Applied Fluid Mechanics

1. The Nature of Fluid and the

Study of Fluid Mechanics
2. Pressure Measurement
3. Forces Due to Static Fluid
4. Buoyancy and Stability
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
6. Forces Due to Fluids in Motion
7. General Energy Equation
8. Reynolds Number, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow
and Energy Losses Due to Friction
9. Minor Losses

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Chapter Objectives
• Define volume flow rate, weight flow rate, and mass flow rate and their
units.

• Define steady flow and the principle of continuity.

• Write the continuity equation, and use it to relate the volume flow rate,
area, and velocity of flow between two points in a fluid flow system.

• Describe five types of commercially available pipe and tubing: steel

pipe, ductile iron pipe, steel tubing, copper tubing, and plastic pipe
and tubing.

• Specify the desired size of pipe or tubing for carrying a given flow rate
of fluid at a specified velocity.
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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Chapter Outline

1. Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

2. Commercially Available Pipe and Tubing

3. Recommended Velocity of Flow in Pipe and Tubing

4. Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

5. Interpretation of Bernoulli’s Equation

6. Restrictions on Bernoulli’s Equation

7. Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

8. Torricelli’s Theorem

9. Flow Due to a Falling Head 3

5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• The quantity of fluid flowing in a system per unit time can be expressed
by the following three different terms:

• Q The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid flowing past a section per
unit time.

• W The weight flow rate is the weight of fluid flowing past a section per
unit time.

• M The mass flow rate is the mass of fluid flowing past a section per unit
time.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• The most fundamental of these three terms is the volume flow rate Q,
which is calculated from

• where A is the area of the section and ν is the average velocity of flow.
The units of Q can be derived as follows, using SI units for illustration:

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• The weight flow rate W is related to Q by

• where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. The units of W are then

• The mass flow rate M is related to Q by

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• The units of M are then

• Table 6.1 shows the flow rates.

• Useful conversions are

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

Table 6.1 The flow rates.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• Table 6.2 shows the typical volume flow rates.

9
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.1
Convert a flow rate of 30 gal/min to ft3/s.

The flow rate is

Example 5.2
Convert a flow rate of 600 L/min to m3/s.

Example 5.3
Convert a flow rate of 600 L/min to m3/s.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• The method of calculating the velocity of flow of a fluid in a closed pipe

system depends on the principle of continuity. This can be expressed in
terms of the mass flow rate as

Fig 6.1 The portion of a fluid distribution system

showing variations in velocity, pressure, and elevation. 11
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• As M = ρAv, we have

• Equation (6–4) is a mathematical statement of the principle of continuity

and is called the continuity equation.

• It is used to relate the fluid density, flow area, and velocity of flow at two
sections of the system in which there is steady flow.

• It is valid for all fluids, whether gas or liquid.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.1 Fluid Flow Rate and the Continuity Equation

• If the fluid in the pipe in Fig. 6.1 is a liquid that can be considered
incompressible, then the terms ρ1 and ρ2 is the same.

• Since Q = Av,

• Equation (6–5) is the continuity equation as applied to liquids; it states

that for steady flow the volume flow rate is the same at any section.
13
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.4
In Fig. 6.1 the inside diameters of the pipe at sections 1 and 2 are 50 mm
and 100 mm, respectively. Water at 70°C is flowing with an average
velocity of 8 m/s at section 1. Calculate the following:

(a) Velocity at section 2

(b) Volume flow rate

(c) Weight flow rate

(d) Mass flow rate

Fig. 6.1
14
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.4
(a) Velocity at section 2.

From Eq. (6–5) we have

Then the velocity at section 2 is

Notice that for steady flow of a liquid, as the flow area increases, the
velocity decreases. This is independent of pressure and elevation. 15
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.4
(b) Volume flow rate Q.

From Table 6.1, Q = Av. Because of the principle of continuity we could

use the conditions either at section 1 or at section 2 to calculate Q.
At section 1, we have

(c) Weight flow rate W.

From Table 6.1, W = γQ. At 70°C, the specific weight of water is

9.59 kN/m3. Then the weight flow rate is

16
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.4
(d) Mass flow rate M.

From Table 6.1, M = ρQ. At the density of water is 978 kg/m3.

Then the mass flow rate is

17
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.5
At one section in an air distribution system, air at 101.35 kPa and 40°C has
an average velocity of 6.1 m/s and the duct is 30.5 cm square. At another
section, the duct is round with a diameter of 457 mm, and the velocity is
measured to be 4.57 m/s. Calculate (a) the density of the air in the round
section and (b) the weight flow rate of air in N/s. At 101.35 kPa and 40°C,
the density of air is 1.134 kg/m3 and the specific weight is 11.14 N/m3.

18
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.5
According to the continuity equation for gases, Eq. (6–4), we have

Then, we can calculate the area of the two sections and solve for ρ2

19
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.5
(a) Then, the density of the air in the round section is

(b) The weight flow rate can be found at section 1 from W = γ1A1v1. Then,
the weight flow rate is

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2 Commercially Available Pipe and Tubing

• The nominal sizes for commercially available pipe still refer to an “inch”
size even though the transition to the SI system is an international trend.

• For many applications, codes and standards must be followed as

established by governmental agencies or organizations such as the
following:

a) Malaysian Standards by Standards and Industrial Research

Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM)
b) Jabatan Perkhidmatan Pembetungan (JPP)
c) International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
d) Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (SPAN)
e) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
21
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.1 Steel Pipe

• General-purpose pipe lines are often constructed of steel pipe.

• Standard pipe sizes are designated by the nominal size and schedule
number.

• Schedule numbers are related to the permissible operating pressure of the

pipe and to the allowable stress of the steel in the pipe.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.1 Steel Pipe
Nominal Pipe Sizes in Metric Units
• Because of the long experience with manufacturing standard pipe
according to the standard schedule numbers, they continue to be used
often even when the piping system is specified in metric units.
• The following set of equivalents has been established by the
International Standards Organization (ISO).

23
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.2 Steel Tubing

• Standard steel tubing is used in fluid power systems, condensers, heat

exchangers, engine fuel systems, and industrial fluid processing
systems.

• Sizes are designated by outside diameter and wall thickness.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.3 Copper Tubing

• There are six types of copper tubing offered, and the choice of which to
use depends on the application, considering the environment, fluid
pressure, and fluid properties.

• Copper tubing is available in either a soft, annealed condition or hard

drawn.

• Drawn tubing is stiffer and stronger, maintains a straight form, and can
carry higher pressures.

• Annealed tubing is easier to form into coils and other special shapes.

25
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.4 Ductile Iron Pipe

• Water, gas, and sewage lines are often made of ductile iron pipe
because of its strength, ductility, and relative ease of handling.

• It has replaced cast iron in many applications.

26
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.5 Plastic Pipe and Tubing

• Plastic pipe and tubing are being used in a wide variety of applications
where their light weight, ease of installation, corrosion and chemical
resistance, and very good flow characteristics present advantages.

27
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.2.6 Hydraulic Hose

• Hose materials include butyl rubber, synthetic rubber, silicone rubber,

thermoplastic elastomers, and nylon.

• Braided reinforcement may be made from steel wire, Kevlar, polyester,

and fabric.

• Industrial applications include steam, compressed air, chemical transfer,

coolants, heaters, fuel transfer, lubricants, refrigerants, paper stock,
power steering fluids, propane, water, foods, and beverages.

28
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.3 Recommended Velocity of Flow in Pipe and Tubing

• Many factors affect the selection of a satisfactory velocity of flow in fluid

systems.

• Some of the important ones are the type of fluid, the length of the flow
system, the type of pipe or tube, the pressure drop that can be
tolerated, the devices (such as pumps, valves, etc.) that may be
connected to the pipe or tube, the temperature, the pressure, and the
noise.

29
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.3 Recommended Velocity of Flow in Pipe and Tubing

• The resulting flow velocities from the recommended pipe sizes in Fig.
6.2 are generally lower for the smaller pipes and higher for the larger
pipes, as shown for the following data.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.3 Recommended Velocity of Flow in Pipe and Tubing
Fig. 6.2 Recommended Flow Velocities for Specialized Systems

31
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.3 Recommended Velocity of Flow in Pipe and Tubing

• For example, recommended flow velocities for fluid power systems are
as follows:

32
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.3 Recommended Velocity of Flow in Pipe and Tubing

• The suction line delivers the hydraulic fluid from the reservoir to the
intake port of the pump.

• A discharge line carries the high-pressure fluid from the pump outlet to
working components such as actuators or fluid motors.

• A return line carries fluid from actuators, pressure relief valves, or fluid
motors back to the reservoir.

33
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.6
Determine the maximum allowable volume flow rate in L/min that can be
carried through a standard steel tube with an outside diameter of 1.25
inches and a 0.065 inches wall thickness if the maximum velocity is to be
3.0 m/s.

Using the definition of volume flow rate, we have

34
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.7
Determine the required size of standard Schedule 40 steel pipe to carry
192 m3/h of water with a maximum velocity of 6.0 ms.

Because Q and v are known, the required area can be found from

First, we must convert the volume flow rate to the units of m3/s:

Then,
35
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.7
This must be interpreted as the minimum allowable area because any
smaller area would produce a velocity higher than 6.0 m/s. Therefore, we
must look in Appendix F for a standard pipe with a flow area just larger
than 8.88 x 10-3 m2. A standard 5-in Schedule 40 steel pipe, with a flow
area of 1.291 x 10-2m2 is required.

The actual velocity of flow when this pipe carries 0.0533 m3/s of water is

If the next-smaller pipe (a 4-in Schedule 40 pipe) is used, the velocity is

36
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.7

Appendix F:
Dimensions of
Steel Pipes

37
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.8
A pumped fluid distribution system is being designed to deliver 0.025 m3/s
of water to a cooling system in a power generation plant. Use Fig. 6.2 to
make an initial selection of Schedule 40 pipe sizes for the suction and
discharge lines for the system. Then compute the actual average velocity of
flow for each pipe.

Fig. 6.2 Recommended

Flow Velocities for
Specialized Systems

38
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.8
Entering Fig. 6.2 at Q = 400 gal/min, we select the following:

The actual average velocity of flow in each pipe is

39
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.8 - Comments
Although these pipe sizes and velocities should be acceptable in normal
service, there are situations where lower velocities are desirable to limit
energy losses in the system.

Compute the velocities resulting from selecting the next-larger standard

Schedule 40 pipe size for both the suction and discharge lines:

40
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.8 - Comments
The actual average velocity of flow in each pipe is

If the pump connections were the 4-in and 3-in sizes from the initial
selection, a gradual reducer and gradual enlargement could be designed
to connect these pipes to the pump.

41
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• In physics you learned that energy can be neither created nor

destroyed, but it can be transformed from one form into another.

• This is a statement of the law of conservation of energy.

Fig 6.3 The element of a fluid in a pipe

42
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• There are three forms of energy that are always considered when
analyzing a pipe flow problem.

1. Potential Energy. Due to its elevation, the potential energy of

the element relative to some reference level is

where w is the weight of the element.

43
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

2. Kinetic Energy. Due to its velocity, the kinetic energy of the

element is

3. Flow Energy. Sometimes called pressure energy or flow work,

this represents the amount of work necessary to move the
element of fluid across a certain section against the pressure p.
Flow energy is abbreviated FE and is calculated from

44
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• Equation (6–8) can be derived as follows.

• The work done is

where V is the volume of the element. The weight of the element w

is

where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. Then, the volume of the
element is

45
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• And we have Eq. (6-8)

Fig 6.4 The flow energy.

46
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• The total amount of energy of these three forms possessed by the

element of fluid is the sum E,

• Each of these terms is expressed in units of energy, which are

Newton-meters (Nm) in the SI unit system and foot-pounds (ft-lb) in
the U.S. Customary System.

47
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• Fig 6.5 shows the fluid elements used in Bernoulli’s equation.

48
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• At section 1 and 2, the total energy is

• If no energy is added to the fluid or lost between sections 1 and 2,

then the principle of conservation of energy requires that

49
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.4 Conservation of Energy – Bernoulli’s Equation

• The weight of the element w is common to all terms and can be

divided out.

• The equation then becomes

• This is referred to as Bernoulli’s equation.

50
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.5 Interpretation of Bernoulli’s Equation

• Each term in Bernoulli’s equation, Eq. (6–9), resulted from dividing an

expression for energy by the weight of an element of the fluid.

• Each term in Bernoulli’s equation is one form of the energy possessed

by the fluid per unit weight of fluid flowing in the system.

• The units for each term are “energy per unit weight.” In the SI system
the units are Nm/N and in the U.S. Customary System the units are
lb.ft/lb.

51
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.5 Interpretation of Bernoulli’s Equation

• Specifically,

• Fig 6.6 shows the pressure

head, elevation head, velocity
head, and total head.

52
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.5 Interpretation of Bernoulli’s Equation

• In Fig. 6.6 you can see that the velocity head at section 2 will be less
than that at section 1. This can be shown by the continuity equation,

• In summary,

Bernoulli’s equation accounts for the changes in elevation head,

pressure head, and velocity head between two points in a fluid
flow system. It is assumed that there are no energy losses or
additions between the two points, so the total head remains
constant.
53
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.6 Restriction on Bernoulli’s Equation
• Although Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to a large number of
practical problems, there are several limitations that must be
understood to apply it properly.

1. It is valid only for incompressible fluids because the specific weight

of the fluid is assumed to be the same at the two sections of
interest.

2. There can be no mechanical devices between the two sections of

interest that would add energy to or remove energy from the
system, because the equation states that the total energy in the
fluid is constant.

3. There can be no heat transferred into or out of the fluid.

54
4. There can be no energy lost due to friction.
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.6 Restriction on Bernoulli’s Equation

• In reality no system satisfies all these restrictions.

• However, there are many systems for which only a negligible error will
result when Bernoulli’s equation is used.

• Also, the use of this equation may allow a fast estimate of a result
when that is all that is required.

55
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

• Below is the procedure for applying Bernoulli’s equation:

1. Decide which items are known and what is to be found.

2. Decide which two sections in the system will be used when writing
Bernoulli’s equation. One section is chosen for which much data is
known. The second is usually the section at which something is to
be calculated.

3. Write Bernoulli’s equation for the two selected sections in the

system. It is important that the equation is written in the direction of
flow. That is, the flow must proceed from the section on the left
side of the equation to that on the right side.
56
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

4. Be explicit when labeling the subscripts for the pressure head,

elevation head, and velocity head terms in Bernoulli’s equation. You
should note where the reference points are on a sketch of the
system.

5. Simplify the equation, if possible, by canceling terms that are zero or

those that are equal on both sides of the equation.

6. Solve the equation algebraically for the desired term.

7. Substitute known quantities and calculate the result, being careful to

use consistent units throughout the calculation.

57
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.9
In Fig. 6.6, water at 10°C is flowing from section 1 to section 2. At section
1, which is 25 mm in diameter, the gage pressure is 345 kPa and the
velocity of flow is 3.0 m/s. Section 2, which is 50 mm in diameter, is 2.0 m
above section 1. Assuming there are no energy losses in the system,
calculate the pressure p2.

List the items that are known from the problem statement before looking
at the next panel.

58
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.9
The pressure p2 is to be found. In other words, we are asked to calculate
the pressure at section 2, which is different from the pressure at section 1
because there is a change in elevation and flow area between the two
sections.

We are going to use Bernoulli’s equation to solve the problem. Which two
sections should be used when writing the equation?

59
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.9
Now write Bernoulli’s equation.

The three terms on the left refer to section 1 and the three on the right
refer to section 2.

60
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.9
The final solution for p2 should be

The continuity equation is used:

This is found from

61
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.9
Now substitute the known values into Eq. (6–10).

The details of the solution are

The pressure p2 is a gage pressure because it was computed relative to

p1, which was also a gage pressure. In later problem solutions, we will
assume the pressures to be gage unless otherwise stated. 62
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.1 Tanks, Reservoirs and Nozzles Exposed to the Atmosphere
 When the fluid at a reference point is exposed to the atmosphere,
the pressure is zero and the pressure head term can be cancelled
from Bernoulli’s equation.

• The tank from which the fluid is being drawn can be assumed to be quite
large compared to the size of the flow area inside the pipe.

 The velocity head at the surface of a tank or reservoir is considered

to be zero and it can be cancelled from Bernoulli’s equation.

Fig 6.7 The siphon.

63
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.2 When Both Reference Points Are in the Same Pipe

 When the two points of reference for Bernoulli’s equation are both
inside a pipe of the same size, the velocity head terms on both sides
of the equation are equal and can be cancelled.

64
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.3 When Elevation Are Equal at Both Reference Point

 When the two points of reference for Bernoulli’s equation are both
at the same elevation, the elevation head terms z1 and z2 are equal
and can be cancelled.

65
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
Figure 6.7 shows a siphon that is used to draw water from a swimming
pool. The pipe that makes up the siphon has an inside diameter of 40 mm
and terminates with a 25-mm diameter nozzle. Assuming that there are no
energy losses in the system, calculate the volume flow rate through the
siphon and the pressure at points B–E.

Figure 6.7 66
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
The first step in this problem solution is to calculate the volume flow rate Q,
using Bernoulli’s equation. The two most convenient points to use for this
calculation are A and F. What is known about point A?

Point A is the free surface of the water in the pool. Therefore, pA = 0 Pa.
Also, because the surface area of the pool is very large, the velocity of the
water at the surface is very nearly zero. Therefore, we will assume vA = 0.

67
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
Point F is in the free stream of water outside the nozzle. Because the
stream is exposed to atmospheric pressure, the pressure pF = 0 Pa. We
also know that point F is 3.0 m below point A.

Because pA = 0 Pa, pF = 0 Pa , and vA is approximately zero, we can

cancel the from the equation. What remains is

68
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
The objective is to calculate the volume flow rate, which depends on the
velocity.

The result is

Using the continuing equation , compute the volume flow rate.

69
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
Points A and B are the best. As shown in the previous panels, using point
A allows the equation to be simplified greatly, and because we are looking
for pB, we must choose point B. Write Bernoulli’s equation for points A and
B, simplify it as before, and solve for pB.

Because pA = 0 and vA = 0, we have

70
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
We can calculate vA by using the continuity equation:

71
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
The pressure at point B is

The negative sign indicates that pB is 4.50 kPa below atmospheric

pressure. Notice that when we deal with fluids in motion, the concept that
points on the same level have the same pressure does not apply as it
does with fluids at rest.

72
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
The next three panels present the solutions for the pressures pC, pD, and
pE, which can be found in a manner very similar to that used for pB.

Complete the solution for pC before looking at the next panel.

73
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
The answer is pC = -16.27 kPa. We use Bernoulli’s equation.

Because pA = 0 and vA = 0, the pressure at point C is

74
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.10
The pressure at point E is 24.93 kPa. We use Bernoulli’s equation:

Because pA = 0 and vA = 0, we have

75
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.3 When Elevation Are Equal at Both Reference Point

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

1. The velocity of flow from the nozzle, and therefore the volume flow
rate delivered by the siphon, depends on the elevation difference
between the free surface of the fluid and the outlet of the nozzle.

2. The pressure at point B is below atmospheric pressure even though

it is on the same level as point A, which is exposed to the
atmosphere. In Eq. (6–11), Bernoulli’s equation shows that the
pressure head at B is decreased by the amount of the velocity head.
That is, some of the energy is converted to kinetic energy, resulting
in a lower pressure at B.

76
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.3 When Elevation Are Equal at Both Reference Point

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

3. When steady flow exists, the velocity of flow is the same at all points
where the pipe size is the same.

4. The pressure at point C is the lowest in the system because point C

is at the highest elevation.

5. The pressure at point D is the same as that at point B because both

are on the same elevation and the velocity head at both points is the
same.

6. The pressure at point E is the highest in the system because point E

is at the lowest elevation.
77
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.4 Venturi Meters and Other Closed Systems with Unknown Velocities

• Figure 6.8 shows a device called a venturi meter that can be used to
measure the velocity of flow in a fluid flow system.

78
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.7.4 Venturi Meters and Other Closed Systems with Unknown Velocities

• The analysis of such a device is based on the application of Bernoulli’s

equation.

• The reduced-diameter section at B causes the velocity of flow to

increase there with a corresponding decrease in the pressure.

• It will be shown that the velocity of flow is dependent on the difference in

pressure between points A and B. Therefore, a differential manometer
as shown is convenient to use.

79
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11
The venturi meter shown in Fig. 6.8 carries water at 60°C. The specific
gravity of the gage fluid in the manometer is 1.25. Calculate the velocity of
flow at section A and the volume flow rate of water.

Fig. 6.8

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

1. Decide what items are known and what is to be found. The elevation
difference between points A and B is known. The manometer allows
the determination of the difference in pressure between points A and
B. The sizes of the sections at A and B are known. The velocity is not
known at any point in the system and the velocity at point A was
specifically requested.

2. Decide on sections of interest. Points A and B are the obvious

choices.

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

3. Write Bernoulli’s equation between points A and B:

4. Simplify the equation, if possible, by eliminating terms that are zero

or terms that are equal on both sides of the equation. No
simplification can be done here.

82
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

5. Solve the equation algebraically for the desired term. This step will
require significant effort. First, note that both of the velocities are
unknown. However, we can find the difference in pressures
between A and B and the elevation difference is known. Therefore,
it is convenient to bring both pressure terms and both elevation
terms onto the left side of the equation in the form of differences.
Then the two velocity terms can be moved to the right side.

The result is

83
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

6. Calculate the result. Several steps are required. The elevation

difference is

The value is negative because B is higher than A. This value will be

used in Eq. (6–12) later. The pressure-head difference term can be
evaluated by writing the equation for the manometer. We will use γg
for the specific weight of the gage fluid, where

84
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

A new problem occurs here because the data in Fig. 6.8 do not
include the vertical distance from point A to the level of the gage fluid
in the right leg of the manometer. We will show that this problem will
be eliminated by simply calling this unknown distance y or any other
variable name.

Now we can write the manometer equation starting at A:

85
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

Note that the two terms containing the unknown y variable can be
cancelled out. Solving for the pressure difference, we find

86
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

The entire left side of Eq. (6–12) has now been evaluated. Note,
however, that there are still two unknowns on the right side, vA and
vB. We can eliminate one unknown by finding another independent
equation that relates these two variables. A convenient equation is
the continuity equation,

87
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.11

We can now take these results, the elevation head difference

[Eq. (6–13)] and the pressure head difference [Eq. (6–14)], back into
Eq. (6–12) and complete the solution. Equation (6–12) becomes

88
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.8 Torricelli’s Theorem

• Fig 6.9 shows the flow from a tank. Fluid is flowing from the side of a
tank through a smooth, rounded nozzle.

89
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.8 Torricelli’s Theorem

• To determine the velocity of flow from the nozzle, write Bernoulli’s

equation between a reference point on the fluid surface and a point in
the jet issuing from the nozzle:

• Equation (6–16) is called Torricelli’s theorem in honor of Evangelista

Torricelli, who discovered it in approximately 1645. 90
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.12
For the tank shown in Fig. 6.9, compute the velocity of flow from the nozzle
for a fluid depth h of 3.00 m.

Fig. 6.9

This is a direct application of Torricelli’s theorem:

91
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.13
For the tank shown in Fig. 6.9, compute the velocity of flow from the
nozzle and the volume flow rate for a range of depth from 3.0 m to 0.50 m
in steps of 0.50 m. The diameter of the jet at the nozzle is 50 mm.

Fig. 6.9

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5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.13
The same procedure used in Example Problem 5.12 can be used to
determine the velocity at any depth. So, at h = 3.0 m, v2 = 7.67 m/s. The
volume flow rate is computed by multiplying this velocity by the area of the
jet:

Then,

Using the same procedure, we compute the following data:

93
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.13
Figure 6.10 is a plot of velocity and volume flow rate versus depth.

94
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.8 Torricelli’s Theorem

• Another interesting application of Torricelli’s theorem is shown in Fig.

6.11, in which a jet of fluid is shooting upward.

Fig. 6.11

95
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.8 Torricelli’s Theorem

• If no energy losses occur, the jet will reach a height equal to the
elevation of the free surface of the fluid in the tank.

• Of course, at this height the velocity in the stream is zero. This can be
demonstrated using Bernoulli’s equation.

• First obtain an expression for the velocity of the jet at point 2:

96
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.8 Torricelli’s Theorem

• Now, write Bernoulli’s equation between point 2 and point 3 at the level
of the free surface of the fluid, but in the fluid stream:

• From Eq. (6–16), v22 = 2gh. Also, (z2 – z3 = -h). Then,

97
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.8 Torricelli’s Theorem

• This result verifies that the stream just reaches the height of the free
surface of the fluid in the tank.

• To make a jet go higher (as with some decorative fountains, for

example), a greater pressure can be developed above the fluid in the
reservoir or a pump can be used to develop a higher pressure.

98
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.14
Using a system similar to that shown in Fig. 6.12, compute the required air
pressure above the water to cause the jet to raise 12.2 m from the nozzle.
The depth h = 1.83 m.

Fig. 6.12 Pressurized tank

delivering a vertical jet

99
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.14
First, use Bernoulli’s equation to obtain an expression for the velocity of
flow from the nozzle as a function of the air pressure.

100
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.14

Then, in this problem, if we want a height of 12.2 m and h = 1.83 m,

101
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9 Flow Due to Falling Head

• Figure 6.13 shows a tank with a smooth, well-rounded nozzle in the

bottom through which fluid is discharging.

• For a given depth of fluid h, Torricelli’s theorem tells us that the velocity
of flow in the jet is

Figure 6.13

102
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9 Flow Due to Falling Head

• In a small amount of time dt, the volume of fluid flowing through the
nozzle is

• Meanwhile, because fluid is leaving the tank, the fluid level is

decreasing.

• During the small time increment dt, the fluid level drops a small distance
dh. Then, the volume of fluid removed from the tank is

103
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9 Flow Due to Falling Head

• These two volumes must be equal. Then,

• Solving for the time dt, we have

• From Torricelli’s theorem, we can substitute

104
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9 Flow Due to Falling Head

• Rewriting to separate the terms involving h gives

• The time required for the fluid level to fall from a depth h1 to a depth h2
can be found by integrating Eq. (6–23):

105
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9 Flow Due to Falling Head

• We can reverse the two terms involving h and remove the minus sign.

106
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.15
For the tank shown in Fig. 6.13, find the time required to drain the tank
from a level of 3.0 m to 0.50 m. The tank has a diameter of 1.50 m and the
nozzle has a diameter of 50 mm.

To use Eq. (6–26), the required areas are

Figure 6.13 107

5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 5.15
The ratio of these two areas is required:

Now, in Eq. (6–26),

This is equivalent to 6 min and 57 s.

108
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9.1 Draining a Pressurized Tank

• If the tank in Fig. 6.13 is sealed with a pressure above the fluid, the
piezometric head p/γ should be added to the actual liquid depth before
completing the calculations called for in Eq. (6–25).

109
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9.2 Effect of Type of Nozzle

• The development of Eq. (6–26) assumes that the diameter of the jet of
fluid flowing from the nozzle is the same as the diameter of the nozzle
itself.

• Fig 6.14 shows the flow through a sharp-edged orifice.

Fig 6.14

110
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
5.9.2 Effect of Type of Nozzle

• The proper area Aj to use for in Eq. (6–26) is that at the smallest
diameter.

• This point, called the vena contracta, occurs slightly outside the orifice.

• For this sharp-edged orifice, Aj = 0.62A0 is a good approximation.

111