Historical Geography

Gordon M Winder, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany

Abstract

Historical geography stems from efforts to incorporate historical research at the regional scale on landscape change and past
geographies into geography. The scope of this early work is outlined, but while such matters continue to be important in
historical geography research, the field of study now embraces many other research foci. Studies of capitalism and its
transformative effects; research on environmental change and human–environment relations; and work interpreting the
meanings of historical landscapes and landscape change are three other main constitutive areas of study. However, the field is
rapidly expanding around new themes, such as postcolonial reinterpretations of the history of empires, historical geographies
of the colonized world, the connections between identity formation and the spaces and places of nationalism, ethnicity, and
gender. These and other new themes are outlined, and the point is made that historical geography is now a broad inter-
disciplinary field of inquiry and not a narrowly defined subdiscipline of geography. This is a cause of some adjustment within
geography, and the concerns of historical geographers for their endeavor are discussed.

Historical geographers aim to incorporate historical research Whittlesey organized his research around a series of recon-
into geography by examining past geographies, landscape structions of past geographies. Detailed reconstructions of past
change and the meanings of landscapes, capitalism and its geographies became associated with the work of many histor-
transformative effects on economies and societies, urbaniza- ical geographers, including H.C. Such analysis paralleled
tion and demographic change, as well as environmental change patterns of explanation in geomorphology at the time, but
and human–environment relations. Consequently the field of focused on cultural landscapes rather than physical ones. Their
historical geography is dynamic with many new themes, such reconstructions of past geographies highlighted change over
as the history of mobility, travel writing, postcolonial reinter- time but the explanatory power of this ‘sequent occupance’ or
pretations of the history of empires, historical geographies of reconstruction approach remained at best weak. Nevertheless,
the colonized world, the connections between identity forma- detailed reconstructions of past geographies remain an
tion and the spaces and places of nationalism, ethnicity, and important tool in historical geography, as is illustrated in many
gender, emerging in recent years. These and other new themes historical atlases published toward the end of the twentieth
are outlined below. Historical geography is now a broad century. In Los Angeles, Carl Sauer researched the diffusion of
interdisciplinary field of inquiry and not a narrowly defined cultural objects and practices, and the study of cultural land-
subdiscipline of geography. This is a cause of some adjustment scapes. Borrowing from German geography as well as biology
within geography. and anthropology, he supervised many PhD students and,
although a pioneer of cultural geography, did much to pave the
way for historical explanation in geography.
Setting a Place for History within Geography The generation of historical geographers emerging after
World War II confronted new challenges. As the quantitative
Despite earlier antecedents, modern historical geography really revolution swept through geography, they wrestled with
stems from the late nineteenth century, and particularly the whether history was needed in geography if geography is
work of French geographers, notably Paul Vidal de la Blache, spatial science? As the Cold War shaped universities and soci-
on regional landscape formation, and of the German school of eties, they were confronted with political issues: can historical
Anthropogeographie. Offshoots from these beginnings were explanation be informed by Marxism? Some new centers of
established in Britain and the USA, and by the 1920s historical historical geography research emerged, and notably at the
geography seemed poised to play the same preeminent role in University of Wisconsin, Madison, where the Canadian Andrew
human geography as geomorphology had in physical geog- Hill Clark fostered research on regions, economies, and cities
raphy. During the mid-twentieth century, however, geography within North America. In the UK, Alan Baker at Cambridge
tended to emphasize spatial relationships within a regional University and Robin Butlin at Leeds were leading figures in
geography approach and, in this context, historical geographers a growing subdiscipline. Some of the postwar generation of
struggled to assert historical methodologies and research historical geographers harnessed diffusion theory for research
questions within the discipline. Historical geographers like into disease and epidemiology. In Britain, E.A. Wrigley pio-
Derwent Whittlesey in the USA and H.C. Darby in the UK neered demographic history. Others drew their explanatory
focused on landscape change and process, and each cultivated models from settlement, agriculture, economic, and urbaniza-
the core practice of researching past geographies using forms of tion studies, but generally they advanced explanation through
cross-sectional analysis. In parallel with the pattern of expla- careful reconstructions using archival data. Growing numbers
nation in geomorphology current before 1950, Derwent of historical geographers met in both regional and national

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 11 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.72024-1 17
18 Historical Geography

associations and in an internationalizing but loosely organized and urban history. Perhaps their efforts reached an apogee with
conference, now known as the International Conference of the publication of Donald Meinig’s four volume work The
Historical Geographers (ICHG). The establishment of the Shaping of America (1998–2004), Carville Earle’s Geographical
Journal of Historical Geography in 1975 signaled the consolida- Inquiry and American Historical Problems (1992), Cole Harris’ The
tion of the subdiscipline. Resettlement of British Columbia (1998), and the Historical Atlas of
Human geography in general began to embrace and discuss Canada (1987–93) published in three volumes. As the refer-
historical explanation in new ways in the 1980s and 1990s. ence to the historical atlas of Canada should make clear,
Spurred on by debates in the social sciences and history over thematic mapping has an important role in this research. North
historical materialism and structuralism, and by feminist American regional historical geographers have contributed two
theory and phenomenology, many human geographers looked key organizing ideas: the geographical personality of particular
for alternatives to positivist social science. In 1990, David regions, and the formation of culture areas. This regional or
Harvey confidently argued that analysis of the production of area studies approach was not confined to rural landscape
space, the geographical imagination, and the historical geog- change, but included important work on the appropriation of
raphy of concepts of space and time were central to any critical ‘new’ lands through colonialism, on urban systems, and on
enquiry into the contemporary world. He pushed for both industry. Nor was it confined to North America or to ‘national’
a critical historical geography of capitalist transformations of projects: historical geographers have written on an array of
the world and a critical inquiry into the ways in which geog- regions and areas. Generally theirs are synthetic works that
raphers framed time, change, and development. Simulta- draw together research on diverse phenomena and at many
neously, Brian Harley had challenged conventional histories of scales. Such research is now of considerable interest to those
cartography, and mapping practices within historical geog- historians who are rescaling their research either to global,
raphy, by drawing out the ways in which cartography had been world, empire, regional, or even microscales.
structured to serve various state purposes. Cultural geographer
Dennis Cosgrove interrogated the concept of landscape in its
historical European uses and found similar issues with geog- Capitalist Transformation
raphers’ studies of landscape change. In this context, the
Canadian historical geographer Cole Harris argued for geog- The historical geography of capitalism and its transformative
raphy as a project of regional-historical synthesis, and against effects through history are a second main area of research, one
the growth of spatial science at the expense of humanistic which now constitutes a more substantial body of work than
geographies. As these and other geographers called for critical the regional studies stream but intersects with it. How capital
inquiry into the subjectivities of geography and their histories, works and acts to construct and destroy specific landscapes,
it seemed that historical geography would be central to work rules, economies, and social identities is a central area of
a human geography that was moving beyond positivist fram- inquiry. But capital is not conceived as the only actor, and
ings of knowledge. attention is directed to the everyday life worlds, responses,
Historical geographers drew inspiration from a wide range resistances, and life chances of those living in a transforming,
of social theory, and humanistic and feminist approaches. modernizing world. As a result, historical geographers working
They researched diverse archival sources and wrestled with in this stream research diverse topics. In the UK, Derek Gregory
how these could be interpreted and what it meant to work in and John Langton published monographs on regional trans-
the archives. They brought new concepts, frames of reference, formations during the English industrial revolution, while
subjectivities, questions and topics as well as new quantitative M. Overton remapped the agrarian transformation in England.
methods, cartographic technologies, and forms of textual and In Montreal, Sheri Olson and Pat Thorndon led research into
visual analysis to their desks, as they pursued alternative forms a wide range of urban experiences of the industrial city, and
of historical explanation. However, the distinctive approaches identified the adaptive strategies and experiences of individ-
that emerged cut across earlier framings of historical geog- uals in demographic and household economy terms and by
raphy as a subdiscipline of geography organized around class, ethnicity, gender, age, and family status. Alan Pred
inquiries into regional and landscape change and the analysis contributed complex situated montages of the spaces and
of past geographies, even as such research reached a high point experiences of world’s fairs and dock work. Robert Lewis
of sophistication. The result has been prolific growth of analyses the remaking of North America’s metropolitan
historical geography but around many divergent and entan- industrial spaces while I have applied network theory from
gled research themes. economic geography to reinterpret the geographies of agri-
cultural machinery production. Richard Harris unmasked
North American suburban development processes and expe-
Regional Historical Geography riences, in the process challenging the Chicago School models
on factual grounds. Richard Dennis surveyed English indus-
Regional historical geographies remain vital within the trial cities, and researches the new urbanism emerging in the
subdiscipline. In North America, Donald Meinig and the many nineteenth century as a result of new apartment buildings and
students of Andrew Clark were very active over several decades new forms of mobility. The construction of new spaces of
in research and commentary in and around this approach. consumption and segregated ethnic residential neighbor-
Their projects emphasized the dilemmas of (re)settlement and hoods, and the contestation of public space have been other
human–environment relations, and both drew on and important areas for historical geographic research, but there is
contributed to theory and debates in economic, agricultural, a fantastic array of related studies. For example, Mona
 Historical Geography 19

Domosh has interrogated understandings of New York’s Worster, Richard White, Alfred Crosby, William Cronon,
department stores by considering them in the contexts of the Caroline Merchant, Richard Grove, Christian Pfister, Christof
emergence of consumption districts and from the perspective Mauch, Frank Uekotter, John McNeil, David Nye, and Theo-
of a gendered streetscape. In The Ride to Modernity (2001), dore Steinberg. Environmental history sprouted in the USA but
economic geographer Glen Norcliffe explored Canadians’ has now been set to work in many lands. Its practitioners have
peculiar encounter with the bicycle and its spatial ramifica- tended to embrace environmentalist values and to write criti-
tions and social meanings as one of the first mass-produced cally of past human interactions with environments. Their
consumer luxuries. At Berkeley, Richard Walker has scrutinized research projects are pitched at diverse scales from global
capitalist framings and constructions of nature. Historical patterns of species diffusion to local studies of dams and
geographers working in this broad research area have devel- wetlands. They write histories of global, urban and marine
oped synergies and alliances with economic geographers, environments, animals, green politics and environmental
social and urban historians, demographers, labor, economic movements, perceptions of the environment, and science
and business historians, and cultural geographers. Their networks related to environmental knowledge. There is
research has not only broken with long-held historical narra- considerable traffic in the ideas and practices between them
tives summarizing spatial processes under industrial capi- and the historical geographers researching environmental
talism, but has also challenged representations of the transformations and human–environment relations, and there
significance of present-day reconfigurations of urban and are multiple entangled strands of research in this thriving field
economic space. of interdisciplinary research.

Environmental Transformations Landscape Change

Environmental transformations and human–environment Landscape interpretation and change is a further key theme for
relations comprise a third area of research within historical historical geographers, but the foundational work in this
geography. There are ancient scholarly works on these subjects theme came from cultural and, to a more limited extent,
and modern scholars included Alexander von Humboldt, physical geographers rather than historical geographers. The
George Perkins Marsh, Vidal de la Blache, and Élisée Reclus, so physical geographer W.G. Hoskins (who published The Making
this is a research area with an illustrious pedigree in geography. of the English Landscape in 1955), and the cultural geographers
In addition, as Alan Baker declared, these roots of a historical J.B. Jackson (founding editor of the American journal Land-
geography of human–environment relations are entangled scape) and Carl Sauer, were major mid-twentieth century
with those of historical ecology as practiced in anthropology figures writing to understand the making of national and
and biogeography. So Pierre Gourou’s ground-breaking regional landscapes. Their interests have been taken up
research into laterization in tropical environments is also part inside cultural geography in the subsequent works of
of this legacy. Midway through the twentieth century, Man’s Wilbur Zelinsky, Pierce Lewis, Fred Kniffen, Yi-Fu Tuan, and by
Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (1956), an encyclopedic historical geographers Michael Conzen, Derek Holdsworth,
survey on the subject edited by William Thomas, drew together and many others in North America, and of Della Hooke, Hugh
an interdisciplinary who is who of the field. This feat was Prince, and others in the UK. This tradition emphasizes
echoed in 1990 with another edited volume The Earth as landscape design, environmental awareness, and their mani-
Transformed by Human Action. These themes remain important festation in, especially, vernacular landscapes. The subject
foci for research within historical geography which continues to matter ranges from urban and suburban streetscapes, through
feature work reconstructing past natural environments and public and religious buildings and monuments, factories,
researching human impact on natural environments. Here office towers and banks, to backyards, public gardens, ceme-
historical geographers like Donald Meinig, who worked out the teries, and national parks. Particular attention has been paid to
historical environmental limits of the American Great Plains non-Western landscape design as, for example, in Hong-key
and the South Australian wheat belt, J.M. Powell, who evalu- Yoon’s publications on geomancy. Historical geographers
ated water management in Victoria, Australia, Eric Pawson, share their interests in these topics with professionals in
writing on New Zealand’s environmental history, Craig Colten, cultural geography, anthropology, archeology, architectural
whose An Unnatural Metropolis (2005), studied hazard and history, folk studies, and museum studies.
vulnerability in New Orleans, and Michael Williams, Graeme
Wynn, and Michael Roche, who each wrote on forest (mis)
management, have made substantive contributions. While Cultural–Historical Geography
some physical geographers, like Stanley Trimble and Andrew
Goudie, who penned an introduction to the subject that has The emergence in the 1980s of a new cultural geography
served the purpose for a long time now, have contributed to the transformed writing in historical geography on the meanings of
research area, and one of the most read special issues of The landscape. By asserting that landscapes are material objects that
Journal of Historical Geography focused on the history of climate manifest many discourses the new cultural geography fostered
change discourse, there is considerable scope for further a burgeoning, critical literature on the meanings of landscape.
involvement. This literature, heralded by Denis Cosgrove and Stephen
These efforts of historical geographers are now entangled Daniels’ edited collection The Iconography of Landscape (1988),
with those of environmental historians such as Donald emphasizes symbolic landscape representation in the past, the
20 Historical Geography

power relations manifest in such representations, and their interest but there is new research emerging on more recent
work in forming identity, memory, and heritage. Attention has periods, especially Japan’s engagement with modernity and
turned to many forms of landscape representation that were imperialism. In both Singapore and Israel, historical geogra-
not the main foci for earlier research including landscape phers have been directly confronting the colonial and post-
painting, travel writing, literature, money, and exhibitions. colonial policies that have shaped their countries. There is
Cultural geographers like Denis Cosgrove, Stephen Daniels, a long-established and growing community of historical
Brian Osborne, James Duncan, Jeanne Kay Guelke, Pyrs geographers in China. In Germany and Eastern Europe, envi-
Gruffudd, Emily Gilbert, Mona Domosh, Veronica della Dora, ronmental and land use change has emerged as the mainspring
and Suzanne Seymour have studied past representational of historical geography, but in each case, it is problematic to
systems. There are new historical geographies of the present make more than these cursory comments, since the field is in
which analyze the use of aids to memory and nostalgia as active flux and ‘national’ styles of historical geography are inherently
forces in today’s landscapes. Among others, Nuala Johnson and problematic. There is considerable networking across national
Brian Graham have paid particular attention to landscapes of borders as witnessed, among other things, by the history of the
memory and heritage landscapes. As is increasingly the case, ICHG. The ICHG began life in 1975 with a meeting of British
there are connections between scholars working on this theme and Canadian historical geographers in Kingston, Canada,
and those working on other themes: here Don Mitchell’s The Lie expanded to become an Australian, British, Canadian,
of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (1996) New Zealand, and US conference, and, in 1986, at the Baton
can serve as an illustrative example. Rouge meeting, changed its name to the ICHG to reflect its
Indeed, there is now common usage of the term ‘cultural- international character. The most recent meetings were held in
historical geography’ to capture a style of critical geographical Kyoto in 2009 and Prague in 2012, and the next conference is
research that uses historical studies and cultural theory to scheduled for London in 2015.
research not only landscape but also imperialism, colonialism,
the environmental consequences of colonialism, and the
history of geographical and environmental thought. Whether Fluid Historical Geographies
this term can capture the thrust of the emerging research
enterprise is less certain. The roles of geographers in past There are many other themes that could be profitably included
imperialism, cartography, land survey, and orientalism are in this review but a full account of historical geography’s
properly the subjects of critical enquiry. Historical geographers tangled web is really beyond the scope of this paper. Historical
are interrogating imperialism as part of postcolonial reinter- geographies of identity probe the connections between
pretations and critiques of the history of empires and are nationalism, trans-nationalism, ethnicity, identity, globaliza-
writing historical geographies of the colonized world. Thus, the tion, and place. Geography, as a scientific and educational
spaces, networks, exhibitions, maps, and landscapes of practice, has a historiography that is being critically reviewed.
European empires and their settler colonists are being There are collaborative projects in GIS and remote sensing to
researched, for example, in the works of Felix Driver, David recreate and reinterpret past geographies. Capturing historical
Gilbert, Stephen Legg, Alan Lester, Cole Harris, Brenda Yeoh, cadastral, topographical, and other map and aerial photo data
Mike Heffernan, and Kay Anderson. Tracing their entry point to in a GIS has enormous potential to enhance analysis of land-
Edward Said’s Orientalism and the works of Michel Foucault, scape and environmental change. While Japanese historical
critical geographers like Derek Gregory and Joanne Sharp are geographers use cadastral maps of ancient Japan to assess
investigating the representational systems and framings of recent earthquake damage, Anne Knowles has been remapping
geopolitical discourses, including the impacts of the Cold War aspects of the holocaust, and British collaborations locate
on North American social science, which Matthew Farish William Wordsworth as he penned his poems in the Lake
explored in The Contours of America’s Cold War (2010), and the District. Brian Graham and Catherine Nash identified interest
geographies of the War on Terror, which Derek Gregory maps in the study of modernity, but even the title of their reader,
in The Colonial Present (2004). In their work, American impe- Modern Historical Geographies (2000), asserts an array of
rialism is in focus. approaches, concepts, and perspectives. Attention continues to
be directed to many different eras. Historical geographers write
from many perspectives, pursue an array of approaches, and
National Styles connect with different themes during their individual careers.
Fluidity is also true of the institutional frameworks for
Different contexts have inflected specific ‘national’ foci for historical geography. As governments transform their research
historical geography research, and this means that it is prob- funding opportunities, geographical research is increasingly
lematic to read off the content of historical geography from organized in research groups and teams, and the institutional
trends in the UK and USA alone. In New Zealand and Australia, contexts for historical geography morph. As individual geog-
historical geography has long been identified with research into raphy departments refocus their programs, there is often no
environmental management, land use change, colonial land room for a dedicated ‘historical geographer’ and few such
alienation and resettlement, and now with interpretation of positions are advertised but it is also expected that geographers
colonial cultural landscapes. By contrast, in Canada, urban, of all kinds will be historically informed and inquiring. This
industrial, and cultural landscape foci are each equally as means that many departments are homes to excellent historical
important as environmental history or colonialism. In Japan, geographic research but that this is seldom organized under
pre-nineteenth century geographies have been a main focus of the framework of a department of geography with a chair in
 Historical Geography 21

the historical geography of a particular region. Colleagues While he unabashedly sought to discern order in the devel-
appointed in GIS, physical, cultural, economic, social, or urban opment of historical geography, he welcomed experiment,
geography turn their attentions to historical problems and dialog, and encounter and denied that there ever was
research. Some historians are housed in geography depart- a narrowly defined historical geography concerned only with
ments and there is also movement the other way. In these the reconstruction of past geographies and their changes
changed circumstances, knowledge of regional geographies and over time.
histories, the historical geography of capitalism, environmental Historical geography is, as ever, fluid. There are discernible
transformations, human–environment relations, past land- trajectories but just how these are evaluated depends a great
scapes, archival resources, and historical research methods deal upon your point of view. Many historical geographers
remain crucial to much research. express concern over the prospects for their subdiscipline and
discipline, but their concern seldom arises from any sense of
seeing their subject area ‘invaded’ by other interest groups.
Historical Geography in Review Instead, they often express the belief that critical geographers
represent historical geography as stuck in positivist, cross-
The ways in which historical geographers conceive of their field sectional, and regional practices while ignoring most of the
of study have changed considerably over the last 50 years. substantive research in the field, and contend that, because
Contrasting three reviews of historical geography illustrates the other interesting and productive foci have emerged and present
point. In his 1962 classification, H.C. Darby framed historical challenging and inspirational findings, there is now too little
geography as a subdiscipline of geography which comprised attention to region, urban system, ecosystem, or water shed in
research into geographies of the past, changing landscapes, the (historical) geographic research. They perceive a danger that the
role of the past in the present, and the role of geographical sweep of regional and systems change will be missed and
factors and explanations in historical research, or geographical historical explanation eschewed.
history. This latter term has been used in different ways within At the same time many historical geographers interpret the
debates over the scope and content of historical geography. It same developments by celebrating the continued growth and
was used either as a synonym for historical geography or as expansion of a dynamic field of interdisciplinary research with
a descriptor of the special case of the use of geographic factors many new and interesting concepts, theories, and frameworks
to explain historical phenomenon. US historical geographer for research. Historical geographers are in dialog with histo-
Carville Earle argued for a revised historical geography, one rians of all kinds, economic, social, and cultural geographers,
that focused on geographical explanation of historical prob- geographical information scientists, even physical geographers.
lems. Darby’s seemingly programmatic statement reflected the Theorizing space, place, landscape, maps, populations, cities,
struggles within mid-twentieth century geography and has been and environment is increasingly important in history. This is
criticized from many quarters in subsequent years. Neverthe- seen in the many collaborative projects and teams of
less, his review was meant to open a general field of inquiry researchers that have emerged in environmental history, urban
rather than to constrain research. history, social science history, history of cartography, landscape
When defining historical geography for The Dictionary of and cultural studies, and historical demography. For example,
Human Geography (2000), Daniel Clayton declared that some recent works in New Zealand history, such as Eric Pawson
“geographical work on the past has become eclectic and no new and Tom Brooking’s Environmental Histories of New Zealand
orthodoxy for historical geography is likely to emerge.” Such (2002) and Seeds of Empire (2011), or Barbara Brookes, Anne
work was self-consciously interdisciplinary or without disci- Cooper, and Robin Law’s Sites of Gender (2003), feature teams
plinary label. Clayton left the impression that ‘historical of geographers, historians, and social scientists. Indeed, the
geography’ was a label attached to a modernist project of authors publishing in the pages of The Journal of Historical
academic disciplines and one with diminishing purchase as Geography have increasingly diverse backgrounds. Within
critiques of the foundational narratives of modernity intensi- geography time, memory, and the past have proved to be of
fied. For Clayton, the enduring legacy of the subdiscipline was continuing interest as geographers seek to research uneven
its flagship Journal of Historical Geography, which he saw as development in space just as the world seems more intimately
a valuable arena for research and debate. wired and networked than ever before. In each and every
By contrast, in his Geography and History (2003), Alan Baker thematic subdiscipline, geographers need to develop relevant
acknowledged no old orthodoxy for historical geography and historical geographies.
instead identified three general approaches within a broad Historical geography is currently expanding as critical
interdisciplinary field of historical geography – locational geographical work on the past proliferates. The subdisci-
geographies and histories, environmental histories and geog- pline’s borders are open and bridges across the ‘divide’ with
raphies, landscape studies – and a fourth, integrative approach history are multiplying. Historical geography, more eclectic
that emphasized region and area. He argued that regional and more experimental than ever before, is increasingly a site
geographies and histories have a claim to be at the center of for interdisciplinary research as social scientists and
historical geographic research because they are integrative in an historians try to establish which aspects of the twenty-first
explicitly geographic way, and might draw from any of the century world are new and how they are significant.
other three approaches. Baker was at pains to highlight “the Simultaneously, institutional support for the subdiscipline
diversity, the coherence and the relevance of historical geog- has narrowed as geography departments favor thematic
raphy” and “to reconcile some of the oppositions perceived specializations, albeit with historical research interests. This
within it and also between historical geography and history.” situation could be read as a sign of the long-term success of
22 Historical Geography

historical geography: it has helped to establish a permanent Cosgrove, D., Daniels, S. (Eds.), 1988. The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the
place for history within geography. Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments Cambridge.
Driver, F., 2001. Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire. Blackwell,
Oxford.
See also: Cultural Geography; Gender and Feminist Studies in Goudie, A., 1981. The Human Impact on the Natural Environment: Past, Present and
Geography; Landscape; Nature and Society in Geography; Future. Blackwell, Oxford (Seventh ed., 2013).
Postcolonial Geography; Regional Geography; Time-Space in Graham, B., Nash, C., 2000. Modern Historical Geographies. Pearson Education, Harlow.
Harris, R.C., 1971. Theory and synthesis in historical geography. Canadian Geographer
Geography; War and Terrorism, Geography of.
15, 157–172.
Harris, R.C., 1997. The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essays on Colonialism and
Geographical Change. UBC Press, Vancouver.
Harris, R.C., 2004. How did colonialism dispossess? Comments from an edge of
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