MODULE II

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION

Lesson 1 General Network

Classification Methods

Lesson 2 Local Area Network

(LAN)

Lesson 3 Metropolitan Area

Network (MAN) and
Wide Area Network
(WAN)

Lesson 4 Internetworking
(Internet)

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MODULE II

NETWORK CLASSIFICATIONS

 INTRODUCTION

Computer networks can be classified based on several factors, for

example bandwidth, common applications, common hardware. The most
known classification is based on the physical size of the network.
In this module you will learn how to classify networks according to
their size, topology, and applications in particular local area networks
(LAN’s), metropolitan area networks (MAN’s), and wide area networks
(WAN’s). We will describe the standard topologies and their variations,
advantages and disadvantages.
Internetworking is based on connecting and switching technologies.
So we will provide you a detailed description of these technologies.
Finally this module provides a general description of the Internet,
Intranet and Extranet and the differences and similarities between them.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Describe a local area network (LAN) metropolitan area network

(MAN) a wide area network (WAN) and identify the primary
difference between a LAN and a WAN.
2. Describe the standard topologies their variations and identify the
advantages and disadvantages of each topology.
3. Determine an appropriate topology for a given network plan.
4. Classify the wide area network (WAN)
5. Describe how packet switching works.
6. Generally, explain the concept of the internetworking
7. Generally, explain the concept of switching technologies
8. Describe the Internet, Intranet and Extranet and identify the
primary difference between them.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited

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from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your
instructor or to the College of Computer Science office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor

during the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your instructor at the
College of Computer Science office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 General Classification Methods

3.2 Networks Classification by Geographical Coverage

Computer networks have become an integral and indispensable part

of scientific as well as public life today. Over the last couple of decades
data networks have changed their character from a slow speed point to
point connection to a high-speed data communication backbone supporting
full multimedia information transfer. The last few years have seen a
phenomenal rise in the interest in the collection of computers and networks
known as the Internet, intranet and extranet.
Networks span the entire globe and belong to many different nations
and network operators. Such networks can be classified in many ways
depending on the geographical coverage, the network topology, the
ownership, the switching mechanism, the transmission speed, etc.
The different types of computer networks are working with different
speeds. In general, networks with smaller geographic expansion run at a
faster speed: WANs often slower than 1 Mbps, LANs at about 10 Mbps, and
High-speed LANs up to 100 Mbps. New technologies like ATM promise speeds
up to two Gbps and more for all kinds of networks. Remember that not all of
this performance can be used to transmit the true data, because
considerable parts of the data are headers with control information.
Figure 3.1 displaying the speed-requirements of different applications
shows, why permanently higher speeds are necessary.

1.1 Networks Classification by Geographical Coverage

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Networks can be classified into 3 categories depending on their

geographical coverage (from the smallest to the largest) as follows:
1. Local Area Networks (LANs)
2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
3. Wide Area Networks (WANs).
Table 2.1 shows the distance between two communication points
connected on the different types of networks.

Table 2.1: The distance between two communication points according to

geographical coverage.


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EXERCISE
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1. Classify networks by Geographical Coverage.

Lesson 2

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 Local Area Network

2
3.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a data communication network, which connects many

computers or workstations (computers terminal, printer etc.) and
permits exchange of data and information among them, within a
localized area, typically confined to a building, or a cluster of
buildings.
LAN applications include communications between the
workstation and host computers, other workstations, and servers. The
servers may serve to provide the workstation with access to text
files, image files, applications, printers, or communications software
for access to the WAN.
The shared medium for LANs includes most known transmission
medium. Although coaxial cable was the original medium and still is
used widely in various configurations, twisted-pair has recently
become the medium of choice in many environments. Optical fiber
cable is used widely as a backbone technology, although it seldom is
deployed to the desktop. Wireless (microwave, Bluetooth and
infrared) LANs generally are limited to special radio technologies.
Satellite rarely is used in any way, as propagation delay renders it
generally unsatisfactory for interactive communications.
LANs are not rigidly defined but tend to share most of all of
the following characteristics:
 All the connected devices in the network share the
transmission media.
 Each device connected in the network can either operate
standalone or in the network.
 Area covered is small.
 Data transfer rates are high.
 Each device connected in the network can communicate with
any other device in network.
 The setting up cost of the network is usually low.

Limitations:

1. Higher administrative costs

2. Higher installation costs
3. Difficult troubleshooting.
4. Higher security risks.

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Advantages:

1. Sharing Resources
2. GroupWare and communication applications
3. Centralized administration
4. Centralized policy (support, licensing, etc.)

3.2 LAN Topologies

Networks extend over physical areas, just as rivers and

mountains do. When data communication experts are designing new
networks, they are concerned with how the networks traverse these
physical areas. The spatial arrangement of communication nodes in a
distributed computing environment is called the network topology.
Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages
and disadvantages. A communication node is any end-point or
intersection point in the communication network. A node might be a
computer or some other form of data terminal equipment (DTE) that
is attached to the network and serve as the end receiver or
originating sender of messages sent over the network. At intersection
points within the network nodes involve data communication
equipment (data circuit-terminating equipment) (DCE) such as
bridges, switches, hubs, and routers, which tie individual segments of
the network together. The choice of topology is dependent upon:

1. Type and number of equipment being used.

2. Planned applications and rate of data transfers
3. Required response times
4. Cost

2.2.1 Bus Topology

A bus topology was the first, and is still quite commonly used
topology for simple networks. It connects end-nodes, which are
strung out along a line, like pearls on a necklace. Bus topologies
evolved very early in the history of communication networks, before
the invention of the computer. Figure 3.2 shows a Bus topology.

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Busses are still used extensively today in the topology of many

local area networks that connect computers located within a short
distance of one another.
Busses have some particular attributes that make them
especially useful in the wiring of local area networks. The wires of
the bus line can be run down hallways in wiring conduits or under
floors or above ceiling panels. At each office where a network
connection is required, which in the terminology of bus topology may
be called a drop points, connections tap into the bus line. If needed,
sidelines called spurs can be attached to the main bus; for example,
these may provide connections to offices located down adjacent
hallways.
Another frequent way to interconnect bus topologies in local
area networks is by a wiring hub. These simple devices connect each
node on the network into a central wiring box. However, the
connections still operate logically as a bus; no switching or routing is
performed in the wiring hub. These interconnection devices are
frequently used in situations where all of the computers on the
network are grouped in a single location, such as in an office or in a
computer lab.
Among the main advantages of bus topologies is that they are
easy to design and install. Also, bus topologies tend to make efficient
use of wiring; all end nodes tap into the same bus and use the same
“bus route.” However, this can lead to a disadvantage when, as with
the case of many local area networks, the individual nodes share the
same physical wire, in such a case, many nodes that are all busy
transmitting can reduce overall throughput. A main disadvantage of
bus topology is that any break in the bus line will result in the split of
the network into two non-communicating pieces. Usually, this
disruption will result in the inability of one or more nodes to lose
communication ability. In network slang, one would say, “the line
break brought down the network.”
The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable.
As the message arrives at each workstation, the workstation

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computer checks the destination address contained in the message to

see if it matches it has own. If the address does not match, the
workstation does nothing more.
If the workstation’s address matches that contained in the
message, the workstation processes the message. The message is
transmitted along the cable and is visible to all computers connected
to that cable.

2.2.2 Star Topologies

A major type of topographical configuration that evolved from

early-centralized communication networks is called the star topology
It is frequently used in wide area networks to connect several nodes
into a central computer. Early computer networks frequently
consisted of dumb terminals connected to the centralized host using
a network constructed in a star topology. Figure 3.3 shows a Star
topology.

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Star networks have an advantage that if any of the lines

running to a node is disrupted, the other nodes will normally not
suffer any loss of communication and the network remains operative.
However, it suffers from one very disturbing problem, which is
generally considered a great flow in network design; it involves a
single point of failure. This is a condition where a failure in one single
element in the equipment of a network results in the “outage”
(meaning general failure) of the entire network. Under certain
conditions, star networks can lead to excessive line installation and
maintenance costs, because a separate wiring path must be
established between the central point and the end nodes. Another
problem may arise when the star’s central point is a switching device
designed simply to pass communications between attached nodes. In
such cases, excessive communication traffic can lead to congestion
and cause delays or delivery failures.
2.2.3 Ring Topologies

In Ring architecture, each workstation on the network is

connected to two other workstations, forming a loop or ring as
illustrated in the Figure 3.4. Data is sent around the loop in one
direction (two-way rings also exist). Conflicts in the Transmission of
data is avoided with token ring technology, which grants messages a
“token” or permission to send. Each workstation receives regenerates
and retransmits a token signal until it reaches its destination.
Ring topology provides stable networking for over 10 users.
Like Bus topologies, rings are easy and relatively inexpensive to
install. The number of workstations on the ring determines response
time on a ring. Even if one connection fails, the rest of the network
will function.
The ring topology is an older technology with a few limitations.
The ring is difficult to troubleshoot, because when one connection
fails, it is hard to determine where that problem is. Reconfiguring a
ring will shut down the network.

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2.2.4 Tree Topology

In Tree architecture, each device is connected to its own port

on a hub, just like the star topology. A tree or "star of stars" topology
interconnects hubs in a hierarchy; so one hub at the top of the
hierarchy will connect to more hubs, which will break off to clients
and even more hubs. Figure 3.5 shows a simple tree topology.
The highly flexible tree topology lets you add users by simply
adding a hub. Centralized monitoring and administration make it
easier to control a large network or reconfigure it. Isolating problems
is easy, and if one node goes down, the rest of the
network stays online.
An extensive tree topology will be more expensive to
administer than any of the previous topologies due to its size and
complexity. If a hub cable or a hub fails, a portion of the network will
go down.

2.2.5 Mesh Topologies

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Large networks often use combinations of the above network

topologies. Such complex network topologies go by several names,
but we will simply refer to them collectively as mesh topology
networks. They provide the network designer a great deal of
flexibility in meeting the needs of a complex communications
environment. Using communications equipment to connect buses,
stars, rings and “stand-alone” computers forms mesh networks. The
overall topologies of large modern businesses mostly are mesh
topology. Such mesh networks can be quite difficult to manage and
may often prove less reliable to operate due to their complexity. For
the purpose of simplifying the tasks of network design or
management, network analysts and administrators may "decompose"
these complex networks into their elementary star, ring, or bus
topological components.

 1.
EXERCISE
What are the shared LAN characteristics?
2. List some of LANs advantages.
3. List the most popular LAN topologies.
4. List the main advantages and drawbacks of every one of these
topologies.

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Lesson 3

 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN’s) and

Wide Area Networks (WAN’s)

3.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN's)

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A MAN is a data communications network or interconnected groups of

data networks that have geographic boundaries of a metropolitan area.
MANs are used to connect networks that are totally or partially segregated
from other networks. MAN’s offer the ability to connect networks across a
metropolitan area as if they were co-located in the same building or on the
same campus. To create a MAN, businesses install communications links
between the LANs. The backbone interconnection for a MAN is routinely high
capacity fiber-based systems. This provides a fairly high data transfer rate
and provides a high degree of fault tolerance. MAN’s commonly use dual ring
fiber systems that are self-healing (automatic connection rerouting) to allow
uninterrupted communication if fiber line is cut or damaged. MAN can mean
several things in different contexts:

 Multiple local area networks (LANs) that are connected on a campus

or industrial complex using a high-speed backbone.
 Multiple networks that are connected within the same city to form a
citywide network for a specific government or industry.
 Any network bigger than a LAN but smaller than a wide area network
(WAN).

Figure 3.6 shows a five node MAN to connect several LAN systems via a FDDI
system. This diagram shows that each LAN may be connected within the
MAN using different technology such as T1 copper access lines, digital
subscriber line (DSL), coax, microwave, or fiber connections. In each case, a
router provides a connection from each LAN to connect to the MAN.

By late years wireless standards are designed as a broadband data

delivery system for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) to overcome many of
the shortcomings of FDDI when used in a MAN environment, and can operate
in licensed and unlicensed wide bands.

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3.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network or WANs are communication networks that provide

data transmission services through large geographically separate areas as shown in
Figure 3.7. A WAN is usually composed of several different data networks such as
PDNs, LANs, and MANs. Different types of communication lines such as leased lines
(dedicated connections), packet data systems, or fiber transmission lines can
interconnect these networks. WANs may be interconnected to and/or through the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) or public packet data networks (such as
the Internet). WAN can be established by linking together two or more
metropolitan area networks, which enables data terminals in one city to access
data resources in another city or country using most other types of circuit including
satellite networks, and integrated service digital network (ISDN).When wide area
networks use wireless technologies, they are commonly called mobile data
networks (MDNs).

WAN can be useful when companies have multiple locations that need to
share network resources. For example, maybe the company’s accounting system
runs at the headquarters building where the accounting and MIS staff are located,
but the warehouse across town still needs access to the accounting system for
inventory picking tickets, data entry, and other order fulfillment and inventory
tasks.

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A particular WAN technology depends on many factors such as:

 the locations that will participate in the WAN
 the kind of WAN services available to them
 The data traffic and transmission rate from site to site
 The speed needed to transfer data
 Does the data transfer need to be synchronous or can it be
asynchronous?
 The schedule of data transfers(all the time, occur once every 30
minutes, or follow some other)
 the budget constraints.

WAN can be classified by ownership as private networks and public

networks, and can be classified by transmission and switching mechanism as
switched and dedicated networks.

3.2.1 Private and Public WAN

A private network is exclusively owned by a particular company.

All LANs are private networks, but WANs can be private or public.

Private WAN is a term used to describe a private network that crosses

public areas. In Internet terminology, a private network is a network that
uses private IP address space when it is necessary for computers to
communicate with other on an internal (non-Internet) network, these
addresses can't be used to access the Internet.

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An alternative to the private network is the VPN (virtual private

network). The carrier preprograms a path through the network, called a
virtual circuit, and provides a contracted amount of bandwidth (called the
CIR or committed information rate). The advantage of packet switching as
compared to leased lines is that you only pay for the bandwidth you need.

A public WAN such as the Internet. The Internet is a network through

which many companies data passes. Public networks are less secure than
private networks, but the advantages are that public networks are less
expensive to use and you don’t have to maintain the external network
yourself.

Public network are preferred to be used under these conditions:

 If the data does not need to be secure or you have the ability to
make it secure over the public network.
 No matter if data occasionally takes longer to reach its destination
or if the delay between sites is relatively unpredictable.
 If the high cost of the network relative to the benefits that
network brings.
 If you want the lowest cost network connection possible.
Private network are preferred to be used under these conditions:
 If data security is important.
 If a large number experienced staff to set up and maintain the
network exist.
 If the benefits the network brings are important in relevance to
the cost.
 If there is a full, reliable control over the network’s bandwidth.

3.2.2 Switched and Dedicated WAN

In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct

components: transmission lines and switching elements. Transmission lines
(also called circuits, channels, link or trunks) move bits between machines.

The switching elements are specialized computers used to connect

two or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the
switching element must choose an outgoing line to forward them on.
According to these components WANs is divided to switched and dedicated
networks.

A switched WAN is one that uses a switched connection. Switched

connection is not active all the time such as a dial-up modem connection or
an ISDN connection from one location to another. These types of

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connections are formed only when you need them, and you usually pay for
the time the connection is open, rather than the amount of data you’re able
to transmit over the connection. Figure 3.8 is an example of a switched
WAN link.

Switched links can be either circuit-based (circuit-switched) or

packet-based (packet -switched). A circuit-switched link forms a connection
as needed and makes a fixed amount of bandwidth available over that link.
A packet- switched link sends data packets into a network cloud in which
they can follow a number of paths to their destination and then emerge
from the cloud.

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A dedicated WAN connection is one that is always up and running

such as DS1 (T-1) lines, xDSL lines, or leased telephone lines. You use a
dedicated connection when you need the connection to be up all the time or
when the overall economics show that such a connection is cheaper than a
switched link. Figure 3.9 illustrates a dedicated WAN connection.

3.2.2.1 Circuit switching (CS)

Circuit-switched networks, as the basis of conventional telephone systems,

were the only existing personal communication infrastructures prior to the
invention of packet-switched networks. In conventional telephone networks,
a circuit between two users must be established for a communication to
occur. Circuit-switched networks require resources to be reserved for each
pair of end users. This implies that no other users can use the already
dedicated resources for the duration of network use. The reservation of
network resources for each user results in an inefficient use of bandwidth
for applications in which information transfer is bursty.

In circuit switching networks, when establishing a call a set of

resources is allocated for this call. These resources are dedicated for this
call, and can't be used by any of the other calls. Circuit Switching is ideal
when data must be transmitted quickly, must arrive in sequencing order and
at a constant arrival rate. So when transmitting real time data, such as
audio and video, Circuit Switching networks will be used.

Each connection results in setup of a physical channel between the

two parties, which is not terminated until the end of all communication
telephone system is an example of circuit switched networks. CS provide a
fixed, guaranteed data rate and allows rapid transmission of data that
cannot be delayed, so both parties must operate at the same data rate. A
limitation for this switching is that a long time may be needed to establish
connection and time is wasted with no data being transmitted.

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3.2.2.2 Packet switching (PS)

The major difference between Packet switching and Circuit Switching

is that the communication lines are not dedicated to passing messages from
the source to the destination. In Packet Switching, different messages can
use the same network resources within the same time period. Since network
resources are not dedicated to a certain session, the protocol avoid from
waste of resources when no data is transmitted in the session. Packet
Switching is more efficient and robust for data that is burst in its nature; it
can withstand delays in transmission, such as e-mail messages, and Web
pages.

Packet switching refers to protocols in which messages are broken up

into small packets before they are sent. Each packet is transmitted
individually across the net. The packets may even follow different routes to
the destination, depending on the type of packet switching. Thus, each
packet has header information in which enable to route the packet to its
destination. At the destination the packets are reassembled into the original
message.

To prevent unpredictably long delays and ensure that the network has
a reliably fast transit time, a maximum length is allowed for each packet. It
is for this reason that the message submitted to the transport layer may first
have to be divided by the transport protocol entity into a number of smaller
packet units before transmission. In turn, they will be reassembled into a
single message at the destination.

The goal of a broadband packet-switched network is to provide

flexible communication in handling all kinds of connections for a wide range
of applications, such as telephone calls, data transfer, teleconferencing,
video broadcasting, and distributed data processing. One obvious example
for the form of traffic is multirate connections, whereby traffic containing
several different bit rates flow to a communication node.

3.2.2.2.1 Types of Packet-Switched Networks

Packet-switched networks are classified into datagram or

connectionless networks and virtual-circuit or connection-oriented
networks, depending on the technique used for transferring information.

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Datagram or Connection-less service: Datagram transmission is the

simplest form of a network service based on the connectionless protocol. In this
type of network, a user can transmit a packet anytime, without notifying the
network layer. Packets are encapsulated into a certain "formatted" header,
resulting in the basic Internet transmission unit of data, or datagram. A datagram is
then sent over the network, with each router receiving the datagram forwarding it
to the best router it knows, until the datagram reaches the destination. In this
scheme, packets may be routed independently over different paths. However, the
packets may arrive out of sequence. In this case, a certain network function takes
care of the error control, flow control, and resequencing packets.

Figure 3.10 shows the routing of four packets in a connectionless network

from point A to point B, the packets move on separate paths. The packets traverse
the intermediate nodes in a store-and-forward fashion, whereby packets are
received and stored at a node on a route; when the desired output of the node is
free for that packet, the output is forwarded to its next node. In other words, on
receipt of a packet at a node, the packet must wait in a queue for its turn to be
transmitted. Nevertheless, packet loss may still occur if a node's buffer becomes
full. The node determines the next hop read from the packet header.

Virtual circuit or Connection-oriented service: A related, though more complex,

service is the connection-oriented protocol. Packets are transferred through an
established virtual circuit between a source and a destination. When a connection
is initially set up, network resources are reserved for the call duration. After the
communication is finished, the connection is terminated, using a connection-
termination procedure. During the call setup, the network can offer a selection of
options, such as best-effort service, reliable service, guaranteed delay service, and
guaranteed bandwidth service.

Connection is requested. If a call accepted a link is established, same

reference number is assigned to each packet so packets relating to different
connections between the same machines can be distinguished. Once the path of
the virtual circuit is established packets can be sent in order and arrive in the same
order. This service provides more reliable service and, in some cases, faster
service.

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When a packet arrives at a node it is buffered in memory until it can be

sent on the next node on the way to its destination. Since many packets can arrive
at once it is necessary for some to be retained in node memory until forwarding.

The connection set-up procedure shown in Figure 3.11 requires packets to

move along path from point A to point B with a prior connection establishment.
During the connection setup process, a virtual path is dedicated, and the
forwarding routing tables are updated at each node in the route.

Virtual-circuit packet switching typically reserves the network resources,

such as the buffer capacity and the link bandwidth, to provide guaranteed quality
of service and delay. The main disadvantage in connection-oriented packet-
switched networks is that in case of a link or switch failure, the call set-up process
has to be repeated for all the affected routes. Furthermore, each switch needs to
store information about all the flows routed through the switch.

3.2.2.3 Frame Switching (Frame Relay)

A frame relay was first offered commercially in 1992. Much like packet
switching, each frame is addressed individually. Frame relay also makes use of
special switches and a shared network of very high speed. Unlike packet switching,
frame relay supports the transmission of virtually any computer data stream in its
native form—frames are variable in length (up to 4,096 bytes). Rapidly gaining in
popularity, frame relay is widely available in many highly developed nations.
International frame relay service is also becoming widely available. Disadvantages
include the fact that frame relay, like packet switching, is oriented towards data
transmission. Further, transmission delays are variable and uncertain in duration.

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While increasingly satisfactory technologies have been added for support of voice
and video, frame relay is not designed with those applications in mind.

Prior to recognition of ATM as the preferred network platform for WAN

application, Frame Relay gained significant market penetration for WAN
application. Frame relay networks connect multiple client sites on what appears to
be dedicated circuits using a high speed (reaching of 45 Mbps) variable-length
packet switching technology. Frame Relay is well suited to high speed data
applications, but not suited for delay sensitive applications such as voice and video
because of the variable length of frames. Figure 3.12 shows a point-to-point system
that uses a private virtual circuit (PVC) to transmit variable length frames at the
data-link layer.

To connect a network to a frame relay service, a special bridge, router, or

CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) device called a frame relay
access device (FRAD) is used. The FRAD connects customer premises to an Edge
Switch (ES) on provider’s frame relay cloud (the collection of all frame relay
circuits belonging to your provider) cloud.

3.2.2.4 Cell Switching

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This service was invented to take advantage of the best of circuit

switching (guaranteed bandwidth) and packet switching (no need for a
permanent physical connection) by offering both as separate services. Cell
switching is used in ATM switches (cellplexes) as illustrated in figurer 3.12.
Encompassing both Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS) and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), data is organized into cells of fixed
length (53 octets), shipped across very high-speed facilities and switched
through very high speed, specialized switches. This technology provides a
connection-oriented, full-duplex, point-to-point service between devices.

Cell switching offers a high bandwidth service that is capable of

carrying voice, Data, Fax, real-time video, CD-quality audio, imaging and
multimegabit data transmission both on LANs and WANs over great
distances. It can provide interfaces to transmission speeds ranging from
1Mbit/sec to 10Gbits/sec. It offers low latency, making it suitable for time-
sensitive or isochronous services such as video and voice. Plus, it is protocol
and distance-independent.

Today, this technology is sometimes used for network backbones, but

it is more commonly found in WAN connections.

 EXERCISE

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1. Distinguish between LAN and MAN?

2. Where can MANs be applied?
3. Distinguish between WAN and MAN?
4. Where can WANs be useful?
5. How can you distinguish private WAN from public WAN?
6. State the differences between Switched and dedicated WANs?
7. What are the differences between circuit switched networks and
packet switched networks?
8. Explain the role of nodes in networking?
9. State the difference between packet switching and frame
switching?
10.State the difference between packet switching and cell switching?

Lesson 4

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 Internetworking (Internet)

4.4 Introduction to Internetworking

Internet is a collection of interconnected networks that provides

universal service among heterogeneous communication networks. The series
of interconnected networks includes local area, regional and national
backbone networks.

The Internet was originally formed in the 1970's as a military

network. Quickly, universities and companies involved with defense-related
research were given access. In the late 1980's, the Internet became the
global network for most universities and many businesses around the world.
In 1993, when commercial providers were first permitted to sell Internet
connections to individuals, usage of the network exploded. Millions of new
users came on-line within months, and a new era of computer
communications began.

The Internet Engineering Task Force document (RFC 2026) defines the
Internet as following:

A loosely organized international collaboration of autonomous

interconnected networks.

This definition encompasses several key aspects of what the Internet is:
 Loosely organized: No single organization has authority over the
Internet. As a result, the Internet is not highly organized. No one
exercises that kind of control over the Internet. As a result, you can find
just about any kind of material imaginable on the Internet. No one
guarantees the accuracy of information that you find on the Internet.
 International: The Internet is a network of resources, the international
linking of tens of thousands of businesses, universities, and research
organizations with millions of individual users.

The Internet provides users with an enormous amount of information on a

wide variety of topics. In addition, the Internet provides the means to allow
communications between computers and share computer program,
databases, manuscripts, and spreadsheets across the world, or even do
video conferencing. Internet uses the communication and networking
infrastructure all around the world. More than 100 countries are
represented on the Internet.

Figure 3.14: Different Network Technologies can be connected to create an

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Internetwork.

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 Collaboration: The Internet is by no means the only way by which

computer users can communicate with others. Several commercial on-
line services provide connections to members who pay a monthly
connect-time fee. Internet provides a tremendous range of information
and services, including on-line conferencing, electronic mail transfer,
program downloading, current weather and stock market information,
travel and entertainment information, access to encyclopedias and other
reference works, and electronic forums for specific user groups such as
PC users, sports fans, musicians, and so on. The Internet exists only
because many different organizations cooperate to provide the services
and support needed to sustain it.
 Autonomous: The Internet community respects that organizations that
join the Internet are free to make their own decisions about how they
configure and operate their networks.
 Interconnected: The Internet is a network of networks. The whole key
to the Internet is the concept of interconnection, which is using standard
protocols that enable networks to communicate with each other.
Networks in the Internet use the same telecommunications protocol
(TCP/IP) and provide various services such as electronic mail, remote
login, and file transfer services to the host computers. Without the
interconnection provided by the TCP/IP protocol, the Internet would not
exist. The TCP protocol coordinates the overall flow of data during a
data communication session between points (nodes) in the Internet. IP is
an addressing structure that allows packets of data to be routed
(redirected) as they migrate through different networks to reach their
ultimate destination.
 Networks: The Internet would be completely unmanageable if it
consisted of hundred million individual users, all interconnected. That’s
why the Internet is often described as a network of networks. Most of
the individual users who are on the Internet don’t access the Internet
directly. Instead, they access the Internet indirectly through another
network, which may be a LAN in a business or academic environment or a
dialup or broadband network provided by an Internet service provider
(ISP). In either case, however, the users of the local network access the
Internet via a gateway IP router.

4.4 Connecting to the Internet Backbone

4.2.1 Internet Services Provider (ISP) and Network Access Points (Naps)

Internet users are connected to the global Internet via the hosts of
their ISPs. Networks of national ISPs are connected and this interconnection
is extended to the networks of ISPs of neighboring countries, and these
networks together make up the global Internet.

National ISPs are connected together through complex switching

stations called network access points (NAPs). Each NAP has its own system
administrator. The different NAPs are actually connected by a set of trunk
lines, which are part of the Internet backbone. Each of the NAPs rests on

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one of the Internet trunk lines, and these trunk lines allow the Internet
access providers to communicate with each other.

In contrast, regional Internet service providers are smaller ISPs

connected to a national ISP in a hierarchical chart. A router can operate as
a device to connect to ISPs. Figure 3.15 explains how two end user in
different countries can communicate with each other making use of ISPs.

Each regional ISP can give services to part of a city. The lowest
networking entity of the Internet is a local Internet service provider. A local
ISP is connected to a regional ISP or directly to a national service provider
and provides a direct service to end users.

4.2.2 Common Internet Accessing Methods

Access the Internet can be loosely divided into three categories:

4.2.2.1 Residential Access Networks

Probably the most common access the Internet from residential areas
is using a modem over a POTS (plain old telephone system) dialup line to an
Internet service provider (ISP). A modem (modulation/demodulation unit) is
a device that converts the digital data to a modulated form of signal that
takes less bandwidth. A modem is required to create an appropriate digital
signal to access the Internet.

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ISDN users, on the other hand, have the choice of either connecting
to an ISDN capable ISP or to ISDN “modems” hosted on the LAN. Through a
process called bonding, ISDN users can achieve speeds up to 128Kbps.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

ADSL is conceptually similar to dialup modems: it is a new modem

technology again running over existing twisted pair telephone lines, but can
transmit at rates of up to about 8 Mbps from the ISP router to a home end
system. The data rate in the reverse direction, from the home end system
to the central office router, is less than 1 Mbps.

Hybrid fiber coaxial cable (HFC)

While ADSL, ISDN and dialup modems all use ordinary phone lines, HFC
access networks are extensions of the current cable network used for
broadcasting cable television. In a traditional cable system, a cable head
end station broadcasts through a distribution of coaxial cable and amplifiers
to residences. Typically, the cable modem is an external device and
connects to the home PC through a 10-BaseT Ethernet port. Cable modems
divide the HFC network into two channels, a downstream and an upstream
channel. As with ADSL, the downstream channel is typically allocated more
bandwidth and hence a larger transmission rate.

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4.2.2.2 Institutional Access Networks, (Enterprise Access Networks)

In enterprise access networks, a local area network (LAN) is used to

connect an end system to an edge router. The edge router is responsible for
routing packets that have destinations outside of that LAN.

For small networks, it can often be easiest simply to add a modem or

two to a computer set up to accept remote connections, and then let the
users use those modems to connect. You can set up the modems on special
LAN-connected interfaces built for the purpose of providing remote node
connections. You can also build your own “modem farms” with tens or
hundreds of modems, using special hardware that supports such uses.

4.2.2.3 Mobile Access Networks

Mobile access networks use the radio spectrum to connect a mobile

end system (e.g., a laptop PC or a PDA with a wireless modem) to a Base
station, as shown in Figure 3.16. This Base station, in turn, is connected to
an edge router of a data network. This technology is expected to
revolutionize the way Internet service is provided.

A mobile technology is capable of delivering very high data rates over

long distances. Indeed, this would seem an ideal technology to apply to the
problem space of the residential wireless local loop, where low-rate wired
infrastructure often limits the types of capabilities that can be enjoyed by
the residential consumer.

4.4 Intranet

An intranet is a private computer network based on the

communication standards of the Internet. It is a smaller version of the
Internet that can only be used by members of an organization. Companies
can create, within their walls, a manageable, secure version of the World
Wide Web. Using Intranets allow an organization to spend less time on
things that bring no value such as chasing down the right information to
solve a problem. Productivity increases as corporate knowledge is more
accessible and the data is more accurate.

Intranets are useful for companies for many reasons including:

1. Flexibility in time of delivery of knowledge is gained as information is
always a click away.
2. Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and use
applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities.
3. Employees can link to relevant information at a time which suits
them rather than being deluged indiscriminately by emails.
4. Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an
organization, vertically and horizontally.

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5. Using hypermedia and Web technologies employees make use of

manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards,
newsfeeds, and even training.
6. Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and
deploying Business operations and management.
7. Intranet reduces the cost improving timeliness of distributed
information
8. Intranet provides a secure medium for the distribution of confidential
information
9. Intranet provides interactive services – surveys, training, data base
access, inter-company communication

4.4 Extranet

Extranet is an extension of internal network that allows outside users

to provide and access information in a secure environment. It is a private
network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication
system to securely share part of a business's information or operations with
suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An extranet
can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company.

Like the intranet, it is web browser based, making information

available on any computer without any special equipment. However, an
extranet does require extensive security and may need special software to
provide user authentication and to encrypt data.

Companies can use an extranet to:

 Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
 Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those "in the
trade"
 Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts
 Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
 Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other
companies, such as an online banking application managed by one
company on behalf of affiliated banks
 Share news of common interest exclusively with partner companies

An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include firewall

server management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar
means of user authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual
private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.

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 EXERCISE

1. State the difference between Internet and intranet?

2. State the difference between Internet and Extranet?
3. State the difference between Extranet and intranet?
4. The Internet can be defined as a loosely organized international
collaboration of autonomous interconnected networks. Explain that.
5. What is the role of ISP?
6. Classify the tiers of ISPs?
7. List the common Internet accessing methods.
8. What are the uses of intranet in companies?
9. What are the uses of extranet in companies?

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