Surds and Rationalization of Denominators

(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 1)

a
 Rationalize the denominator of
b
a a a b b
  
b b b b
c
 Rationalize the denominator of
a b

c c a b c( a  b )
(a)   
a b a b a b ab

c c a b c( a  b )
(b)   
a b a b a b a b

Example

Rationalize the denominator of each of the following.

6 3
(a) (b)
10 6 5

Solution:
6 6 10
(a)  
10 10 10
6 10

10
3 10

5

3 3 6 5
(b)  
6 5 6 5 6 5

3( 6  5 )

65
 3( 6  5 )

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 Mathematical Induction
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 2)

 A proposition P (n) is true for all positive integers n if both of

the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) P (1) is true.
(b) For any positive integer k, assume that P (k ) is true,
then P (k  1) is also true.

Example

Prove, by mathematical induction, that for all positive integers n,

1
1 2  3   n  n(n  1) .
2

Proof:
1
Let P (n) be ‘1  2  3    n  n( n  1) ’.
2
For n  1,
1
R.H.S.   1  (1  1)
2
1
 L.H.S.
 P(1) is true.
Assume that P (k ) is true, where k is a positive integer.
1
i.e. 1  2  3    k  k ( k  1)
2
1
then 1  2  3    k  (k  1)  k (k  1)  (k  1)
2
1
 (k  1)[(k  1)  1]
2
 P (k  1) is true.
 By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all
positive integers n.

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 Binomial Theorem
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 3)

 Summation notation
If k is a constant, m and n are integers and m  n , then
n
(a) a
r m
r  am  am 1  am  2    an

n n n
(b)  (a
r m
r  br )  a  b
r m
r
rm
r

n
(c)  k  (n  m  1)k
rm

n n
(d)  ka
r m
r k a
r m
r

Example
11
It is given that a
k 2
k  5. Find the values of the following.

11 7 11
(a)  (3a
k 2
k  2) (b)  a   (1  a )
k 2
k
k 8
k

Solution:
11 7 11
(a)  (3a
k 2
k  2) (b)  a   (1  a )
k 2
k
k 8
k

11 11 7
 11 11

3 a  2 k  a k 
 1   a  k
k 2 k 2 k 2  k 8 k 8

 3  5  (11  2  1)  2 7 11 11

 15  10  2
  a   a  1
k 2
k
k 8
k
k 8
 35 11
 a
k 2
k  (1  1  1  1)

54
1

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 Binomial Theorem
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 3)

 Let n and r be positive integers with 1  r  n .

(a) (i) n !  n  (n  1)  (n  2)    2  1
(ii) 0 !  1
n!
(b) (i) Crn 
(n  r ) ! r !
(ii) C0n  1

 Properties of Crn
(a) Crn  Cnn  r
(b) Crn 1  Crn  Crn  1

 Binomial Theorem
n
( a  b) n  C a
r 0
n nr r
r b

The ( r  1) th term of the expansion is Crn a n  r b r .

Example

(a) Find the coefficient of x 8 in the expansion of ( x 2  4)7 .

3
1 
(b) Expand   2  using the Binomial Theorem.
x 

Solution:
(a) The (r  1) th term  Cr7 ( x 2 )7  r ( 4) r
 Cr7 4r (1) r x14  2 r
For the term in x8 , 14  2r  8
r 3
 Coefficient of the term in x8  C37 43 (1)3
  2 240
3 3 2
1  1 1 1
(b)   2   C03    C13   ( 2)  C23  ( 2) 2  C33 ( 2)3
x  x x  x
1 6 12
 3  2  8
x x x

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 Trigonometry (I)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 4)

 Radian measure
s s
(a)   rad
r
P
(b)  rad  180 r 
Q
O r
(c) Arc length s  r  , where  is
measured in radians

1 2 1
(d) Area of sector OPQ  r  or rs ,
2 2
where O is the centre of the circle,
 is measured in radians

Example


The figure shows a circle with centre O and radius 4 cm. It is given
that A B  3 cm .
A
3 cm

 B
O 4 cm

(a) Find  in radian measure.

(b) Find the area of minor sector OAB.
Solution:
3
(a)   rad
4

1 3
(b) Area of minor sector OAB   4 2  cm 2
2 4
 6 cm 2

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 Trigonometry (I)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 4)

 Definitions of the trigonometric y

ratios Quadrant II Quadrant I
y x y P (x, y)
sin   cos   tan  
r r x r
r r x 
csc   sec   cot  
y x y x
O
2 2
where r  x  y

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

 The figure indicates the trigonometric ratios whose values are

positive in each quadrant.
y
II I
sin/ csc all
x
O
tan / cot cos / sec
III IV

Example
12 3
If tan   , where     , find the values of csc  and sec 
5 2
without using a calculator.
Solution:
3 12 y
Since     and tan   ,
2 5
 can be represented by the figure as shown. 
x
r  ( 5)  (12)
2 2 O

 13
13
 csc   
12 P (5, 12)

13
sec   
5

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 Trigonometry (I)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 4)

 Relations between the trigonometric ratios

(a) Reciprocal relations
1 1 1
csc   sec   cot  
sin  cos  tan 
(b) Quotient relations
sin  cos 
tan   cot  
cos  sin 
(c) Square relations
sin 2   cos 2   1
1  tan 2   sec2 
1  cot 2   csc2 

Example

cos 
Prove that tan    sec  .
1  sin 
Proof:
cos  sin  cos  sin 
tan     tan  
cos 
1  sin  cos  1  sin 
sin (1  sin )  cos 2 

cos (1  sin )
sin   sin 2   cos 2 

cos (1  sin )
1  sin  sin 2   cos 2   1

cos (1  sin )
1

cos 
 sec 
cos 
 tan    sec 
1  sin 

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 Trigonometry (I)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 4)

 The conversion formulae for trigonometric ratios (1)

  2  

(or 180  ) (or 180  ) (or 360  )
sin sin  sin  sin  sin 

cos cos  cos  cos  cos 

tan tan  tan  tan  tan 

csc csc  csc  csc  csc 

sec sec  sec  sec  sec 

cot cot  cot  cot  cot 

Example

Evaluate the following without using a calculator.

5  5 
(a) cot 240 (b) sec (c) csc   
4  6 

Solution:
5  
(a) cot 240  cot(180  60) (b) sec  sec    
 cot 60 4  4

1   sec
 4
3
 2
3

3

 5  5
(c) csc      csc
 6  6
 
  csc    
 6

  csc
6
 2

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 Trigonometry (I)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 4)

 The conversion formulae for trigonometric ratios (2)

  3 3
   
2 2 2 2
(or 90  ) (or 90  ) (or 270  ) (or 270  )
sin cos  cos  cos  cos 

cos sin  sin  sin  sin 

tan cot  cot  cot  cot 

csc sec  sec  sec  sec 

sec csc  csc  csc  csc 

cot tan  tan  tan  tan 

Example

cos(  270) cot(  180)

Simplify .
tan(  90)

Solution:
cos(  270) cot(  180) cos [ (270  )] cot [ (180  )]

tan(  90) tan(90  )
cos(270  )[ cot(180  )]

tan(90  )
( sin )(cot )

 cot 
 sin 

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 Trigonometry (II)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 5)

 Compound angle formulae

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B
sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
cos( A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B

Example

(a) Simplify cos( x  y ) cos y  sin( x  y ) sin y .

3 5
(b) If tan A  and tan( A  B)  , find the value of tan B .
5 7
Solution:
(a) cos( x  y ) cos y  sin( x  y ) sin y
 cos [( x  y )  y ] cos(A  B)  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
 cos x

(b) tan B  tan [( A  B )  A]

tan( A  B )  tan A tan x  tan y
 tan(x  y) 
1  tan( A  B ) tan A 1  tan x tan y
5 3

 7 5

1  ( )( 35 )
5
7
2

25

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 Trigonometry (II)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 5)

 Double angle formulae

sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A
cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A
 2 cos 2 A  1
 1  2 sin 2 A
2 tan A
tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A
1
sin 2 A  (1  cos 2 A)
2
2 1
cos A  (1  cos 2 A)
2

Example
Prove that cos 4  4(cos 4   sin 4 )  3 .

Proof:
R.H.S.  4(cos4   sin 4 )  3
 4(cos4   2 sin 2  cos 2   sin 4   2 sin 2  cos 2 )  3
 4(cos4   2 sin 2  cos 2   sin 4 )  8 sin 2  cos 2   3
 4(cos2   sin 2 ) 2  2(2 sin  cos ) 2  3
 4  2 sin 2 2  3 sin 2  2 sin  cos 
 1  2 sin 2 2
 cos 2(2) cos 2(2)  1  2 sin 2 2
 cos 4
 L.H.S.
 cos 4  4(cos 4   sin 4 )  3

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 Trigonometry (II)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 5)

 Product-to-sum formulae
1
sin A cos B  [sin( A  B )  sin( A  B )]
2
1
cos A sin B  [sin( A  B )  sin( A  B )]
2
1
cos A cos B  [cos( A  B )  cos( A  B)]
2
1
sin A sin B   [cos( A  B )  cos( A  B)]
2

Example

 3 5 1
Prove that cos  cos  cos  .
7 7 7 2

Proof:
  3 5  
2  cos  cos  cos  sin
 7 7 7  7
  3  5 
 2 sin cos  2 cos sin  2 cos sin
7 7 7 7 7 7
2  4 2   6 4 
 sin   sin  sin    sin  sin 
7  7 7   7 7 
6
 sin
7
6   
 sin  sin      sin
7  7 7
  3 5   
 2  cos  cos  cos  sin  sin
 7 7 7  7 7
 3 5 1
cos  cos  cos 
7 7 7 2

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 Trigonometry (II)
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 5)

 Sum-to-product formulae
x y x y
sin x  sin y  2 sin cos
2 2
x y x y
sin x  sin y  2 cos sin
2 2
x y x y
cos x  cos y  2 cos cos
2 2
x y x y
cos x  cos y  2 sin sin
2 2

Example

If A  B  C   , prove that
cos 2 A  cos 2 B  cos 2C  1   4 cos A cos B cos C .
Proof:
L.H.S.  (cos 2 A  cos 2 B )  (cos 2C  1)
 2 cos(  C ) cos( A  B)  2 cos [  ( A  B)] cos C
 2 cos C cos( A  B )  2 cos( A  B) cos C
 2 cos C [cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)]
 2 cos C (2 cos A cos B)
  4 cos A cos B cos C
 R.H.S.
 cos 2 A  cos 2 B  cos 2C  1   4 cos A cos B cos C

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 Limits and the Number e
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 6)

 If a function f (x) is continuous at x  a , then lim f ( x)  f (a ) .

xa

 Let lim f ( x)  L , lim g ( x)  M and k be a constant.

xa xa

(a) lim k  k
xa

(b) lim k f ( x)  k lim f ( x)  kL

xa xa

(c) lim [ f ( x)  g ( x )]  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x)  L  M

xa xa xa

(d) lim [ f ( x)  g ( x )]  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x )  L  M

xa xa xa

lim f ( x )
f ( x) x  a L
(e) lim   , where M  0
x  a g ( x) lim g ( x ) M
xa

 If lim g ( x)  M and f (u ) is continuous at u  M ,

xa

then lim f ( g ( x))  f ( lim g ( x))  f ( M ) .

xa xa

Example

Evaluate the following limits.

x4
(a) lim ( x 2  5 x  3) (b) lim
x 1 x4
x 2
Solution:
x4
(a) lim ( x 2  5 x  3) (b) lim
x 1 x4
x 2
2
 1  5(1)  3  x4 x  2 
3  lim  
x4
 x 2 x  2 
( x  4)( x  2)
 lim
x4 x4
 lim ( x  2)
x4

 4 2
4

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 Limits and the Number e
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 6)

 Limit of trigonometric functions

sin x
lim  1, where x is in radians
x0 x

Example

Evaluate the following limits.

sin 2 x
(a) lim
x  0 sin 3 x

x 2 cos x
(b) lim
x0 2(1  cos x)

Solution:
sin 2 x  sin 2 x 3 x 2 
(a) lim  lim    
x0 sin 3 x x  0  2 x sin 3x 3 
2 sin 2 x 3x
  lim  lim
3 x  0 2 x x  0 sin 3x
2
 1 1
3
2

3

x 2 cos x x 2 cos x
(b) lim  lim
x0 2(1  cos x) x  0 4 sin 2 2x
2
 x 
 lim  2 x
  lim cos x
 x0
x  0 sin
 2 
 12  1
1

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 Limits and the Number e
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 6)

1
 If lim f ( x)    , then lim  0.
x x f ( x)
 Let lim f ( x)  L , lim g ( x)  M and k be a constant.
x x

(a) lim k  k
x

(b) lim k f ( x)  k lim f ( x)  kL

x x

(c) lim [ f ( x)  g ( x)]  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  L  M

x x x
(d) lim [ f ( x)  g ( x)]  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  L  M
x x x

lim f ( x)
f ( x) x   L , where M  0
(e) lim  
x g ( x) lim g ( x) M
x

(f ) If f (u ) is continuous at u  M , then
lim f ( g ( x))  f ( lim g ( x))  f ( M ) .
x x

Example

Evaluate the following limits.

x2  x  2
(a) lim (b) lim ( x  1  x )
x 3x 3  1 x

Solution:
x2  x  2
1
x
 1
 2
x2 x3
(a) lim  lim
x 3x3  1 x 3 1
x3
000

30
0

( x  1  x )( x  1  x )
(b) lim ( x  1  x )  lim
x x
x 1  x
( x  1)  x
 lim
x
x 1  x
1
 lim
x
x 1  x
0

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 16

 Limits and the Number e
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 6)

1 1 1
 e 1   
1! 2! 3!
y
 1
e  lim 1   , where y is a real number
y
 y
1
e  lim (1  y ) y , where y is a real number
y0

 For any real number x,

y
 x
e x  lim 1   , where y is a real number
y
 y
2
x x x3
ex  1    
1! 2! 3!

 If e y  x , then y  ln x .

ex  1
 lim 1
x0 x

Example

Evaluate the following limits.

ln(1  x) 1  e x
(a) lim (b) lim
x0 x x0 x

Solution:
ln(1  x) 1  e x
(a) lim (b) lim
x0 x x0 x
1
ex  1
 lim ln(1  x) x  lim
x0 x  0 xe x
1
ex  1 1
 ln[ lim (1  x) x ]  lim  lim x
x0 x0 x x0 e
 ln e
 11
1
1

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 17

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Slope of the tangent to a curve

The slope of the tangent to the curve y  f (x) at x  x0 is
f ( x0  x)  f ( x0 )
lim .
x  0 x
 Definition of derivatives
The derivative of a function y  f (x) with respect to x is
dy f ( x  x )  f ( x )
defined as  lim .
dx x  0 x

Example

Differentiate y  x with respect to x from first principles.

Solution:
dy x  x  x
 lim
dx x  0 x
( x  x  x )( x  x  x )
 lim
x  0
x ( x  x  x )
( x  x )  x
 lim
x  0
x( x  x  x )
x
 lim
x  0
x( x  x  x )
1
 lim
x  0
x  x  x
1

2 x

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 18

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Let f (x) and g (x) be differentiable functions of x, and k be a

constant.
d
(a) (k )  0
dx
d n
(b) ( x )  nx n 1, where n is any real number
dx
d d
(c) [k f ( x)]  k [ f ( x)]
dx dx
d d d
(d) [ f ( x)  g ( x)]  [ f ( x)]  [ g ( x)]
dx dx dx
(e) Product rule
d d d
[ f ( x) g ( x)]  f ( x) [ g ( x)]  g ( x) [ f ( x)]
dx dx dx
(f ) Quotient rule
d  f ( x)  g ( x) dx [ f ( x)]  f ( x) dx [ g ( x)]
d d

  2
, where g ( x)  0
dx  g ( x)  [ g ( x)]

Example
x dy
It is given that y  . Find .
x2  1 dx x 3

Solution:
x x dy 1
y  1  3
2
x  1 ( x 2  1) 2 dx x3 2
(3  1) 2
1

1
1
dy ( x  1) 2 (1)  x [ 2 ( x  1)
2 1 2 2 (2 x)] 
 2
16 2
dx x 1
1 1 2
 
( x 2  1) 2  x 2 ( x 2  1) 2
32

x2  1
( x  1)  x 2
2
 3
( x 2  1) 2
1
 3
( x 2  1) 2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 19

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Chain rule
Let y  f (u ) and u  g (x) . If y is a differentiable function of u,
and u is a differentiable function of x, then y is a differentiable
dy dy du
function of x, and   .
dx du dx
 Implicit differentiation
dy
Suppose y is an implicit function of x, we can get by
dx
differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x.

Example

dy
If x 2  2 xy  3 y 2  6  0 , find .
dx

Solution:
d 2 d
( x  2 xy  3 y 2  6)  (0)
dx dx
d 2  d d  d d
( x )  2  x ( y )  y ( x)  3 ( y 2 )  (6)  0
dx  dx dx  dx dx
dy dy
2x  2x  2y  6y 00
dx dx
dy
2( x  3 y )  2( x  y )
dx
dy x y

dx 3 y  x

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 20

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Differentiation of trigonometric functions

d
(a) (sin x)  cos x
dx
d
(b) (cos x)   sin x
dx
d
(c) (tan x)  sec 2 x
dx
d
(d) (cot x)   csc 2 x
dx
d
(e) (sec x)  sec x tan x
dx
d
(f ) (csc x)   csc x cot x
dx

Example

Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.

(a) y  sin x  4 cos 2 x (b) y  tan x 2  sec3 x

Solution:
dy d d
(a)  (sin x)  (4 cos 2 x)
dx dx dx
d d
 cos x  4 (cos 2 x)  (2 x)
d (2 x) dx
 cos x  4( sin 2 x)(2)
 cos x  8 sin 2 x

dy d d
(b)  (tan x 2 )  (sec3 x)
dx dx dx
d d 2 d d
 (tan x 2 )  (x )  (sec3 x)  (sec x)
d ( x2 ) dx d (sec x) dx
 (sec 2 x 2 )(2 x)  (3 sec 2 x)(sec x tan x)
 2 x sec 2 x 2  3 sec3 x tan x

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 21

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Differentiation of exponential functions and logarithmic

functions
d x
(a) (e )  e x
dx
d 1
(b) (ln x)  , where x  0
dx x

Example

Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.

ex
(a) y 
x 1
(b) y  ( x 2  1) ln x 3

Solution:
d x d
( x  1) (e )  e x ( x  1)
dy dx dx
(a)  2
dx ( x  1)
( x  1)e x  e x

( x  1) 2
xe x

( x  1) 2

(b) y  ( x  1) ln x
2 3

 3( x  1) ln x
2

dy  d d 
 3 ( x 2  1) (ln x)  ln x ( x 2  1)
dx  dx dx 
 2 1 
 3 ( x  1)  2 x ln x 
 x 
3( x 2  1)
  6 x ln x
x

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 22

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Logarithmic differentiation
Step 1: Take the natural logarithm on both sides of the equation.
Step 2: Differentiate both sides with respect to x.
dy
Step 3: Express in terms of x.
dx

Example

Find the derivative of each of the following functions with respect

to x.
( x 2  1) 4
(a) y  x 2 x (b) y 
3x 2  1
Solution:
(a) ln y  2 x ln x
d d
(ln y )  (2 x ln x)
dx dx
1 dy
  2  2 ln x
y dx
dy
 2 y (1  ln x)
dx
 2 x 2 x (1  ln x)

ln(3 x 2  1)
(b) ln y  4 ln( x 2  1) 
2
d d  2 ln(3 x 2  1) 
(ln y )  4 ln( x  1)  
dx dx  2 
1 dy 8x 6x
  
y dx x 2  1 2(3 x 2  1)
dy  8x 3x 
 y 2  2 
dx  x  1 3x  1 
( x 2  1) 4  8 x 3x 
  2  2 
2
3x  1  x  1 3 x 1

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 23

 Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 7)

 Second derivatives
If y  f (x) is a differentiable function of x, and its derivative
f ' ( x) is also a differentiable function of x, then the derivative
of f ' ( x) with respect to x is called the second derivative of
d2y
f (x) with respect to x and it is denoted by y " , f " ( x) or ,
dx 2
d2y d  dy 
i.e. y "  ( y ' ) ', f " ( x)  [ f ' ( x)] ' or   .
dx 2 dx  dx 

Example

d2y
If y  4 x 4  x 3  12 x 2  8 x  6 , find .
dx 2
Solution:
dy
 16 x 3  3x 2  24 x  8
dx
d2y d  dy 
  
dx 2 dx  dx 
d
 (16 x 3  3 x 2  24 x  8)
dx
 48 x 2  6 x  24

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 24

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Tangents and normals

(a) The equation of the tangent to y
the curve y  f (x) at ( x1 , y1 ) y  f (x)
is y  y1  f ' ( x1 )( x  x1 ) . (x1, y1)
Slope  f (x1 )

x
O

(b) The equation of the normal to y

the curve y  f ( x) at ( x1 , y1 )
Normal y  f (x)
1
is y  y1   ( x  x1 ) ,
f ' ( x1 )
Tangent
where f ' ( x1 )  0 .
(x1, y1)
x
O

Example

Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve
y  2 x  x 2 at (3, 3).

Solution:
dy
 2  2x
dx
dy
Slope of the tangent at (3, 3)   2  2(3)   4
dx x 3

 The equation of the tangent at (3, 3) is

y  3   4( x  3)
4x  y  9  0
1 1
Slope of the normal at (3, 3)   
4 4
 The equation of the normal at (3, 3) is
1
y  3  ( x  3)
4
x  4 y  15  0

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 25

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Increasing and decreasing functions

Suppose f ( x) is a continuous function on the interval [a, b], and
it is differentiable on the interval (a, b).
(a) If f ' ( x)  0 on the interval y
(a, b), then f ( x) is increasing y  f (x)
on the interval [a, b].
f (x)  0
x
O a b
(b) If f ' ( x)  0 on the interval y
(a, b), then f ( x) is decreasing y  f (x)
on the interval [a, b].
f (x)  0
x
O a b

Example

Find the range of values of x for which the function f ( x)  x 2  5 x  6

is increasing.
Solution:
f ( x)  x 2  5 x  6
f ' ( x)  2 x  5
5
When f ' ( x)  0 , x   .
2
5 5 5
x x x x
2 2 2
f ' ( x)  0 

5
 f ( x) is increasing for x   .
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 26

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Definition of the local extrema

For a function f ( x) on an interval (a, b) containing x0 ,
(a) f ( x0 ) is a local maximum if f ( x0 )  f ( x) for all x in the
interval. ( x0 , f ( x0 )) is called a maximum point of the graph
of y  f (x) .
(b) f ( x0 ) is a local minimum if f ( x0 )  f ( x) for all x in the
interval. ( x0 , f ( x0 )) is called a minimum point of the graph
of y  f (x) .
 First derivative test
Let y  f ( x) be any differentiable function.
(a) If f ' ( x0 )  0 and f ' ( x) changes from positive to negative as
x increases through x0 , then f ( x0 ) is a local maximum.
(b) If f ' ( x 0 )  0 and f ' ( x) changes from negative to positive as
x increases through x 0 , then f ( x 0 ) is a local minimum.

Example

Find the maximum/minimum point(s) of the curve

y  x 3  6 x 2  9 x  2 by using the first derivative test.

Solution:
y  x3  6 x 2  9 x  2
dy
 3x 2  12 x  9
dx
 3( x  1)( x  3)
dy
When  0 , x  1 or 3.
dx
x x<1 x1 1<x<3 x=3 x>3

y / 2 / 2 /
dy
 0  0 
dx

 The maximum point is (1, 2) and the minimum point is (3, 2).

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 27

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Second derivative test

Let y  f ( x) be any differentiable function.
(a) f ( x) has a local maximum at x  x0 if f ' ( x0 )  0 and
f " ( x0 )  0 .
(b) f ( x) has a local minimum at x  x0 if f ' ( x0 )  0 and
f " ( x0 )  0 .

Example

Find the local extrema of f ( x)  x 4  8 x 2  3 by using the second

derivative test.
Solution:
f ( x)  x 4  8 x 2  3
f ' ( x)  4 x 3  16 x
 4 x ( x 2  4)
 4 x( x  2)( x  2)
f " ( x )  12 x 2  16
When f ' ( x)  0 , x  0 , 2 or 2.
f " (0)  12(0) 2  16  16  0  f (0) is a local maximum.
2
f " ( 2)  12( 2)  16  32  0  f (2) is a local minimum.

f " (2)  12(2)  16  32  0

2  f (2) is a local minimum.

f (0)  0  8(0)  3
4 2

3
f (2)  2 4  8(2) 2  3
 13
f (2)  (2) 4  8(2) 2  3
 13
 The local maximum is 3 and the local minimum is 13.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 28

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Points of inflexion
A point of inflexion ( x0 , f ( x0 )) of the graph of y  f (x) can
satisfy the following conditions.
(a) f " ( x0 )  0 or f " ( x0 ) is undefined on an interval (a, b)
containing x0 .
(b) The sign of f " ( x) changes as x increases through x0 .

Example

Find the points of inflexion of the graph of the function

y  x 4  6 x 3  12 x 2  8 x  1 .

Solution:
dy
 4 x 3  18 x 2  24 x  8
dx
d2y
 12 x 2  36 x  24
dx 2
 12( x  1)( x  2)
d2y
When  0 , x  1 or 2.
dx 2
x x < 2 x  2 2 < x < 1 x = 1 x > 1

y / 1 / 0 /
d2y
 0  0 
dx 2

 The points of inflexion are (1, 0) and (2, 1).

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 29

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Vertical asymptotes y
If lim f ( x)    or lim f ( x)    ,
x  a x  a
then x  a is a vertical asymptote of y  f (x)
the curve y  f (x) .

x
O
xa

 Horizontal asymptotes y
If lim f ( x)  b or lim f ( x)  b , y  f (x)
x x  
then y  b is a horizontal yb
asymptote of the curve y  f ( x) .
x
O

Example

Find the vertical asymptote and the horizontal asymptote of the

x
graph of the function y  .
x 1
Solution:
x x y
lim    (or lim   )
x  1 x  1 x  1 x  1

 The vertical asymptote is x  1 .

x 1
lim  lim y 1
x x  1 x   1  1x 1
1 x
 1 O
1 0 y
x
x1
1
x  1
 The horizontal asymptote is y  1.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 30

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Oblique asymptotes
If lim [ f ( x)  (mx  b)]  0 or lim [ f ( x)  (mx  b)]  0 ,
x x  
then y  mx  b is an oblique asymptote of the curve y  f (x ) .
y

y  f (x)

x
O

y  mx  b

Example

Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of the function

x 2  3x  3
y .
x2
Solution:
x 2  3x  3 y
Let f ( x)  .
x2
x 2  3x  3
f ( x) 
x2 yx1
x
( x  1)( x  2)  1 O
 2
x2 y  x  3x  3
1 x2
 x 1
x2
1
 lim [ f ( x)  ( x  1)]  lim
x x x2
0
 The oblique asymptote is y  x  1.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 31

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Global extrema
(a) For all x in an interval [a, b] containing x0 , if f ( x0 )  f ( x) ,
f ( x0 ) is called the global maximum of f (x) on the interval
[a, b].
(b) For all x in an interval [a, b] containing x0 , if f ( x0 )  f ( x) ,
f ( x0 ) is called the global minimum of f (x) on the interval
[a, b].

Example

Find the global extrema of the function f ( x )  x 3  6 x 2  9 x  5 for

0  x  5.
Solution:
f ' ( x)  3x 2  12 x  9
y
 3( x  1)( x  3)
When f ' ( x)  0 , x  1 or 3. y  x 3  6x 2  9x  5
25
x 0 0<x<1 1 1<x<3 3 3<x<5 5

f (x) 5 / 9 / 5 / 25 9
5
f '(x) /  0  0  / x
O 5
 The global maximum is 25 and the global minimum is 5.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 32

 Applications of Differentiation
(Module 2 Volume 1 Chapter 8)

 Rates of change
(a) If y is a function of time t, the rate of change of y with
dy
respect to t is given by .
dt
(b) If the displacement s is a function of time t, then
ds
(i) velocity v 
dt
dv d 2 s
(ii) acceleration a   2
dt dt

Example

A particle moves along a straight line so that its displacement

s (in m) from a point O at any time t (in seconds) is given by
s  t 3  4t 2  5t  10 , where t  0 . Find the velocity and acceleration
of the particle at t  5 .
Solution:
Let v m /s and a m /s 2 be the velocity and acceleration of the particle
at time t respectively.
ds
v
dt
 3t 2  8t  5
dv
a
dt
 6t  8
When t  5 , we have v  40 and a  22 .
 The velocity is 40 m/s and the acceleration is 22 m/s2 .

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 33

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Primitive function
For any functions F(x) and f (x) satisfying the relation
d
[ F ( x)]  f ( x) , F(x) is called a primitive function or an
dx
anti-derivative of f (x).
 Definition of indefinite integral
If F(x) is a primitive function of f (x), then the indefinite
integral of f (x), denoted by
 f ( x)dx , is defined as F ( x)  C ,
where C is an arbitrary constant,
i.e.

f ( x)dx  F ( x )  C .
 Properties of indefinite integrals
If f (x) and g(x) are continuous functions of x, and k is a non-zero
constant, then
(a)
 [ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
 
(b) k f ( x)dx  k f ( x)dx

Example

Let f ( x)  ln(e x  1) .
(a) Find f ' ( x) .
1
(b) Hence find
e x
1
dx .

Solution:
1
(a) f ' ( x)   ex
ex  1
ex
 x
e 1

1 ex
(b) e x
1
dx 
x
e 1
dx

 ln(e x  1)  C

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 34

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Integration formulae I
(a)
 k dx  k x  C , where k is a constant
n 1
x
 x dx  n  1  C , where n is any real number and n  1
n
(b)

 e dx  e  C
x x
(c)

1
(d)
 x dx  ln x  C , where x  0

Example

Find the following indefinite integrals.

3 x x
(a)
 x2
dx

 (e
x
(b)  e  x)dx

Solution:
3 x x  
3
1 
(a)
 x2
dx 
  3x 2 
x 
dx

1

 3(2 x 2 )  ln x  C
1

 6x 2  ln x  C

1 2
 (e
x
(b)  e  x )dx  e x  ex  x C
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 35

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Integration formulae II
(a)
 cos x dx  sin x  C
(b)
 sin x dx  cos x  C
 sec x dx  tan x  C
2
(c)

 csc x dx   cot x  C
2
(d)

(e)
 sec x tan x dx  sec x  C
(f )
 csc x cot x dx   csc x  C

Example

Find the following indefinite integrals.

(a)
 sec x(sec x  tan x) dx
 cos x csc x dx
2
(b)

Solution:

 sec x(sec x  tan x) dx   (sec

2
(a) x  sec x tan x) dx
 tan x  sec x  C

cos x
 cos x csc  sin x dx
2
(b) x dx  2


 csc x cot x dx
  csc x  C

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 36

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Integration by substitution
If u  g (x) is a differentiable function of x, then

 f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x) dx   f (u) du .

Example

Find the following indefinite integrals.

  xe
3x 2 1
(a) 2 x  1dx (b) dx

Solution:
(a) Let u  2 x  1, then du  2dx . (b) Let u  3 x 2  1, then du  6 x dx .
  2 x  1dx   xe dx
3x2  1

1
2x  1
 6 e  6xdx
3x 2  1

 2  2dx 
1

 6 e du
u
u

 2 du 1 u
1
1
 e C
2
 u du
2
6
1 2
1 2 2
3  e3 x  1  C
  u C 6
2 3
3
1
 u2 C
3
3
1
 (2 x  1) 2  C
3

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 37

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Integration by parts
If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then

 uv ' dx  uv   vu ' dx or  u dv  uv   v du .

Example

Find the following indefinite integrals.

 x sin x dx  (x  1)e 2 x  1dx

2
(a) (b)

Solution:
(a)
 x sin x dx   xd ( cos x)

  x cos x  ( cos x)dx
  x cos x  sin x  C

1
 (x  1)e 2 x 1 dx 
 ( x 2  1) d (e 2 x 1 )
2
(b)
2
1 2 1 2 x 1

2
( x  1) e 2 x 1 
2 e d ( x 2  1)
1 2

2 
( x  1) e 2 x 1  xe 2 x 1 dx
1 2 1

2
( x  1) e 2 x 1 
2 x d (e 2 x 1 )
1 2 1 1 2 x 1

2
( x  1) e 2 x 1  x e 2 x 1 
2 
2
e dx
1 2 1 1
 ( x  1) e 2 x 1  x e 2 x 1  e 2 x 1  C
2 2 4
1
 (2 x 2  2 x  1) e 2 x 1  C
4

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 38

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Using double angle formulae or product-to-sum formulae to

find indefinite integrals
For the integrals involving trigonometric functions such as

 cos xdx ,  sin 2 x cos 3x dx and  cos x cos 5x dx ,

2
we can use the
following trigonometric identities to transform them into simpler
integrals.
1  cos 2 x 1
sin 2 x  sin x cos y  [sin( x  y )  sin( x  y )]
2 2
1  cos 2 x 1
2
cos x  sin x sin y   [cos( x  y )  cos( x  y )]
2 2
1 1
sin x cos x  sin 2 x cos x cos y  [cos( x  y )  cos( x  y )]
2 2

Example

Find
 sin 2 x cos 4 x dx.
Solution:
1
 sin 2 x cos 4 x dx   2 [sin(2 x  4 x)  sin(2 x  4 x)]dx
1
2
 (sin 6 x  sin 2 x)dx

1 1 1 
   cos 6 x  cos 2 x   C
2 6 2 
1 1
  cos 6 x  cos 2 x  C
12 4

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 39

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 sin
m
 Integrals in the form x cosn x dx

Case 1: m is an odd number

Let u  cos x , then du  d (cos x)   sin x dx . Rewrite the
integrand as a function of cos x and find the integral.
Case 2: n is an odd number
Let u  sin x , then du  d (sin x)  cos x dx . Rewrite the
integrand as a function of sin x and find the integral.
Case 3: Both m and n are even numbers
Use trigonometric identities to reduce the degrees of
trigonometric functions.

Example


Find sin 4 x cos2 x dx .

Solution:

 sin x cos x dx   (sin x cos x) sin x dx

4 2 2 2

2
1   1  cos 2 x 
  2   2  dx
  sin 2 x  

1

8 
(sin 2 2 x  sin 2 2 x cos 2 x)dx

1
 
 ( sin 2 2 x dx  sin 2 2 x cos 2 x dx)
8
1  1  cos 4 x 1 
 
8  2
dx 
2 
sin 2 2 x d (sin 2 x)

1  1 1 3 
  x  sin 4 x  sin 2 x   C
16  4 3 
1 1 1
 x sin 4 x  sin 3 2 x  C
16 64 48

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 40

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 tan
m
 Integrals in the form x sec n x dx

Case 1: m is an odd number

Let u  sec x , then du  d (sec x)  sec x tan x dx . Rewrite
the integrand as a function of sec x and find the integral.
Case 2: n is an even number
Let u  tan x , then du  d (tan x)  sec 2 x dx . Rewrite the
integrand as a function of tan x and find the integral.
Case 3: m is an even number and n is an odd number
Use integration by parts to simplify the integrand and
find
 tan x dx or  sec x dx to obtain the result.

Example


Find tan12 x sec 4 x dx .

Solution:

 tan 
12
x sec 4 x dx  tan12 x sec 2 x  sec 2 x dx


12 2
 tan x (1  tan x)d (tan x)


12 14
 (tan x  tan x)d (tan x)
1 1
 tan13 x  tan15 x  C
13 15

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 41

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 cot
m
 Integrals in the form x csc n x dx

Case 1: m is an odd number

Let u  csc x , then du  d (csc x)   csc x cot x dx . Rewrite
the integrand as a function of csc x and find the integral.
Case 2: n is an even number
Let u  cot x , then du  d (cot x)   csc 2 x dx . Rewrite the
integrand as a function of cot x and find the integral.
Case 3: m is an even number and n is an odd number
Use integration by parts to simplify the integrand and
find
 cot x dx or  csc x dx to obtain the result.

Example


Find cot3 x csc3 x dx .

Solution:

 cot x csc x dx   cot x csc x  ( csc x cot x) dx

3 3 2 2


2 2
  (csc x  1) csc x d (csc x)


4 2
  (csc x  csc x) d (csc x)
1 1
  csc5 x  csc3 x  C
5 3

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 42

 Indefinite Integration and its Applications
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 9)

 Trigonometric substitutions
(a) For an indefinite integral involving a 2  x 2 for a  0,
 
let x  a sin  , where     , then a 2  x 2  a cos .
2 2
(b) For an indefinite integral involving a 2  x 2 for a  0,
 
let x  a tan  , where     , then a 2  x 2  a sec  .
2 2
(c) For an indefinite integral involving x 2  a 2 for a  0,
 3
let x  a sec  , where 0    or     , then
2 2
x  a  a tan  .
2 2

Example
3

Find
 x 2 (9  x 2 ) 2 dx .

Solution:
 
Let x  3 sin  , where   ,
2 2
then dx  3 cos  d .
3 3
 

 x 2 (9  x 2 ) 2

dx  (3 sin ) 2 (9  9 sin 2 ) 2  3 cos  d


 tan  d 2


 (sec   1) d
2

3
 tan     C x
x x 
  sin 1  C
9  x2 3
9  x2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 43

 Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 10)

 Definite integral y
b y  f (x)
The definite integral
 f ( x)dx is the area
a
bounded by the curve y  f (x) , the x-axis
and the straight lines x  a and x  b.
a b

b 
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx for a  b
a O a b
x

 Properties of definite integrals

Let f (x) and g(x) be continuous functions on [a, b] and k be a constant.
b b
(a)
 k f ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx
a a
b b b
(b)
 [ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
a a a
a
(c)
 f ( x)dx  0
a
b c b
(d)
 f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a a c
b b
(e)
 f ( x)dx   f (u)du , where x and u are variables
a a

Example

It is given that f (x) is a continuous function on the interval [1, 6]. If

0 6

 1
f ( x)dx  3 and
 0
f ( x)dx  6 , evaluate the following definite integrals.
6  6 6
(a)
 5 f ( x)dx
0
(b)


f ( x)dx (c)
 1
f ( x )dx (d)

1
f (u )du

Solution:
6 6
(a)
 5 f ( x)dx  5
0 0
f ( x)dx  5(6)  30

(b)

f ( x)dx  0
6 0 6
(c)
1
f ( x)dx 
 1
f ( x)dx 
 0
f ( x)dx  3  6  9
6 6
(d)
1
f (u )du 
 1
f ( x )dx  9

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 44

 Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 10)

 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If f (x) is a continuous function on the interval [a, b] and F(x) is
d
a primitive function of f (x) (i.e. [ F ( x )]  f ( x)) ,
dx
b
then
a
f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a ) .

Example

Evaluate the following definite integrals.


2
 3 5
  4 x   dx  (sin x  cos x ) dx
2
(a) (b)
1  x 0

Solution:
2
 3 5

4 2
(a)  4 x   dx  [ x  5 ln x ] 1
1  x
 (24  5 ln 2 )  (14  5 ln 1 )
 15  5 ln 2
 

 (sin x  cos x)dx  [ cos x  sin x] 02

2
(b)
0
  
   cos  sin   ( cos 0  sin 0)
 2 2
 (0  1)  (1  0)
0

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 45

 Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 10)

 Integration by substitution
If u  g (x) is a differentiable function of x on the interval [a, b],
b g (b )
then
a
f ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)dx 
g (a)
f (u )du .

Example
2 3
Evaluate
 0
x 2 ( x 3  1) 2 dx .

Solution:
Let u  x 3  1, then du  3 x 2 dx . When x  0 , u  1; when x  2, u  9 .
2 3 2 3
1 3
0
x 2 ( x 3  1) 2 dx 
0 3 
( x  1) 2  3 x 2 dx
9 3
1 2

1 3
u du

9
1 2 5 
   u2
 3 5  1
5 5
2 2
 (9) 2  (1) 2
15 15
484

15

Alternative method:
2 3 2 3
1 3
0
x 2 ( x 3  1) 2 dx 

0 3
( x  1) 2  3x 2 dx
2 3
1 3


0 3
( x  1) 2 d ( x 3  1)
2
1 2 3 5

   ( x  1) 2 
 3 5  0
5 5
2 2
 (23  1) 2  (03  1) 2
15 15
484

15

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 46

 Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 10)

 Integration by parts
If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then
b b b b

 uv ' dx  [uv]   vu ' dx or  udv  [uv]   vdu .

b b
a a
a a a a

Example
3
Evaluate
 (2 x  1) ln( x  1) dx .
2

Solution:
3 3

 (2 x  1) ln( x  1) dx   ln( x  1)d ( x

2
 x)
2 2
3
 [( x 2  x) ln( x  1)] 32 
 (x
2
 x)d [ ln( x  1)]
2
2
3
x x
 (6 ln 2  2 ln 1) 
2 x 1
dx
3
 6 ln 2 
 x dx
2
3
1 
 6 ln 2   x 2 
2 2
9 
 6 ln 2    2 
2 
5
 6 ln 2 
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 47

 Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 10)

 Even function y
(a) If f (x) is a function with f ( x)  f ( x) y  f (x)
for all values of x in its domain, then
f (x) is called an even function.
(b) If f (x) is a continuous even function x
a a a O a
on [a, a], then
a 
f ( x) dx  2 f ( x) dx .
0

 Odd function y
(a) If f (x) is a function with f ( x )   f ( x) y  f (x)
for all values of x in its domain, then
f (x) is called an odd function. a
x
(b) If f (x) is a continuous odd function on O a
a
[a, a], then

a
f ( x) dx  0 .

Example
1


3 3
Evaluate (e x  e  x ) dx .
1

Solution:
3 3
Let f ( x)  e x  e  x .
3 3
f ( x)  e(  x )  e  (  x )
3 3
 ex  e x
3 3
  (e x  e  x )
  f ( x)
3 3
 f ( x )  e x  e  x is a continuous odd function.
1


3 3
 (e x  e  x ) dx  0
1

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 48

 Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 10)

 For a function f (x), if T is a non-zero constant such that

f ( x  T )  f ( x) for all values of x in its domain, then f (x) is
called a periodic function and T is called a period of f (x).

 If f (x) is a continuous periodic function with period T, then

nT T

0 
f ( x) dx  n f ( x) dx for any positive integer n.
0
y
y  f (x)

x
O T 2T 3T  (n  1)T nT

Example

It is given that f (x) is a continuous periodic function with period

1
1
2
. If
0
2

f ( x) dx  2 , evaluate the following definite integrals.

7
2
(a)
0
2
f ( x) dx (b)
 1
2
f ( x ) dx

Solution:
2
(a)  f (x) is a continuous
periodic function with
(b)
 1
2
f ( x) dx

1 2
period .

2
2  f ( x) dx
1
7 2


2 1
 2
f ( x) dx
0
1

 0
2
f ( x) dx 
 0
2
f ( x) dx


1 1
7 2
f ( x) dx
0 2
 0
2
f ( x) dx 
 0
2
f ( x) dx
 7(2) 1
 14 
 0
2
f ( x) dx
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 49

 Applications of Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 11)

 Area between a curve and a coordinate axis

y y
y  f (x) x  g (y)
d

c
x x
O a b O
b d
Area 
a
f ( x) dx Area 
 g ( y)dy
c
y y
a b d
x
O
x  g (y)
c
y  f (x) x
O
b d
Area  
 f ( x)dx
a 
Area   g ( y )dy
c

Example
Find the area of the shaded region y
bounded by the curve y  x ( x  2)( x  4)
y  x (x  2)(x  4)
and the x-axis from x  0 to x  4 .
x
O 4
2

Solution:
2 4
Required area 
 x( x  2)( x  4)dx   x( x  2)( x  4)dx
0 2
2 4

 
3 2 3 2
 ( x  6 x  8 x)dx  ( x  6 x  8 x)dx
0 2
2 4
1  1 
  x 4  2 x3  4 x 2    x 4  2 x3  4 x 2 
4 0 4 2
 (4  0)  (0  4)
 4  (  4)
8

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 50

 Applications of Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 11)

 Area between two curves

y y

y  f (x) x  g( y) x  f ( y)
y  g(x) d

c
x x
O a b O
b d
Area 
a
[ f ( x)  g ( x)]dx Area 
 [ f ( y)  g ( y)] dy
c

Example

Find the area of the shaded region y

between the curve x  y 2 and the line
2
y  x  2 from y  0 to y  2 .
yx2
Solution: x
O
Rewrite the equation y  x  2 as
x  y2
x  y  2.
2
 Required area 
 [( y  2)  y ]dy
2
0
2


 ( y  2  y ) dy
2
0
2
1 1 
  y 2  2 y  y3 
2 3 0
10
 0
3
10

3

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 51

 Applications of Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 11)

 Volume of a solid of revolution about a coordinate axis

y y
y  f (x) x  g (y)
d

c
x x
O a b O
b d

 [ f ( x)] 2 dx
 [ g ( y)] dy
2
Volume   Volume  
a c
b d

 y 2 dx

2
or  or  x dy
a c

Example

In the figure, the shaded region y

bounded by the curve y  x x , the yx x
x-axis and the line x  4 is revolving
about the x-axis. Find the volume of
the solid of revolution. x
O 4
Solution:
4

 y dx
2
Required volume  
0
4


2
  ( x x ) dx
0
4


3
  x dx
0
4
1 
   x4 
4 0
 (64  0)
 64

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 52

 Applications of Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 11)

 Volume of a hollow solid of revolution about a coordinate axis

y y

y  f (x) x  g ( y) x  f (y)
y  g(x) d

c
x x
O a b O
Volume Volume
b d

 
 {[ f ( y)]  [ g ( y )] 2 }dy
2 2 2
  {[ f ( x)]  [ g ( x)] }dx
a c

Example

Find the volume of the solid generated by y

revolving the shaded region bounded by y  x2
the curve y  x 2 and the line y  1 about
the x-axis.
y1
Solution:
 y  x2 x
By solving  , the x-coordinates of O
y  1
the intersections are 1 and 1.
1
 Required volume  
 1
[12  ( x 2 ) 2 ]dx
1

 1
(1  x 4 ) dx
1
 1 
   x  x5 
 5  1
 4  4 
      
 5  5 
8

5

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 53

 Applications of Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 11)

 Volume of a solid of revolution about a line parallel to a

coordinate axis
y y
xh x  g (y)
y  f (x)

d
yk c
x x
O a b O
b d


Volume   [ f ( x)  k ] 2 dx
 [ g ( y)  h] dy
2
Volume  
a c
b d


or  ( y  k ) 2 dx

2
or  ( x  h) dy
a c

Example

If the shaded region bounded by the curve y

y  ln x , the x-axis and the line x  3 is
revolved about the line x  3 , find the ln 3
volume of the solid of revolution.
Solution: x
O
Rewrite the equation y  ln x as x  e y . y  ln x x3
ln 3
 Required volume    ( x  3) dy
2
0
ln 3

 0
(e y  3) 2 dy
ln 3

 0
(e 2 y  6e y  9)dy
ln 3
1 
   e 2 y  6e y  9 y 
2 0
 27   11 
   9 ln 3      
 2   2 
 (9 ln 3  8)

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 54

 Applications of Definite Integration
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 11)

 Volume of a hollow solid of revolution about a line parallel to a

coordinate axis
y y
x  f (y)
y  f (x) d
y  g(x) c
x  g(y)
yk x
x O
O a b xh
Volume Volume
b d

 
2 2
  {[ f ( x)  k ]  [ g ( x)  k ] }dx   {[ f ( y )  h]2  [ g ( y )  h] 2 }dy
a c

Example

In the figure, the shaded region is bounded y

by the curve x  sin y  1 and the y-axis from x  1
 3 3
y   to y  . Find the volume of the
2 2 2
O
solid generated by revolving the region about  x

the line x  1 . 2 x  sin y  1

Solution:
3


2
Required volume   
{[(sin y  1)  (1)] 2  [0  (1)] 2 }dy

2
3


2
 
(sin 2 y  4 sin y  3) dy

2
3
 1  cos 2 y 

2
 
  4 sin y  3  dy
  2 
2
3
 1 7  2
   sin 2 y  4 cos y  y 
 4 2  
2
 21  7 
    
 4  4 
 72

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 55

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Definitions of addition and subtraction of matrices

For two m  n matrices A  [a ij ] m  n and B  [bij ] m  n ,
(a) the sum of A and B, denoted by A  B , is an m  n matrix
with A  B  [ a ij  bij ] m  n ,
(b) the difference between A and B, denoted by A  B , is an
m  n matrix with A  B  [ a ij  bij ] m  n .

 Definition of scalar multiplication of matrices

The product of an m  n matrix A  [ai j ] m  n and a scalar k,
denoted by kA, is an m  n matrix with k A  [ ka ij ] m  n .

Example

1 0  1 3  0 2 
Let A    , B    and C    .
 2 1   2 4   0 3 
(a) Find A  B .
(b) Find 6C.
(c) Find ( A  B)  6C .

Solution:
 1 0   1 3   0 3 
(a) A  B         
 2 1   2 4  4 5

6 0 6 2 
(b) 6C   
 6  0 6  (3) 
 0 12 
  
 0 18 

 0 3   0 12 
(c) ( A  B)  6C      
 4 5   0 18 
 0 9 
  
 4 23 

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 56

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Properties of addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of

matrices
For m  n matrices A, B and C, and scalars  and ,
(a) ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C ) (b) A  B  B  A
(c) A  0  0  A  A (d) A  (A)  (A)  A  0
(e) ( A  B)  A  B (f ) (  ) A  A  A
(g) (A)  () A (h) 0A  0 , 0  0

Example

1 2  0 1 0 0
Let A    , B    and C    .
 3 4   1 0  1 3
(a) Find 243 A  486 B  243C .
(b) Find 2 A  3( B  C )  ( A  B  2C ) .
Solution:
(a) 243 A  486 B  243C  243( A  2 B  C )
 1 2   0  1  0 0  
 243    2     
 3 4    1 0   1 3 
1 0
 243  
0 1
 243 0 
  
 0 243 
(b) 2 A  3( B  C )  ( A  B  2C )  2 A  3B  3C  A  B  2C
 A  4B  C
1 2  0 1  0 0 
    4     
 3 4   1 0   1 3 
 1 2 
  
0 7 

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 57

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Definition of multiplication of matrices

Let A  [a ij ] m  n and B  [bij ] n  p be m  n and n  p matrices
respectively, then the product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the
m  p matrix C  [c ij ] m  p , where
n
c i j  a i 1b1 j  a i 2b2 j  a i 3b3 j    a inbn j  a b .
r 1
ir rj

the jth column c11 c12  c1 j  c1 p

a11 a12  a1n
b11 b12  b1 j  b1 p c21 c22  c2 j  c2 p
  
b21 b22  b2 j  b2 p    
the ith row ai1 ai 2  ain  ci1 ci 2  cij  cip
      
am1 am 2  amn bn1 bn 2  bn j  bnp    
cm 1 cm 2  cmj  cmp

Example

1  2 1 1 2
Let A   2 1 , B    , C    and D    . Find each of the
 3  1 3 3 0
following products of matrices.
(a) AB (b) CB (c) CD (d) BA
Solution:
1
(a) AB   2 1      2  1  1  3    5 
 3
 2 1   1   2  1  1 3  5 
(b) CB           
 1 3   3   1  1  3  3  10 

 2 1   1 2   2  1  1  3 2  2  1 0   5 4 
(c) CD           
 1 3   3 0   1 1  3  3 1  2  3  0  10 2 

1 1 2 11  2 1

(d) BA     2 1       
 3  3  2 3  1  6 3 

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 58

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Properties of multiplication of matrices

For matrices A, B and C, and scalars  and , where the following
operations of matrices are defined,
(a) A( BC )  ( AB)C
(b) A( B  C )  AB  AC
(c) ( A  B)C  AC  BC
(d) (A)(B )  ( AB)
(e) 0 A  A0  0
(f ) I m A  AI n  A , where the order of A is m  n

Example
2
4 3 2  0 1 0  
Let A    , B    , C   3  and D   1 2  . Find
 1 0 1   1 0 1   3 
 
each of the following.
(a) AC (b) DAC (c) A  B (d) AC  BC
Solution:
2
 4 3 2    11
(a) AC     3    
 1 0  1  3   5 
 
11
(b) DAC  D ( AC )   1 2      1 
5
 4 3 2   0 1 0  4 2 2 
(c) A  B         
 1 0 1  1 0 1   0 0 2 

2
 4 2 2   8
(d) AC  BC  ( A  B )C     3    
 0 0 2   3   6 
 

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 59

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Definition of determinants of order 2

a11 a12
 a11 a 22  a12 a 21
a 21 a 22

a11 a12
a21 a22

a12 a21 a 11 a22

Example

Find the value of each of the following determinants.

1 0
(a)
2 3
6 2
(b)
 9 7

Solution:
1 0
(a)  (1)(3)  (0)(2)
2 3
3

6 2
(b)  (6)(7)  (2)( 9)
 9 7
  60

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 60

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Definition of determinants of order 3

a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23  a11 a 22 a 33  a12 a 23 a 31  a13 a 21 a 32
a 31 a 32 a 33  a13 a 22 a 31  a11 a 23 a 32  a12 a 21 a 33

Copy of the first two columns

a11 a12 a13 a 11 a12
a21 a22 a23 a 21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a 31 a32

a 13 a22 a31 a 11 a22 a 33

a11 a23 a 32 a12 a23 a 31
a 12 a21 a33 a13 a21 a 32

Example
1 2 1
Find the value of 2  5 1 .
0 1 1
Solution:
1 2 1
2 5 1
0 1 1
 (1)( 5)(1)  (2)(1)(0)  (1)(2)(1)  (1)( 5)(0)  (1)(1)(1)  (2)(2)(1)
  10

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 61

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Definitions of minors and cofactors

a11 a12  a1n
a 21 a 22  a 2 n
For , where n  2 ,
  
a n1 a n 2  a nn

a11  a1 , j  1 a1, j  1  a1n

   
a i  1, 1  a i  1, j  1 a i  1, j  1  a i  1, n
(a) minor M ij 
a i  1, 1  a i  1, j  1 a i  1, j  1  a i  1, n
   
a n1  a n , j  1 a n , j  1  a nn

(b) cofactor Aij  (1)i  j M ij

Example

1 2 3
Consider 0 1 2 .
1 1 2

(a) Find M 22 .
(b) Find A12 .

Solution:
1 3
(a) M 22 
1 2
 (1)(2)  (3)(1)
 5

0 2
(b) A12  (1)1  2
1 2
  [(0)(2)  (2)(1)]
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 62

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Cofactor expansion of a determinant of order n

(a) Cofactor expansion along the i th row
a11 a12  a1n
a 21 a 22  a 2 n
 a i 1 Ai 1  a i 2 Ai 2    a i n Ai n ,
  
a n1 a n 2  a nn
where 1  i  n and n  2

(b) Cofactor expansion along the j th column

a11 a12  a1n
a 21 a 22  a 2 n
 a1 j A1 j  a 2 j A2 j    a n j An j ,
  
a n1 a n 2  a nn
where 1  j  n and n  2

Example

2 1 3
Find the value of 1 5 2 by each of the following methods.
2 1 0
(a) Expand along the 3rd row.
(b) Expand along the 2nd column.
Solution:
2 1 3
1 3 2 3 2 1
(a)  1 5 2  (2)  (1)  (0)
5 2 1 2 1 5
2 1 0
 2[(1)(2)  (3)(5)]  [(2)(2)  (3)(1)]  0
 33

2 1 3
1 2 2 3 2 3
(b) 1 5 2   (1)  (5)  (1)
2 0 2 0 1 2
2 1 0
  [(1)(0)  (2)(2)]  5[(2)(0)  (3)(2)]  [(2)(2)  (3)(1)]
 33

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 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Properties of determinants I
a1 b1 c1 a1 a 2 a3 a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
(a) a 2 b2 c 2  b1 b2 b3 (b) a 2 b2 c 2   a1 b1 c1
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
(c) ka 2 kb2 kc 2  k a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

a1  x b1  y c1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
(d) a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Example

a 2 ab ac a b c
Prove that ab ac a 2   a 3 c a b using the properties of determinants.
ac a 2 ab b c a

Proof:
a 2 ab ac a b c
ab ac a 2  a ab ac a 2
ac a 2 ab ac a 2 ab
a b c
 a2 b c a
ac a 2 ab
a b c
 a3 b c a
c a b
a b c
  a3 c a b
b c a

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 64

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Properties of determinants II
a1 b1 c1
(a) 0 0 0 0
a 3 b3 c 3

a b c
(b) a b c 0
x y z

a b c
(c) ka kb kc  0
x y z

a1 b1 c1 a1  ka 2 b1  kb2 c1  kc 2
(d) a 2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Example

2 3 1 0 5 3
Prove that 1 1 2  1 1 2 by performing operations on rows.
3 2 2 0 1 4

Proof:
2 3 1 0 5 3
1 1 2  1 1 2 R 1  2R 2 R1
3 2 2 3 2 2
0 5 3
 1 1 2 R 3  3R2 R3
0 1 4

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 65

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Definition of inverse matrix

For any square matrix A of order n, if there exists a square
matrix B of order n such that AB  BA  I n , then A is said to be
non-singular or invertible and B is called an inverse matrix of A,
or simply an inverse of A.
 For any square matrices A and B of order n, if AB  I n , then
BA  I n and hence B is an inverse of A.
 Properties of inverses
For non-singular matrices A, B of order n and non-zero scalar ,
(a) A 1 is non-singular and ( A 1 ) 1  A
1
(b) A is non-singular and (A) 1  A 1

(c) AB is non-singular and ( AB ) 1  B 1 A 1

Example

1 2   3 1
Let A    and B    .
 1 3   5 2 
 3 2   2 1
(a) Show that A 1    and B 1    .
 1 1   5 3
(b) Find ( AB) 1 .

Solution:
 3  2  1 2   3 2 
 1 1   1
(a) A    (b) ( AB) 1  B 1 A1
   3    1 1 
 2 1   3 2 
1 0     
    5 3   1 1 
0 1 
 5 3 
 3 2    
 A 1    12 7 
 1 1 
 2 1   3 1   2 1   1 0 
B          
 5 3   5 2   5 3  0 1 
 2 1
 B 1   
 5 3

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 66

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Powers of matrices
For square matrix A of order m and any positive integer n,
(a) A 0  I m
(b) An  
AA
 
A
n t e r ms

(c) If A is non-singular, then A n is non-singular and

( A n ) 1  ( A 1 ) n .

Example

 1 3
It is given that A   .
 1 2 
2 3 
(a) Show that A 1   .
1 1 
(b) Find ( A3 ) 1 .
Solution:
 2 3   1 3   2 3 
(a) A       
 1  1   1 2   1  1
1 0
  
0 1
 2 3 
 A 1   
 1 1 
(b) ( A3 ) 1  ( A 1 )3
 2 3   2 3   2 3 
     
 1 1   1 1   1 1 
1 3   2 3 
    
1  2   1 1 
 1 0 
  
 0 1

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 67

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Transposes of matrices
T
 a11 a12  a1n   a11 a 21  a m1 
   
 a 21 a 22  a 2 n    a12 a 22  a m 2 
         
   
 a m1 a m 2  a mn   a1n a 2 n  a mn 

T  1 4
 1 2 3  
e.g.    2 5
 4 5 6  3 6
 
 Properties of transposes of matrices
For matrices A, B and non-zero scalar , where the following
operations of matrices are defined,
(a) I T  I (b) ( AT )T  A
(c) ( A  B)  A  B
T T T
(d) (A)T  AT
T T T
(e) ( AB )  B A
(f ) If A is non-singular, then AT is non-singular and ( AT ) 1  ( A 1 )T .

Example

2 1
 
Let A   0 3  .
 1 2
 
(a) Find AT . (b) Find AAT . (c) Find ( AAT )T .
Solution:
2 0 1
(a) AT   
 1 3 2

2 1  5 3 4
  2 0 1  
(b) AAT   0 3      3 9 6 
1 2 1 3 2   4 6 5
   
T
 5 3 4  5 3 4
T T
   
(c) ( AA )   3 9 6    3 9 6 
 4 6 5  4 6 5
   

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 68

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Properties of determinants in relation to the operations of matrices

For square matrices A and B of order n,
(a) I n  1

(b) AT  A

(c) kA  k n A , where k is a scalar

(d) AB  A B
1
(e) If A is non-singular, then A  0 and A 1  .
A

Example

Let A, B and C be square matrices of the same order, where B is

non-singular, AT B 1  C , A  2 and B  5 .

(a) Find the values of AT and B 1 .

(b) Find the value of C .

(c) Find the value of ABC .

Solution:
(a) AT  A  2 (b) AT B 1  C
AT B 1  C
1 1
B 1  
B 5 AT B 1  C
1
2  C
(c) ABC  A B C 5
2 2
 25 C 
5 5
4

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 69

 Matrices and Determinants
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 12)

 Adjoint matrices
T
 a11 a12  a1n   A11 A12  A1n 
   
 a 21 a 22  a 2 n   A21 A22  A2 n 
For A    , adj A   
        
a  A An 2  Ann 
 n 1 a n 2  a nn   n1
where Aij is the cofactor of a ij ,
(a) A(adj A)  (adj A) A  A I n
1
(b) If A  0 , then A is non-singular and A 1  adj A .
A

Example

 0 1 2 
 
Let B   1 1 0  . Find the inverse of B.
 2 1 1
 
Solution:
0 1 2
B  1 1 0  3  0
2 1 1
T
 1 0 1 0 1 1 
  
 1 1 2 1 2 1  T
   1 1 1   1 1 2 
 1 2 0 2 0 1     
adj B       1  4 2    1  4 2 
1 1 2 1 2 1  
   2 2 1   1 2 1 
 1 2 0 2 0 1 
  
 1 0 1 0 1 1 

 1 1 2   13  13 2

1 1    1 3 
 B 1  adj B   1 4 2     3
4
3
 23 
B 3    1
 1 2 1   3
2
3
 13 

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 70

 Systems of Linear Equations
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 13)

 Solving systems of linear equations by inverse matrices

For a system of n linear equations in n unknowns,
a11 x1  a12 x 2    a1n x n  b1
a x  a x    a x  b

21 1 22 2 2n n 2
can be written as AX  B ,
 
a n1 x1  a n 2 x 2    a nn x n  bn
 a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 
     
 a 21 a 22  a 2 n   x2   b2 
where A    , X     and B    .
        
a  x  b 
 n 1 a n 2  a nn   n  n
(a) AX  B has a unique solution if and only if A  0 .
(b) AX  B has no solutions or infinitely many solutions if and
only if A  0 .
(c) If AX  B has a unique solution, then the unique solution is
A  1B .

Example

3 x  2 y  12
Solve  by inverse matrix.
4 x  3 y  1
Solution:
 3 2   x   12 
Rewrite the system as        .
 4 3   y   1
3 2 
Let A    .
 4 3 
3 2
A   17
4 3
T
 3  4   17 
3 2
1
A 1      4 17 
  173 
17  2 3   17 
 x    12   2 
3 2
     174     
17
   1  3 
 173
 y   17    
 The solution of the system is x  2, y  3.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 71

 Systems of Linear Equations
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 13)

 Solving systems of linear equations by Cramer ’s rule

a x  a12 y  b1
(a) For a system of linear equations  11 :
a 21 x  a 22 y  b2
a11 a12 b1 a12 a11 b1
Let   , x  and  y  .
a 21 a 22 b2 a 22 a 21 b2
x y
If   0 , then x , y is the unique solution of the system.
 
a11 x  a12 y  a13 z  b1

(b) For a system of linear equations a 21 x  a 22 y  a 23 z  b2 :
a 31 x  a 32 y  a 33 z  b3

a11 a12 a13 b1 a12 a13
Let   a 21 a 22 a 23 ,  x  b 2 a 22 a 23 ,
a 31 a 32 a 33 b3 a 32 a 33
a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1
 y  a 21 b2 a 23 and  z  a 21 a 22 b2 .
a 31 b3 a 33 a 31 a 32 b3
x y 
If   0 , then x  , y , z z is the unique
  
solution of the system.

Example

 x  2 y  2 z  10

Solve 3 x  y  z  2 by Cramer ’s rule.
 x  2 y  z  5

Solution:
1 2 2 10 2 2 1 10 2 1 2 10
  3 1 1  x  2 1 1  y  3 2 1  z  3 1 2
, , ,
1 2 1 5 2 1 1 5 1 1 2 5
7  14  21 7
 14  21  7
 x  x   2 , y  y   3, z  z   1
 7  7  7
 The solution of the system is x  2, y  3, z  1 .

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 72

 Systems of Linear Equations
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 13)

 Number of solutions of a system of 2 linear equations in 2 unknowns

a x  a12 y  b1
For a system of linear equations  11 :
a 21 x  a 22 y  b2
(a) If   0 , then the system has a unique solution.
(b) If   0, and  x  0 or  y  0 , then the system has no solutions.
(c) If   0 and  x   y  0, then the system has infinitely many
solutions.
 Number of solutions of a system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns
a11 x  a12 y  a13 z  b1

For a system of linear equations a 21 x  a 22 y  a 23 z  b2 :
a 31 x  a 32 y  a 33 z  b3

(a) If   0 , then the system has a unique solution.
(b) If   0, and  x  0 or  y  0 or  z  0 , then the system has
no solutions.
(c) If   0 and  x   y   z  0 , then the system has infinitely
many solutions or no solutions.

Example

Determine whether each of the following systems of linear equations

has no solutions, a unique solution or infinitely many solutions.
x  2 y  1 x  y  1
(a)  (b) 
3x  6 y  2 2 x  2 y  2

Solution:
1 2 1 1
(a)    0, y   1  0
3 6 3 2
 The system has no solutions.

1 1 1 1 1 1
(b)    0, x   0,  y  0
2 2 2 2 2 2
 There are infinitely many solutions.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 73

 Systems of Linear Equations
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 13)

 Row echelon form

A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(a) The first non-zero element in each row is 1.
(b) The first non-zero element in each row occurs in a column
to the right of the first non-zero element in the preceding row.
(c) Any zero rows (i.e. all the elements are zeros in that row)
are placed at the bottom of the matrix.
 Gaussian elimination
The steps for solving a system of linear equations by Gaussian
elimination are shown as follows:
(a) Set up an augmented matrix.
(b) Transform the augmented matrix into row echelon form by
elementary row operations.
(c) Find the solutions by back substitution.

Example
 x  y  3z  7

Solve  x  3 y  z  5 by Gaussian elimination.
2 x  y  8 z  17

Solution:
1 1 3 7 
 
The augmented matrix corresponding to the system is  1 3 1 5  .
 2 1 8 17 
 
1 1 3 7  1 1 3 7 
   
 1 3 1 5  ~  0 2 2 2  R2  R1 R2
 2 1 8 17   0 1 2 3  R 3  2R 1 R3
1 1 3 7 
  1
~  0 1 1 1 R R2
 0 1 2 3  2 2
 
1 1 3 7 
 
~  0 1 1 1 R3  R2 R3
0 0 1 2 
 
 By back substitution, the solution of the system is
x  0, y  1, z  2.

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 74

 Systems of Linear Equations
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 13)

 Systems of homogeneous linear equations

For a system of n homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns
AX  0,
(a) if A  0 , then AX  0 has trivial solution only;
(b) if A  0 , then AX  0 has trivial solution together with
infinitely many non-trivial solutions.

Example

Let k be a constant. Find the values of k such that the system of

 x  2 y  kz  0

homogeneous linear equations  x  y  z  0 has non-trivial solutions.
(k  3) x  2 z  0

Solution:
 1 2 k  x   0
    
Rewrite the system as  1 1 1   y    0  .
 k  3 0 2   z   0 
    
 The homogeneous linear system has non-trivial solutions.
1 2 k
 1 1 1 0
k  3 0 2
k 2  k  0
 k (k  1)  0
k  0 or 1

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 75

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 Concept of vectors
(a) A quantity which has magnitude only is called a scalar.
(b) A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called
a vector.
(c) The B
a orvector as shown can be denoted by AB , a,
a , and its magnitude can be denoted by
a

AB , a , a or a .
A
(d) Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same
magnitude and the same direction.
(e) The negative vector of v has the same magnitude but in the
opposite direction of v. It is denoted by  v.
(f ) A vector with zero magnitude is called a zero vector and is
denoted by 0. Zero vectors do not have any specified direction.
(g) A vector with magnitude 1 is called a unit vector.

Example

In the figure, ABCD is a rectangle. Determine A 4 D

whether each of the following is correct.
1 1
(a) AB is a unit vector.
(b) AD  BC B 4 C

(c) CD is a negative vector of AB .

Solution:
(a)  AB  1

 AB is a unit vector.
(b)  ABCD is a rectangle.
 AD // BC and AD  BC
 AD  BC

(c) Negative vector of AB   AB  BA  CD

 CD is a negative vector of AB .

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 76

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 Addition of vectors
Triangle law of addition Parallelogram law of addition
AB  BC  AC AB  AD  AC
C D C

AB  BC AB  AD

A B A B

If AB  a and BC  b ,
then AC  a  b .
 Subtraction of vectors
a  b  a  ( b)
b ab

Example

In the figure, ABCD is a square. AC and BD A B

intersect at E. Express each of the following
as a single vector.
(a) AB  BC (b) DC  AC E
(c) AB  CB  EB
D C
Solution:
(a) AB  BC  AC

(b) DC  AC  DC  CA
 DA (or CB )

(c) AB  CB  EB  DC  CB  ( EB )
 DB  BE
 DE (or EB )

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 77

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 Scalar multiplication
(a) The product of vector a and real number  is a vector, denoted
by  a. a is parallel to  a for   0 . If   0 , then a  0 .
0 0
a a
a a
a   a  a   a

(b) It is given that a is a zero vector.

For any real number  , a  0 .
(c) For non-zero vectors u and v, u  k v if and only if u is parallel
to v where k  0 .
u
(d) If u  0 , then is a unit vector which has the same direction
u
as u.
 Properties of operations of vectors
For any vectors u, v, w and real numbers  ,  ,
(a) u  v  v  u (b) u  ( v  w )  (u  v)  w
(c) u  0  u (d) (u)  ( )u  (u)
(e) (  )u  u  u (f ) (u  v )  u  v

Example

In  ABC, X is the mid-point of AC and Y is A

the mid-point of BX. Let BY  u and AC  v .
Express BA in terms of u and v. X

Solution:
Y
BA  BX  XA B C
 2 BY  AX
1
 2 BY  AC
2
1
 2u  v
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 78

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 It is given that a and b are two non-zero vectors and they are
not parallel to each other.
(a) If a  b  0 , then     0;
(b) If 1a  1b   2a   2b , then 1   2 and 1   2 .

Example

Let a and b be two non-zero vectors which are not parallel to each
other. If u  v , where u  (k  1)a  (2k  1)b and v  3a  (n  2)b , find
the values of k and n.
Solution:
 uv
 (k  1) a  (2k  1) b  3a  (n  2) b
k  1  3 ................ (1)
 
2k  1  n  2 ........ (2)
From (1), k  2
Substitute k  2 into (2),
2(2)  1  n  2
n1

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 79

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 Position vectors on a plane

(a) The position vector of A with respect to O is OA , usually
denoted by a.
(b) AB  OB  OA  b  a
 Vectors on the two-dimensional rectangular coordinate plane
(a) A(x, y) is a point on a two- y
dimensional rectangular coordinate A(x, y)
plane, O is the origin. (0, y)

OA  xi  y j , OA  x 2  y 2 , yj
y x 
sin   , cos   x
x2  y2 x2  y 2 O xi (x, 0)

(b) On a two-dimensional plane, given that OA  x1 i  y1 j and

OB  x 2 i  y2 j,
AB  ( x 2  x1 )i  ( y2  y1 ) j, AB  ( x 2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2 .

Example

A(2, 1) and B(1, 3) are two given points.

(a) Find AB . (b) Find AB .
(c) Express the unit vector which has the same direction as AB in
terms of i and j.
Solution:
(a) AB  [1  (2)]i  [3  (1)] j (b) AB  32  42
 3i  4 j 5
AB
(c) Required unit vector 
AB
3i  4 j

5
3 4
 i j
5 5

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 80

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 Vectors in the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system

(a) A(a, b, c) is a point in a three-dimensional rectangular
coordinate system, O is the origin.
z

S
A(a, b, c)
ck
R
ai O y
bj
Q
P
x
OA  ai  b j  c k , OA  a 2  b 2  c 2

(b) In a three-dimensional space, given that OA  a1 i  b1 j  c1k

and OB  a 2 i  b2 j  c 2 k ,
AB  (a 2  a1 )i  (b 2  b1 ) j  (c 2  c1 )k ,
AB  (a 2  a1 ) 2  (b2  b1 ) 2  (c 2  c1 ) 2 .

Example

Consider two points A(2,  4,  1) and B(4,  1, 5).

(a) Find AB .
(b) Find AB .

(c) Find the unit vector which has the same direction as AB .
Solution:
(a) AB  (4  2) i  [1  (4)] j  [5  (1)]k  2i  3 j  6k

(b) AB  22  32  62  7

AB 2i  3 j  6k 2 3 6
(c) Required unit vector    i  j k
AB 7 7 7 7

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 81

 Introduction to Vectors
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 14)

 Division of a line segment by the section formula

If P is a point on AB such that AP : PB  r : s , then p can be written
sa  rb
as p  .
sr
A r P s B

p
a b

Example

It is given that P is a point on AB such that 3 AP  2 PB . If the

coordinates of A and B are (  1,  3, 2) and (4, 7,  8) respectively,
find the coordinates of P.
Solution:
OA   i  3j  2k B (4, 7, 8)

OB  4i  7 j  8k
3
 3 AP  2 PB
 AP : PB  2 : 3
3OA  2OB P
 OP 
3 2 2
3( i  3j  2k )  2(4i  7 j  8k )

3 2
A (1, 3, 2)
5i  5 j  10k

5
 i  j  2k
O
 The coordinates of P are (1, 1,  2).

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 82

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Definition of scalar product

(a) If a and b are non-zero vectors, then
a  b  a b cos  , where  is the angle
between a and b, and 0    180 , a
(b) if a or b is a zero vector, then a  b  0 .

 Properties of scalar product
b
For any vectors a, b, c and scalar  ,
2
(a) a  a  a 0
(b) ab  ba
(c) a  a  0 if and only if a  0
(d) (a  b)  (a)  b  a  (b)
(e) a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
(f ) ab  a b
2 2 2
(g) a  b  a  b  2(a  b)

Example

If a  2 , b  5 and the angle between a and b is 45  , find the values

of the following.
(a) a  b
(b) a  (a  2b)

Solution:
(a) a  b  (2)(5) cos 45
5 2

(b) a  (a  2b)  a  a  2(a  b)

2
 a  2(5 2 )
 22  10 2
 4  10 2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 83

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 For non-zero vectors a and b, a  b  0 if and only if a  b . a and b

are called orthogonal vectors.
 Scalar product of vectors in a rectangular coordinate system
(a) (i) i  i  j  j  k  k  1
(ii) i  j  j  k  k  i  0
(b) Let a  x1 i  y1 j  z1k , b  x 2 i  y2 j  z 2 k and  is the angle
between a and b, where 0    180 , then
(i) a  b  x1 x 2  y1 y2  z1 z 2
ab x1 x 2  y1 y2  z1 z 2
(ii) cos    ,
a b 2 2 2
x1  y1  z1 x 2  y2  z 2
2 2 2

where a and b are non-zero vectors

Example

It is given that a  3i  2 j  2k , b  2i  3 j  2k and  is the angle

between a and b.
(a) Find a  b .
(b) Find  . (Give your answer correct to the nearest 0.1  .)

Solution:
(a) a  b  (3i  2 j  2k )  (2i  3j  2k )
 3(2)  (2)(3)  2(2)
 4
ab
(b) cos  
a b
4

3  (  2)  2 2 2 2  32  (  2) 2
2 2

4

17
   103.6 (corr. to the nearest 0.1  )

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 84

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Projection of vectors
A


B
O P

Let OA  a , OB  b and OP  p .
p is the projection of a onto b.
 a  b  b  a  b 
(a) Projection of a onto b     b
 b  b  b 2 
   
ab
(b) Magnitude of the projection of a onto b 
b

Example

Find the projection of a  4i  j onto b  2i  3j.

Solution:
 
ab
Projection of a onto b   2  b
 b 
 
(4i  j)  (2i  3 j)
 (2i  3 j)
[ 2 2  (3) 2 ]2
4(2)  1(3)
 (2i  3 j)
13
10 15
 i j
13 13

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 85

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Definition of vector product

(a) If a and b are non-zero vectors, then a  b  ( a b sin ) nˆ ,
where  is the angle between a and b, and 0    180 , n̂ is
the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b, and its direction
is determined by the right-hand rule,
(b) if a or b is a zero vector, then a  b  0 .
n̂
a

b
a

b n̂
 For non-zero vectors a and b, a  b  0 if and only if a is parallel
to b.
 Properties of vector product
For any vectors a, b, c and scalar  ,
(a) a  a  0 (b) a  b   (b  a)
(c) (a)  b  a  (b)  (a  b) (d) a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
2 2 2
(e) (a  b)  c  a  c  b  c (f ) a  b  a b  (a  b) 2

Example

Prove that (a  3b)  (2a  5b)  11(a  b) .

Proof:
(a  3b)  (2a  5b)  (a  3b)  (2a)  (a  3b)  (5b)
 2(a  a)  6(b  a)  5(a  b)  15(b  b)
 2(0)  6(b  a)  5(a  b)  15(0)
 6(a  b)  5(a  b)
 11(a  b)

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 86

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Vector product of vectors in three-dimensional coordinate system

(a) i  i  j  j  k  k  0
(b) i  j  k
j k  i
ki  j
(c) j  i   k
k  j  i
i k  j
(d) Given that a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k and b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k ,
i j k
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Example

If u  i  2 j  k and v  3i  4 j  k , find u  v and v  u .

Solution:
i j k
u  v  1 2 1
3 4 1
2 1 1 1 1 2
 i j k
4 1 3 1 3 4
 2i  4 j  10k

v  u   (u  v )
 2i  4 j  10k

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 87

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Area of parallelogram  a  b

a
1
 Area of triangle  ab
2

Example

If three vertices of a parallelogram are A(4, 4,  1), B(4, 2, 0) and

C(3, 7,  2), find the area of the parallelogram.
Solution:
AB  (4  4) i  (2  4) j  [0  (1)] k A C
 2 j  k
AC  (3  4) i  (7  4) j  [2  (1)] k
  i  3j  k B
i j k
AB  AC  0 2 1
1 3 1
  i  j  2k
 Area of the parallelogram  AB  AC

 (1) 2  (1) 2  (2) 2

 6

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 88

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Definition of scalar triple product

a  (b  c) is called the scalar triple product.

 Given that a  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k , b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k and

a1 a2 a3
c  c1 i  c 2 j  c 3 k , then a  (b  c)  b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3

 Properties of scalar triple product

(a) a  (b  c)  b  (c  a)  c  (a  b)
(b) a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c

Example

It is given that a  k , b  2i  j and c  i  k . Find the values of the

following.
(a) a  (b  c) (b) (a  2b)  c

Solution:
0 0 1
(a) a  (b  c)  2 1 0
1 0 1
1 0 2 0 2 1
 (0)  (0)  (1)
0 1 1 1 1 0
1

(b) (a  2b)  c  [2(a  b)]  c

 2 [(a  b)  c]
 2 [a  (b  c)]
 2 (1)
2

 2015 Chung Tai Educational Press. All rights reserved. 89

 Scalar Products and Vector Products
(Module 2 Volume 2 Chapter 15)

 Volume of parallelepiped  a  (b  c)

a
c

b
 a  (b  c)  0 if and only if a, b and c are coplanar.

Example

Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by vectors

u  3i  2 j  k , v  2i  4 j  3k and w  i  j  3k .
Solution:
3 2 1
u  ( v  w)  2  4 3
1 1 3
4 3 2 3 2 4
 (3)  (2)  (1)
1 3 1 3 1 1
 35
 Required volume  u  ( v  w )
 35
 35

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