the overall
network
Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
5. Mesh Topology
Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each other
through various redundant connections. There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer. It does
not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of communication. The Internet
is an example of the mesh topology.
Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical concern.
Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will
not affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more transmission
media than other topologies.
Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
6. Hybrid Topology
The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer
the data. When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each
other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring
topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of
ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the network.
Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the functionality
of the existing network.
Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the organization.
Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of the network
is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is very
difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from usual
Hubs used in other topologies.
Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network
devices, etc
12Q) WHAT IS A COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL? EXPLIAN ABOUT PROTOCOL LAYERS STRUCTURE?

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from a
software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in another
computer. OSI model was developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications. OSI model divides the whole task
into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
i)PHYSICAL LAYER
The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode
between the two devices on the network.
Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
ii)DATA LINK LAYER
This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
It defines the format of the data on the network.
It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network
iii)NETWORK LAYER
It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network conditions, the
priority of service, and other factors.
The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of this network layer. It provides a logical
connection between different devices.
iv)TRANSPORT LAYER
The main responsibility of this layer is to transfer the data completely in an order without duplicates
It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between source and
destination to deliver the data reliably.
Transmission Control Protocol: It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet. It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts. When data is sent over the TCP connection,

then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control
protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
v)SESSION LAYER
It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.
The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between communicating
devices.
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes or we can
say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error
occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint.
This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
vi) PRESENTATION LAYER
A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax (process) and information exchanged between the
two systems.
It acts as a data translator for a network.
This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to another
format.
The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer
Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings, numbers
and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods.
Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the sender-
transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be
transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
vii)APPLICATION LAYER
An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network service.
It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application functions.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the files in a
remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
13Q) EXPLAIN SOME CONCEPTS RELATING TO NETWORKING?
INTERNET:
The Internet is a network of computers that links many different types of computers all over the world
§ Network of networks sharing a common mechanism for addressing (identifying) computers, and a common set
of communication protocols
§ Evolved from the basic ideas of ARPANET (the first WAN that had only four sites in 1969) for interconnecting
computers
§ Initially used only by research organizations and universities to share and exchange information
In 1989, the US Government lifted restrictions on the use of the Internet and allowed it to be used for commercial
purposes as well

§ Internet has rapidly grown and continues to grow at a rapid pace

§ Interconnects more than 30,000 networks, allowing more than 10 million computers and more than 50 million
computer users in more than 150 countries to communicate with each other
BASIC SERVICES OF THE INTERNET:
Electronic Mail (e-mail): Allows user to send a mail (message) to another Internet user in any part of the world
in a near-real-time manner
§ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows user to move a file from one computer to another on the Internet
§ Telnet: Allows user to log in to another computer somewhere on the Internet
§ Usenet News: Allows group of users to exchange their views/ideas/information
E-MAIL
E-mail is a rapid and productive communication tool because:
§ Faster than paper mail
§ Unlike telephone, the persons communicating with each other need not be available at the same time
§ Unlike fax documents, e-mail documents can be stored in a computer and be easily edited using editing
programs
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
Moving a file from a remote computer to ones own computer is known as downloading
§ Moving a file from ones own computer to a remote computer is known as uploading
§ Anonymous ftp site is a computer allowing a user to log in with a username of anonymous and password that is
user’s e-mail address.
§ Anonymous ftp sites are called publicly accessible sites because they can be accessed by any user on the
Internet
WORLD WIDE WEB
Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as web pages
§ Web pages are created by using a special language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
§ WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet
Protocol called HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) for interaction among the computers on the Internet
§ Any computer on the Internet that uses the HTTP protocol is called a web server and any computer that can
access that server is called a web client
It uses the concept of hypertext for information storage and retrieval on the Internet
§ Hypertext documents enable this by using a series of links
§ Link is a special type of item in a hypertext document that connects the document to another document
providing more information about the linked item
BROWSER
Allows user to create and maintain a personal hotlist of favorite URL addresses of server computers that user is
likely to frequently visit in future
§ Allows user to download information in various formats from server computers to user’s own computer
USES OF INTERNET
§ On-line communication § Feedback about products
§ Software sharing § Customer support service
§ Exchange of views on topics of common interest § On-line journals and magazines
§ Posting of information of general interest § On-line shopping
§ Product promotion § World-wide video conferencing


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B.Com. (Computers/C.A.) – I Year/ I Semester

FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 1

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 2

UNIT – I (INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS)

1Q) WRITE THE COMPUTER DEFINITION AND INTRODUCTION ABOUT COMPUTERS?

Hard Ware (CPU, Monitor, Key Soft Ware (OS, Applications,

A computer is mainly classified as two parts, hard ware and software.

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 3

2Q) EXPLAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS & LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER?

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 4

LIMITATIONS: Computers are mainly 3 types of limitations.

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 5

➢ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) :

➢ Memory Unit or Storage Unit

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 6

5Q) EXPLAIN ALL THE GENERATIONS OF THE COMPUTERS?

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 7

Computers are classified as 3 parts on the basis of

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 8

(c) Extensive data storage and retrieval system equipments.

7Q. EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS?

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 9

(i) Keep track of patients records and generating bills

8Q. DISCUSS THE ROLE OF I/O DEVICES IN A COMPUTER SYSTEM?

9Q) EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS INPUT DEVICES?

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 10

• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

TERMINALS (Q. Define terminal. Discuss various types of terminals?)

POINTING DEVICES (Q. Explain about pointing devices?)

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 11

Ex: Mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen and touch screen.

MOUSE: (Q. Write about Mouse and its types?)

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 12

Touch Screen: (Q. Write short notes on touch screen?)

SCANNER: (Q. What is scanner? Discuss various types of scanners?)

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 13

3. Speech input authentication.

Vision Input Systems (Q. Write short notes on vision-input systems?)

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 14

Differences between CRT and LCD

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 15

5. It cannot be used in laptop displays. 5. It can be used in laptop displays.

PRINTER (Q.Discuss about printers and its types?)

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 16

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 17

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 18

 The following are the functions of a sound card.

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 19

UNIT – II (COMPUTER ARITHMETIC & STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS)

1Q. WRITE ABOUT DIFFERENT TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS?

2. Positional number system

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 20

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Convert Binary to Decimal

By Kakkerla Ramesh, MCA Page 21