Applied Fluid Mechanics

1. The Nature of Fluid and the

Study of Fluid Mechanics
2. Pressure Measurement
3. Forces Due to Static Fluid
4. Buoyancy and Stability
5. Flow of Fluid and Bernoulli’s Equation
6. Forces Due to Fluids in Motion
7. General Energy Equation
8. Reynolds Number, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow
and Energy Losses Due to Friction
9. Minor Losses

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Chapter Objectives

1. Compute the force exerted on a plane area by a pressurized gas.

2. Compute the force exerted by any static fluid acting on a horizontal plane
area.

3. Compute the resultant force exerted on a rectangular wall by a static

liquid.

4. Define the term center of pressure.

5. Compute the resultant force exerted on any submerged plane area by a

static liquid.

6. Show the vector representing the resultant force on any submerged plane
area in its proper location and direction.

2
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Chapter Objectives

7. Visualize the distribution of force on a submerged curved surface.

8. Compute the total resultant force on the curved surface.

9. Compute the direction in which the resultant force acts and show its line of
action on a sketch of the surface.

10. Include the effect of a pressure head over the liquid on the force on a
plane or curved surface.

3
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Chapter Outline
1. Introductory Concepts

2. Gases Under Pressure

3. Horizontal Flat Surfaces Under Liquids

4. Rectangular Walls

5. Submerged Plane Areas-General

6. Development of the General Procedure for Forces on Submerged Plane

Areas

7. Piezometric Head

8. Distribution of Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

9. Effect of a Pressure Above the Fluid Surface

10. Forces on a Curved Surface with Fluid Below It

11. Forces on Curved Surfaces with Fluid Above and Below 4

3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.1 Introductory Concepts
• Fig 4.1 shows the examples of cases where forces on
submerged areas must be computed.

5
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.1 Introductory Concepts

• The fluid exerts a force on the surface of interest that acts perpendicular to

the surface, where F = pA.

• We apply these equations directly only when the pressure is uniform over

the entire area of interest.

• An example is when the fluid is a gas for which we consider the pressure to

be equal throughout the gas because of its low specific weight.

6
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.2 Gases Under Pressure

Fig. 4.2
The fluid
power
cylinder.

• The air pressure acts on the piston face, producing a force that causes
the linear movement of the rod.

• The pressure also acts on the end of the cylinder, tending to pull it apart.

• Therefore, we can calculate the force on the piston and the cylinder ends
directly from F = pA. 7
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.1
If the cylinder in Fig. 4.2 has an internal diameter of 51 mm and operates at a
pressure of 2070 kPa (gage), calculate the force on the ends of the cylinder.

F = pA
πD 2 π (0.051m )2
A= = = 0.002m 2
4 4
2070 ×103 N / m 2
F= 2
× 0.002m 2 = 4.41kN
m

• Notice that gage pressure was used in the calculation of force instead of absolute
pressure.
• The additional force due to atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the area and
is thus balanced.
• If the pressure on the outside surface is not atmospheric, then all external forces
must be considered to determine a net force on the area.
8
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.3 Horizontal Flat Surfaces Under Liquids

• Fig 4.3 shows the cylindrical drum.

• The pressure in the water at the bottom of the drum is uniform across the
entire area because it is a horizontal plane in a fluid at rest.

• We can simply use F = pA to calculate the force on the bottom

9
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.2
If the drum in Fig. 4.3 is open to the atmosphere at the top, calculate the force
on the bottom.

10
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.3
Would there be any difference between the force on the bottom of the drum in
Fig. 4.3 and that on the bottom of the cone-shaped container in Fig. 4.4?

11
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.3

The force would be the same because the pressure at the bottom is
dependent only on the depth and specific weight of the fluid in the
container. The total weight of fluid is not the controlling factor.

Comment: The force computed in these two example problems is the

force exerted by the fluid on the inside bottom of the container. Of
course, when designing the support structure for the container, the total
weight of the container and the fluids must be considered. For the
structural design, the cone-shaped container will be lighter than the
cylindrical drum.
12
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.4 Rectangular Walls

Fig 4.5 Rectangular walls.

• They are walls which exposed to a pressure varying from zero on the
surface of the fluid to a maximum at the bottom of the wall.

• The force due to the fluid pressure tends to overturn the wall or break it at
the place where it is fixed to the bottom.

• The actual force is distributed over the entire wall, but for the purpose of
analysis it is desirable to determine the resultant force and the place where
it acts, called the center of pressure.
13
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.4 Rectangular Walls
• Fig 4.6 shows the vertical rectangular wall.

14
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.4 Rectangular Walls

• The total resultant force can be calculated from the equation

where pavg is the average pressure and A is the total area of the wall.

• But the average pressure is that at the middle of the wall and can be
calculated from the equation

where h is the total depth of the fluid.

15
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.4 Rectangular Walls

• Therefore, we have

• The center of pressure is at the centroid of the pressure distribution triangle,

one third of the distance from the bottom of the wall.

• The resultant force acts perpendicular to the wall at this point.

16
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.4 Rectangular Walls

• Below are the procedures for computing the force on a rectangular wall:

1. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force from

2. Locate the center of pressure at a vertical distance of from the bottom of

the wall.

3. Show the resultant force acting at the center of pressure perpendicular to

the wall.
17
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.4
In Fig. 4.6, the fluid is gasoline and
the total depth is 3.7 m. The wall is
12.2 m long. Calculate the
magnitude of the resultant force on
the wall and the location of the
center of pressure. sggasoline= 0.68.

FR = γ (h / 2 )A
γ = (0.68)(9.81kN / m 3 ) = 6.67kN / m3
A = (3.7m )(12.2m ) = 45.14m 2
6.67 kN / m 2 3.7 m
FR = 3
× × 45.14m 2 = 557.0kN
m 2

The center of pressure at a vertical distance of from the bottom of the wall:
The force acts perpendicular to the wall at the center of pressure.
18
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.5
Figure 4.7 shows a dam 30.5 m long that retains 8 m of fresh water and is
inclined at an angle of 60°. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force on the
dam and the location of the center of pressure.

19
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.5

To calculate the area of the dam we need the length of its face, called L

Then, the area of the dam is

Now we can calculate the resultant force:

20
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.5
The center of pressure is at a vertical distance of
from the bottom of the dam,
or, measured from the bottom of the dam along the face of the dam, the
center of pressure is at

Measured along the face of the dam we define

We show FR acting at the center of pressure perpendicular to the wall.

21
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

• Fig 4.8 shows the force on a submerged plane area.

22
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General
• The standard dimensions and symbols used in the procedure described later are
shown in the figure and defined as follows:

23
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

• Fig 4.9 shows the properties of a rectangle.

Ic = moment of inertia of the area

24
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

• Below are the procedure for computing the force on a submerged plane
area:

1. Identify the point where the angle of inclination of the area of interest
intersects the level of the free surface of the fluid. This may require the
extension of the angled surface or the fluid surface line. Call this point S.

2. Locate the centroid of the area from its geometry.

3. Determine hc as the vertical distance from the level of the free surface
down to the centroid of the area.

25
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

4. Determine Lc as the inclined distance from the level of the free surface
down to the centroid of the area. This is the distance from S to the
centroid. Note that hc and Lc are related by

5. Calculate the total area A on which the force is to be determined.

6. Calculate the resultant force from

where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. This equation states that the
resultant force is the product of the pressure at the centroid of the area and
the total area. 26
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

7. Calculate Ic the moment of inertia of the area about its centroidal axis.

8. Calculate the location of the center of pressure from

Notice that the center of pressure is always below the centroid of an area
that is inclined with the horizontal. In some cases it may be of interest to
calculate only the difference between Lp and Lc from

27
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

9. Sketch the resultant force FR acting at the center of pressure,

perpendicular to the area.

10. Show the dimension Lp on the sketch in a manner similar to that used in
Fig. 4.8.

11. Draw the dimension lines for Lp and Lc from a reference line drawn
through point S and perpendicular to the angle of inclination of the area.

28
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.5 Submerged Plane Areas - General

12. If it is desired to compute the vertical depth to the center of pressure, hp

either of two methods can be used. If the distance Lp has already been
computed, use

Alternatively, Step 8 could be avoided and hp can be computed directly

from

29
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.6
The tank contains a lubricating oil with a specific gravity of 0.91. A rectangular gate with
the dimensions B = 1.2 m and H = 0.6 m is placed in the inclined wall of the tank (θ =
60°). The centroid of the gate is at a depth of 1.5 m from the surface of the oil. Calculate
(a) the magnitude of the resultant force FR on the gate and (b) the location of the center
of pressure.

30
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.6
The terms Lc and hc are related in this case by

Therefore, we have

Because the area of the rectangle is BH,

We need the specific weight of the oil:

31
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.6
Then we have
8.92kN
FR = γ 0 hc A = 3
× 1.5 m × 0. 72 m 2
= 9.63kN
m
We find that for a rectangle,

Because Ic=0.02 m4, Lc=1.73 m, and A=0.72 m2,

Ic 0.02m 4
L p = Lc + = 1.73m +
Lc A (
(1.73m ) 0.72m 2 )
L p = 1.73m + 0.016m = 1.75m

This means that the center of pressure is 0.016 m (or 16 mm) below the
centroid of the gate. Be sure you understand how the dimension Lp is
drawn from the reference line. 32
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6 Development of the General Procedure for Forces on Submerged Plane Areas

• The resultant force is defined as the summation of the forces on small

elements of interest.

• Fig 4.11 shows the development of the general procedure for forces on
submerged plane areas.

33
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6 Development of the General Procedure for Forces on Submerged Plane Areas

• On any small area dA, there exists a force dF acting perpendicular to the area
owing to the fluid pressure p. But the magnitude of the pressure at any depth h in
a static liquid of specific weight is p = γh.

• Then, the force is

• Because the area is inclined at an angle it is convenient to work in the plane of the
area, using y to denote the position on the area at any depth h. Note that

where y is measured from the level of the free surface of the fluid along the angle
of inclination of the area. Then,

34
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6 Development of the General Procedure for Forces on Submerged Plane Areas

35
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6 Development of the General Procedure for Forces on Submerged Plane Areas

• The summation of forces over the entire area is accomplished by the

mathematical process of integration,

• From mechanics we learn that is equal to the product of the total area
times the distance to the centroid of the area from the reference axis. That is,

• Then, the resultant force is

• This is the same form as Eq. (4–4). Because each of the small forces dF acted
perpendicular to the area, the resultant force also acts perpendicular to the area. 36
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6.1 Center of Pressure

• The center of pressure is that point on an area where the resultant force
can be assumed to act so as to have the same effect as the distributed
force over the entire area due to fluid pressure.

• The moment of each small force dF is

• But

37
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6.1 Center of Pressure
• Now, if we assume that the resultant force acts at the center of pressure, its
moment with respect to the axis through S is FRLp. Then

• Substituting FR from Eq. (4–10) gives

• A more convenient expression can be developed by using the transfer theorem for
moment of inertia from mechanics.

• Equation (4–12) then becomes

38
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.6.1 Center of Pressure

• Rearranging gives the same form as Eq. (4–6):

• We now continue the development by creating an expression for the

vertical depth to the center of pressure hp. Starting from Eq. (4–13), note
the following relationships:

• Then,

39
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.7 Piezometric Head

• In all the problems demonstrated so far, the free surface of the fluid was
exposed to the ambient pressure where p = 0 (gage).

Illustration of
piezometric head.

40
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.7 Piezometric Head

• A convenient method uses the concept of piezometric head, in which the

actual pressure above the fluid, is converted into an equivalent depth of
the fluid, that would create the same pressure (Fig. 4.12):

• This depth is added to any depth h below the free surface to obtain an
equivalent depth, That is,

• The equivalent depth to the centroid is

41
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.7
The tank contains a lubricating oil with a specific gravity of 0.91. A rectangular gate with
the dimensions B = 1.2 m and H = 0.6 m is placed in the inclined wall of the tank (θ =
60°). The centroid of the gate is at a depth of 1.5 m from the surface of the oil. Calculate
(a) the magnitude of the resultant force FR on the gate and (b) the location of the center
of pressure. Consider that the tank shown in is sealed at its top and that there is a
pressure of 10.3 kPa (gage) above the oil.

42
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.7

Several calculations in the solution to Example Problem 4.6 used the depth
to the centroid, given to be 1.5 m below the surface of the oil. With the
pressure above the oil, we must add the piezometric head from Eq. (4–14).
Using γ = 8.92 kN/m3, we get

pa10.3kN / m 2
ha = = = 1.15m
γ 8.92kN / m 3

Then, the equivalent depth to the centroid is

43
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.7

The resultant force is then

Compare this with the value of 9.63 kN found before for the open tank.
The center of pressure also changes because the distance Lc changes Lce
to as follows:
Lce = hce / sin θ = 2.65m / sin 60° = 3.0m
Ic 0.02m 4
L pe − Lce = = = 0.009m = 9mm
(
Lce A (3.0m ) 0.72m 2
)
Therefore, center of pressure, Lpe located at 9 mm below centroid of the
gate, Lce .
44
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8 Distribution of Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

• Fig 4.13 shows the tank with a curved surface containing a static fluid.

45
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8 Distribution of Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

Fig 4.14 shows the free-body

diagram of a volume of fluid
above the curved surface.

• One way to visualize the total

force system involved is to
isolate the volume of fluid
directly above the surface of
interest as a free body and
show all the forces acting on
it, as shown in Fig. 4.14.

46
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.1 Horizontal Force

• The vertical solid wall at the left exerts horizontal forces on the fluid in
contact with it in reaction to the forces due to the fluid pressure.

• The magnitude of F2b and its location can be found using the procedures
developed for plane surfaces. That is,

where hc is the depth to the centroid of the projected area.

• Calling the height of the rectangle s, you can see that hc = h + s/2. Also, the
area is sw, where w is the width of the curved surface. Then,

47
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.1 Horizontal Force

• Again using the principles developed earlier, we get

• For the rectangular projected area, however,

• Then,

48
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.2 Vertical Force

• The vertical component of the force exerted by the curved surface on

the fluid can be found by summing forces in the vertical direction.

• Only the weight of the fluid acts downward, and only the vertical
component acts upward.

• Vertical Force,

49
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.3 Resultant Force

• The total resultant force is

• The resultant force acts at an angle relative to the horizontal found from

50
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.4 Summary of the Procedure for Computing the Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

1. Isolate the volume of fluid above the surface.

2. Compute the weight of the isolated volume.

3. The magnitude of the vertical component of the resultant force is equal to

the weight of the isolated volume. It acts in line with the centroid of the
isolated volume.

4. Draw a projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane and

determine its height, called s.

5. Compute the depth to the centroid of the projected area from the below,
where h is the depth to the top of the projected area.

51
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.4 Summary of the Procedure for Computing the Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

6. Compute the magnitude of the horizontal component of the resultant force

from

7. Compute the depth to the line of action of the horizontal component from

8. Compute the resultant force from

52
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.8.4 summary of the Procedure for Computing the Force on a Submerged Curved Surface

9. Compute the angle of inclination of the resultant force relative to the

horizontal from

10. Show the resultant force acting on the curved surface in such a direction
that its line of action passes through the center of curvature of the surface.

53
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8
For the tank shown in Fig. 4.13, the following dimensions apply:

Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force on the
curved surface and the resultant force itself. Show these force vectors on a
sketch. 54
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8

Using the steps outlined above:

1. The volume above the curved surface is shown in Fig. 4.15.
2. The weight of the isolated volume is the product of the specific weight
of the water times the volume. The volume is the product of the area
times the length w.

55
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8

Fig. 4.15

56
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8

3. Then Fv = 153.7 N, acting upward through the centroid of the volume.

The location of the centroid is found using the composite-area
technique. Refer to Fig. 4.15 for the data. Each value should be obvious
except the location of the centroid of the quadrant.

From Appendix L,

Then, the location of the centroid for the composite area is

57
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8

4. The vertical projection of the curved surface is shown in Fig. 4.15.

The height s equals 1.50 m.
5. The depth to the centroid of the projected area is

6. The magnitude of the horizontal force is

7. The depth to the line of action of the horizontal component is found

from

58
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8

8. The resultant force is computed from

9. The angle of inclination of the resultant force relative

to the horizontal is computed from

59
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
Example 3.8

10. The horizontal component, the vertical

component, and the resultant force are
shown in Fig. 4.16. Note that the line of
action FR of is through the center of
curvature of the surface. Also note that the
vertical component is acting through the
centroid of the volume of liquid above the
surface. The horizontal component is
acting through the center of pressure of
the projected area at a depth hp from the
level of the free surface of the fluid.
60
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.9 Effect of Pressure above the Fluid Surface

• If an additional pressure exists above the fluid or if the fluid itself is

pressurized, the effect is to add to the actual depth a depth of fluid
equivalent to p/γ.

• This is the same procedure, called piezometric head.

61
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.10 Forces on a Curved Surface with Fluid Below It

• Fig 4.17 shows the curved surface restraining a liquid below it.

62
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.10 Forces on a Curved Surface with Fluid Below It

• The pressure in the fluid at any point is dependent on the depth of fluid to
that point from the level of the free surface.

• This situation is equivalent to having the curved surface supporting a

volume of liquid above it, except for the direction of the force vectors.

• Fig 4.18 shows the forces exerted by a curved surface on the fluid.

• As before, the horizontal component of the force exerted by the curved

surface on the fluid is the force on the projection of the curved surface on
a vertical plane.

• The vertical component is equal to the weight of the imaginary volume of

fluid above the surface. >>>> Archimedes Principle - a body in water will
experience vertical force equivalent to the weight of the volume of water displaced by the
63
body.
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.10 Forces on a Curved Surface with Fluid Below It

Fig 4.18 shows the forces exerted by a curved surface on the fluid.

64
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.11 Forces on Curved Surfaces with Fluid above and below

• Fig 4.19 shows the semi-cylindrical gate.

65
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.11 Forces on Curved Surfaces with Fluid above and below

• The force due to fluid pressure would have a horizontal component acting
to the right on the gate.

• This force acts on the projection of the surface on a vertical plane and is
computed in the same manner as used in Section 4.8.

• However, there is also a force acting upward on the bottom surface of the
gate equal to the total weight of the fluid, both real and imaginary, above
that surface.

• The net vertical force is the difference between the two forces, equal to
the weight of the semicylindrical volume of fluid displaced by the gate
itself. >>>> Archimedes Principle- a body in water will experience vertical force
equivalent to the weight of the volume of water displaced by the body.
66
3. Forces due to Static Fluid
3.11 Forces on Curved Surfaces with Fluid above and below

• Fig 4.19 shows the volumes used to compute the net vertical force on the
gate.

67