1.

Maxwell’s Equations
Electrodynamics before Maxwell’s
So far, we have encountered the following laws, specifying the divergence and curl of electric and magnetic fields
1
∇.E = ρ
εo
(Gauss’s law)
∇.B = 0
(No name)
∂B
∇× E = −
∂t
(Faraday’s law)
∇ × B = µo J
(Ampere’s law)
ρ − the ch arg e density & J − the current density
Where,
That above equations represents the state of electromagnetic theory of over century ago. When Maxwell began his
work, they were not written in so compact form in those days but their physical content was familiar.
Now, it happens there is a fatal inconsistency in these formulas. If we apply the divergence to equation (3) ,we have

 ∂B  ∂
∇.( ∇ × E ) = ∇. −  = − ( ∇.B ) = 0
 ∂t  ∂t

The left side is zero because the divergence of a curl is zero; the right side is zero by virtue of equation (2). But
when you do the same thing to equation (4), you get into trouble:

∇.( ∇ × B ) = ∇.( µ o J ) = µ o ( ∇.J )

The left side must be zero, but the right side in general is not. For steady currents, the divergence of J is zero, but
evidently when we go beyond magneto-statics Ampere’s law cannot be right.
However, in Maxwell’s time there was no experimental reason to doubt that Ampere’s law was of wider validity.
The flaw was a purely theoretical one and Maxwell fixed it by purely theoretical arguments.
How Maxwell fix Ampere’s law
The problem is on the right side of the above equation which should not be zero, thus applying the continuity
equation and Gauss’s law; the offending (against) term can be rewritten as:

∂ρ ∂ρ ∂  ∂E 
∇.J = − =− = − ( ε o ∇.E ) = −∇. ε o 
∂t ∂t ∂t  ∂t 

∂E
εo
∂t
It might occur to you that if we were to combine with J in Ampere’s law;

1
  ∂E 
∇ × B = µo J + µo  ε o 
 ∂t 

Maxwell add this quantity to Ampere’s law and such modification changes nothing as far as magneto-statics is

∇ × B = µo J
concerned: when E is constant
Maxwell called his extra term the displacement current:
∂E
Jd = ε o
∂t

If the capacitor plates are very close together, the electric field between the plates is
σ Q
E= =
εo εo A

Where Q is the charge on the plates and A is its area. Thus, between the plates
∂E 1 dQ 1
= = I
∂t ε o A dt ε o A

Now the integral form of equation (4), will be

∂E
∫ B.dl = µ o I +µ o ε o ∫
∂t
.da

The fundamental theorem for curls, which goes by the special name of Stokes' theorem, states that the closed line
integral of the magnetic field about the path is the sum of the values of the B.Δl on each side.

∫ B.dl = ∇ × B ⇒ stoke ' s theorem

dl –infinitesimal displacement
µo I
B=
2πr
Example: if the magnetic field is "circumferential"; at the surface (radius r) it has the value , in spherical


dl = drr + rdθθˆ + r sin θdφφˆ
coordinate
Therefore, Stokes' theorem becomes written as

2
 µo I µo I
∫ B.dl = ∇ × B ∫ B.dl ∫ 2πr dr 2πr
= = =

Thus by combining the above two equation, we obtain:

∂E
∇ × B = µ o J + µ oε o
∂t
(Amperes law with Maxwell’s correction)
 Maxwell’s equations
We have written the Maxwell’s equation as follows

 1 
∇.E = ε ρ 
 o

∇.B = 0 
 
 ∂B  max well ' s equations
∇ × E + =0 
 ∂t 
 ∂E 
∇ × B - µ oε o ∂t = µ o J 

µ o = 4π × 10 −7 H / m
Where,
 An important consequence of Maxwell’s equations is the prediction of the existence of electromagnetic waves that

1
c=
µ oε o
travel with speed of light . Thus, we conclude that light is an electromagnetic wave.
 The Maxwell’s equations tell you how charges produce fields.
− 1q
E( r, t ) = θ ( vt , r ) rˆ
4πε o r 2 B( r , t ) = 0
Examples: Suppose and , show that these fields satisfy all of the

ρ and J
Maxwell’s equations and determine ?
Solution:you have to find
 −1q   −1q  −1q ρ
∇.E = ∇. θ( vt , r )  =θ( vt , r ) rˆ∇.
 rˆ 
 + rˆ∇.(θ( vt , r ) ) =
4πεo r  4πεo r  4πεo r εo
2 2 2


3
 ∇.B = 0 & ∇ × E = 0 θ &φ
Clearly, (since E has only the r components and it is independents of )
∂E
∇ × B = µ o J + µ oε o =0
∂t

∂E − 1q 1q ∂θ ( vt , r )
J = −ε o = −ε o θ ( vt , r ) rˆ = rˆ
∂t 4πε o r 2
4πr 2 ∂t

2. Find the charge density at x=2m and x=5m if the electric field in the region is given by

 2ˆV
 E = ax i m for x = 0 to 3m

and
 V
 E = biˆ for x > 3m
 m

Solution: By Gauss’s law, in the region x=0 to 3m,

ρ  ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂  2ˆ ρ ∂
∇.E = =  i + j + k .ax i ⇒ = ( ax 2 ) = 2ax ⇒ ρ = 2ε o ax
ε o  ∂x ∂y ∂z  ε o ∂x

In the region x > 3 m,

∇.E =
ρ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂  ˆ
=  i + j + k .bj ⇒
ε o  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
ρ
=
∂ ˆ
ε o ∂x
bi = 0 ( )

3. The magnetic field in a certain region is given by the expression

B( t ) = Bo cos( kz − ωt ) ˆj
.
(a) Find the curl of the induced electric field at that location.
(b) If the Ez is known to be zero, find Ex.
Solution: (a) By Faraday’s law, the curl of the electric field is the negative of the derivative of the vector magnetic
field with respect to time. Thus,

∇× E = −
∂B
=−
(
∂ Bo cos( kz − ωt ) ˆj )
= −ωBo sin ( kz − ωt ) ˆj
∂t ∂t

(b)Writing out the components of the curl gives

 ∂E z ∂E y ˆ  ∂E x ∂E z  ˆ  ∂E y ∂E x  ˆ
k = −ωBo sin ( kz − ωt ) j
 ˆ
 ∂y − ∂z  i +  ∂z − ∂x  j + 
 ∂x − ∂y 
     

4
Equating the j components and setting Ez to zero gives
∂E z
= −ωBo sin ( kz − ωt )
∂x
=
Integrating over z gives
ωBo
E x = ∫ − ωBo sin ( kz − ωt ) dz = ωBo sin ( kz − ωt ) cos( kz − ωt )
k
=
4. Find the rate of change with time of the magnetic field at a location at which the induced electric field is
given by

 z  2  x  2  y  ˆ
2

E ( x, y , z ) = Eo   i +   j +   k 
  ˆ   ˆ  
 z o   xo   yo  

Solution: Faraday’s law tells you that the curl of the induced electric field is equal to the negative of the time rate of
change of the magnetic field. Thus
∂B
= −∇ × E
∂t

Which in this case gives:

∂B  ∂E ∂E y  ˆ  ∂E x ∂E z  ˆ  ∂E y ∂E x  ˆ
= − z − i −  −  j − − k
∂t  ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

∂B  2 y   2 z   2 x  
= − Eo  2 iˆ +  2  ˆj +  2 kˆ 
∂t  y o   z o   xo  

5. Derive the continuity equation for charge density r from Maxwell’s equations using vector notation.
Solution: In vector notation, a derivation of the continuity equation for charge looks like this:
∂
∂t
Applying to Gaussian law:
∂
( ∇.E ) = 1 ∂ρ
∂t ε o ∂t

But from taking the divergence of the Ampere-Maxwell law:

 1 ∂E  1 ∂E
∇.( ∇ × B ) = ∇.( µ o J ) + ∇. 2  = µ o ∇.J + 2 ∇.
 c ∂t  c ∂t

5
 ∇.( ∇ × B ) εo
Using =0 and µ0 c2=1
1 ∂E ∂E 1
µ o ∇.J = − ∇. ⇒ ∇. = − ∇.J
c 2
∂t ∂t εo

∂ρ
+ ∇.J = 0
∂t
{The equation is known as a continuity equation}
 Magnetic charge:
There is a pleasing symmetry between about Maxwell’s equation; it is particularly striking in free space, where

ρ and J
vanish.

∇.E = 0 
 
∇.B = 0 
 ∂B 
∇ × E = − 
 ∂t 
 ∂E 
∇ × B = µo ε o 
 ∂t 

µ oε o E
If you replace E by B and B by , the first pair of equations turns into the second and vice verse. This
symmetry between E and B is spoiled (make imperfect), through by charge term in Gaussian law and the current
term in Ampere law.

 ρe ∂B
∇.E = ,∇ × E = − µo J m −
 εo ∂t

 ∂E
∇.B = µ o ρ m , ∇ × B = µ o J m + µ o ε o ∂t

ρm ρe
Here, would represent the density of magnetic charge, the density of electric charge Jm-would be the current
of magnetic charge, and Je-the current of electrical charge.
Both charges would be conserved

 ∂ρ m 
∇.J m = − ∂t 
 
∇.J = − ∂ρ e 
 e ∂t 

6
 ∇× E ∇× B
The above equations follow by application of the divergence to & on . Maxwell equation beg (take
for granted) for magnetic charge to exist.
Maxwell’s equations in matter
When we are working with materials that are subject to electrical and magnetic polarization (Cause to vibrate in a
definite pattern) there is a more convenient way to write the Maxwell’s equation. For inside polarized materials there
will be accumulations of ‘bound ‘(Held with another element) charge and current over which you exert no direct
control. It would be nice to reformulate Maxwell’s equation in such a way as to make explicit reference only to those
sources are directly control (the free charge & currents).
We have already learned, from static case, that an electrical polarization P produces a bound charge density
ρ b = −∇ • p

In similar manner, a magnetic polarization (magnetization) M result in a bound current

Jb = ∇× M

There is one new features to be consider in non static cases .any change in electric polarization involves a flow of
charge (call it Jp) which must be included in the total current, given by
∂p
Jp =
∂t

The latter is association with magnetization of the material and involves the spin & the orbital motion of the electron
(call it Jf)
Hence, the total charge density can be separated into two parts:
ρ = ρ f + ρb = ρ f − ∇ • p

And the current density into three parts:

∂p
J = J f + Jb + J p = J f + ∇ × M +
∂t

Gauss’s law can now be written as:

∇•E =
1
( ρ f − ∇ • p) ⇒ ∇ • D = ρ f
εo

D in static case = ε o E + p
Where
Ampere’s law becomes:

7
  ∂p  ∂E ∂D
∇ × B = µ o  J f + ∇ × M +  + µ oε o ⇒ ∇× H = J f +
 ∂t  ∂t ∂t

1
H= B−M
µo
Here, as before
In terms of free charges and currents then Maxwell’s equations read
The above equations simply reflect a convenient division of charge and current into free and non-free parts.
Depending on the nature of the material the relationship D and H in terms E&B given as
P = ε o xe E & M = x m M
1
D = εE & H = B
µ

Where, D - is the electric displacement and H is called displacement current.

ε = ε o (1 + x e ) & µ = µ o (1 + x m )

Hint consider a parallel- plate capacitor immersed in sea water and driven by a voltage v ocos(2πft)
Example: sea water at frequency f=4 x 108 Hz has permittivity

ε = 81ε o , permeabili ty µ = µ o & resistivit y ρ = 0.23Ω

.
a) Find the value of displacement current?
v
∂ 
∂D ∂εE ∂  v cos( 2πft )  − εvo
=ε   =ε  o
d
Jd = = = [ 2πf sin ( 2πf ) ]
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t  d  d
Solution
Boundary conditions & Conservation Laws
Boundary conditions
The fields E, B, D and H will be discontinuous at a boundary between the two different media. The explicitly form
of this discontinuous can be deduced from the Maxwell’s equations in their integral form:

8
1, ∫ D.da = Qenc 
s 
over any closed surface s
2, ∫ B.da = 0 
s 
∂ 
3, ∫ E.dl = − ∫ B.da 
p
∂t s 
 for any surface s bounded by closed loop p
∂
4, ∫ H .dl = I enc + ∫ D.da 
∂t s 
p 
(2.1)

Applying (1) for tiny Gaussian pill box, we get

D1 • a − D2 • a = Q
D1n − D2 n = ρ s
(2.2)
The differences of the normal components of the flux density D are equal to the surface charge density;
The Dn boundary condition may also be written a form that brings out the dependence on the polarization surface
charges:
( ε o E1n + p1n ) − ( ε o E2n + p2n ) = −ε o ( E1n + E2n ) = ρ s − p1n + p1n = ρ s total
where, ρ s total = ρ s − p1n + p1n
(2.3)
Identical reason applied to equation (2), yields:

B1n − B2 n = 0
(2.4)
Turning to 3, a very thin amperes loop surface, gives

9
 ∂
∂t ∫s
E1 • l − E 2 • l = − B • da

E1ll − E 2ll = 0

The components of E parallel to the interface are continuous across the boundary.
By same token (4) implies:

H 1 • l − H 2 • l = I enc

Where, Ienc is the free current passing through the Ampere loop. So the parallel components of H are discontinuous
by an amount proportional to the free current.

Conservation Laws
Charge and energy
Charge Conservation
Maxwell added the displacement current term to Ampere’s law in order to guarantee charge conservation. Indeed,
taking the divergence of both sides of Ampere’s law and using Gauss’s law ∇·D = ρ, we get:

10
 ∂D ∂∇ • D ∂
∇ •∇× H = ∇• J f + ∇• =∇• J f + = ρf +∇•Jf
∂t ∂t ∂t
(2.1)
Using the vector identity∇·∇×H = 0, we obtain the differential form of the charge conservation law:
∂
ρ +∇•J = 0
∂t
(Charge conservation) (2.2)
Integrating both sides over a closed volume V surrounded by the surface S, as shown in Fig. 1.7.1, and using the
divergence theorem, we obtain the integrated form of the above:
d
∫ J .ds = − dt ∫ ρ.dv
s v
(2.3)
The left-hand side represents the total amount of charge flowing outwards through the surface S per unit time. The
right-hand side represents the amount by which the charge is decreasing inside the volume V per unit time. In other
words, charge does not disappear into (or created out of) nothingness it decreases in a region of space only because
it flows into other regions.
Energy Conservation
Because energy can be converted into different forms, the corresponding conservation equation above should have a
non-zero term in the right-hand side corresponding to the rate by which energy is being lost from the fields into
other forms, such as heat.
Thus, we expect Eq. (2.3) to have the form:
∂
ρ en + ∇ • J en = rate of energy loss
∂t
(2.4)
the quantities ρen, Jen describing the energy density and energy flux of the fields are defined as follows,
Problem:
a. Show that Maxwell's equations with magnetic charge (Eq. 7.43) are invariant under the duality transformation:
E ' = E cos α + cB sin α
cB' = cB cos α − E sin α
cq' e = cq e cos α + q m sin α
q m = q m cos α − cq e sin α

1
c= ,α − is the arbitrary rotation angle in E / B space
µ oε o
Where, , electrical charge and magnetic charge
densities transform in the same way as qe and qm.
b) Show that the force law

11
  1 
F = qe ( E + v × B ) + q m  B − v × E 
 2 
, is also invariant under the duality transformation.
Solution

ρ  1
∇ • E ' = ( ∇ • E ) cos α + c( ∇ • B ) sin α =  e  cos α + c( µ o ρ m ) sin α = ( ρ e cos α + cε o µ o ρ m sin α )
 εo  εo
1 ρ  ρ '
 ρ e cos α + m sin α  = e
εo  c  εo

Similarly,

 
∇ • B' = ( ∇ • B ) cos α −
1
( ∇ • E ) sin α = µ o ρ m cos α − ρ e sin α = µ o  ρ m cos α − ρ e sin α 
c cε o  cµ o ε o 
= µ o ( ρ m cos α − cρ e sin α ) = µ o ρ m '

 ∂B   ∂E 
∇ × E ' = ( ∇ × E ) cos α + c( ∇ × B ) sin α =  − µ o J m −  cos α + c µ o J e + µ o ε o  sin α
 ∂t   ∂t 
∂ E  ∂B '
= − µ o ( J m cos α − cJ e sin α ) −  B cos α − sin α  = − µ o J m '−
∂t  c  ∂t

∇ × B ' = ( ∇ × B ) cos α −
1
( ∇ × E ) sin α =  µ o J e + µ oε o ∂E  cos α − 1  − µ o J m − ∂B  sin α
c  ∂t  c ∂t 
∂ ∂B'
= µ o ( J e cos α + J m sin α ) + µ oε o ( E cos α + cB sin α ) = µ o J e '+ µ oε o
∂t ∂t

12
  1 
F ' = qe ' ( E '+v × B') + qm '  B'− 2 v × E ' 
 c 
 q   E 
=  qe cos α + m sin α  ( E cos α + cB sin α ) + v ×  B cos α − sin α 
 c   c 
 E  1 
+ ( qm cos α − cqe sin α )  B cos α − sin α  − 2 v × ( E cos α + cB sin α ) 
 c  c 
 E cos 2 α + cB sin α cos α − cB cos α sin α cos α + E sin 2 α 
= qe   E E 

+ v ×  B cos α − sin α cos α + cos α sin α + B sin α 
2 2
  c c 
E E 
c cos α sin α + B sin 2
α + E cos 2
α − cos α sin α 
c
qm  
+ v ×  B cos α sin α − E sin 2 α − E cos 2 α + B cos α sin α 
  
c c2 c2 c 
 1 
= qe ( E + v × B ) + qm  B − 2 v × B 
 c 
b.
 Poynting’s Theorem is the “Work-energy theorem” “Conservation of Energy”

 “The work done on the charges by the electromagnetic force is equal to the decrease in energy stored in the
field, less the energy that flowed out through the surface”.
1 1 2
u e = ∫ ( εE 2 + B )dv
v
2 2µ
 Show that total energy stored in Electromagnetic fields is
 Show that the energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields is called the Poynting vector is:
1
S= E×B
2

Proof: Suppose we have some charge and current configuration, produces fields E and B at time t. Work done on a
charge q in the interval dt is
dw = dF • dl = q ( E + vB ) • vdt = qE • vdt
now, q = ρdτ & ρv = J
dw
= ρdτE • v = ∫ ( E • ρv ) dτ = ∫ ( E • J ) dτ
dt ∫v v v

1 ∂E
E•J = E • (∇ × B) − ε o E •
µo ∂t
Using the Ampere-Maxwell law,

13
Hence, using

E.J=

14
Newton's Third Law in Electrodynamics
Imagine a point charge q traveling in along the x axis at a constant speed v. its electric field points radially outward
from the instantaneous position of the charge, and its magnetic circles around the axis in a manner suggested by the
right-hand rule as shown below.

15
Now suppose this charge encounters an identical one, proceeding in at the same speed along the y axis. The electric
force between them is repulsive, but how about the magnetic force? Well, the magnetic field of q1 points into the
page (at the position of q2), so the magnetic force on q2 is toward the right, whereas the magnetic field of q2 is out of
the page (at the position of q1), and the magnetic force on q] is upward.
The electromagnetic force of q1 on q2 is equal but not opposite to the force of q 2 on q1, in violation of Newton's third
law. In electrostatics and magneto statics the third law holds, but in electrodynamics it does not.

Momentum conservation is rescued in electrodynamics by the realization that the fields themselves carry
momentum.
Maxwell's Stress Tensor
Let's calculate the total electromagnetic force on the charges in volume V:

16
F = ∫ ( E + v × B )ρdτ = ∫ ( ρE + J × B)dτ
V v
(a)
f = ρE + J × B
The force per unit volume is evidently
Eliminating p and J by using Maxwell's equations, the above relation becomes
 1 ∂E 
f = ε o ( ∇ • E ) E +  ∇ × B − ε o  × B
 µo ∂t 
∂ ∂E ∂B
now. ( E × B ) = × B + E × , and from faraday ' s law, we have
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂B ∂  ∂E 
= −∇ × E , so ( E × B ) =  × B  − E × ∇ × E
∂t ∂t  ∂t 
1 ∂
Thus, f = ε o [ ( ∇ • E ) E − E × ∇ × E ] − [ ∇ × B × B ] − ε o ( E × B )
µo ∂t

∇ ( A • B ) = A × ( ∇ × B ) + B × ( ∇ × A) + ( A • ∇ ) B + ( B • ∇ ) A
While by using, product rule of
Thus
∇ ( E 2 ) = 2 E × (∇ × E ) + 2( E • ∇ ) E
1
so ⇒ E × (∇ × E ) = ∇ ( E 2 ) − ( E • ∇ ) E
2

And the same goes for B. Therefore,

f = ε o [( ∇ • E ) E + ( E • ∇) E ] +
1
[ ( ∇ • B ) B] + ( B • ∇ ) B − ε o ∂ ( E × B ) − 1 ∇(ε o E 2 + 1 B 2 )
µo ∂t 2 µo
(1)
But it can be simplified by introducing the Maxwell stress tensor,

 1  1  1 2
Tij = ε o  Ei E j − δ i j E 2  +  Bi B j − δ i j B 
 2  µo  2 

δi j
The indices i and j refer to the coordinates x, y, and z, and The Kronecker delta, , is 1 if the indices are the same

δxx = δyy = δzz = 1 δxy = δxz = yz = 0

( ) and zero otherwise ( ).
↔ ↔

T T
Because it carries two indices, Tij is sometimes written with a double arrow: . One can form the dot product o
with a vector a:

17
 ↔

 a • T  j = ∑ aiTij
  i= x, y,z

T
The divergence of has as its jth component:
   2 1 
( ∇ • B ) Bj + ( B • ∇ ) Bj − 1 ∇jB 2 
↔
1
 ∇ • T  j = ε o ( ∇ • E ) Ej + ( E • ∇ ) Ej − ∇jE  −
   2  µo  2 
Thus the force per unit volume (Eq. 1) can be written in the much simpler form
↔
∂S
f = ∇ • T − ε o µo
∂t

The total force on the charges in V (Eq. a) is evidently

↔
d
∫T • da − ε
s
o µo
dt ∫v
Sdτ

Conservation of Momentum
According to Newton's second law, the force on an object is equal to the rate of change of its momentum:
↔
dpmec d
F= = ∫T • da − ε o µo ∫ Sdτ
dt s
dt v

Where Pmech is the total (mechanical) momentum of the particles contained in the volume V. and The second integral
represents momentum stored in the electromagnetic fields themselves:

p mech = ε o µo ∫ Sdτ
v

While the second integral is the momentum per unit time flowing in through the surface. Equation 8.28 is the general
statement of conservation of momentum in electrodynamics:

Let be the density of mechanical momentum, and the density of momentum in the fields:
Qem = ε o µoS

Then Eq. above, in differential form, says

18
 E = Ekˆ
Example: A charged parallel-plate capacitor with uniform electric field is placed in a uniform magnetic

B = Biˆ
field ; Find the electromagnetic momentum in the space between the plates.

Pem = ε o ( E × B ) = ε o EBˆj
Solution
Angular Momentum
The electromagnetic fields have the angular momentum of
Lem = r × pem = ε o [ r × E × B ] =

Example: Suppose you had an electric charge qe and a magnetic monopole qm. The field of the electric charge is
1 qe
E= rˆ
4πε o r 3
, of course, and the field of the magnetic monopole is
µo q m
B= rˆ
4π r 3
.
Find the total angular momentum stored in the fields, if the two charges are separated by a distance d.
Solution:

µoqm r ' µoqm r − dkˆ

B= =
4π r 3 4π ( r 2 + d 2 − 2dr cosθ ) 3 2

The momentum density will be

Pem = ε o E × B =
µoqe qm ( )
− d r × kˆ
( 4π ) 2 r 3 ( r 2 + d 2 − 2dr cosθ ) 3 2

Thus the angular momentum becomes

Lem = ε o [ r × E × B ] = −
µoqe qm d r × r × kˆ ( ) ( ) ( )
, where, r × r × kˆ = r r • kˆ − r 2 kˆ = r 2 cos θ − r 2 kˆ
( 4π ) r ( r + d − 2dr cos θ )
2 3 2 2 32

3. Potential and Fields

 Potential formulation
Scalar and Vector Potentials

19
  In this chapter we ask how the sources (p and J) generate electric and magnetic fields; in other words, we seek the
general solution to Maxwell's equations, Given p(r, t) and J(r, t), what are the fields E(r, t) and B(r, t)?
∇× E = 0 E = −∇V
 In electrostatics allowed us to write E as the gradient of a scalar potential; , in
electrodynamics this is no longer possible, because the curl of E is nonzero. But B remains divergence less, so we
can still write
B = ∇× A
(3.1)
As in magneto statics. Putting this into Faraday's law, yields
−∂
∇× E = ( ∇ × A) ⇒ ∇ × E + ∂ ( ∇ × A) = 0 ⇒ ∇ ×  E + ∂A  = 0
∂t ∂t  ∂t 
(3.2)
Thus from the above relation we have;
∂A
E+ = −∇V
∂t
(3.3)
In terms of V and A, then,
∂A
E = −∇V −
∂t
(3.4)

• Automatically fulfills the two homogeneous Maxwell equations, (ii) and (iii). How about Gauss's law (i) and the
Ampere-Maxwell law (IV) .Putting Eq. 3.4 into (i), we find that

∇ 2V +
∂
( ∇ • A) = − ρ
∂t εo
(3.5)
Again, putting Eqs.( 3.1) and (3.3) into Maxwell law(iv), yields
 ∂V   ∂2 A 
∇ × ( ∇ × A) = µoJ − µoε o ∇  − µoε o
 ∂t 2 
 ∂t   
(3.6)
∇ × ( ∇ × A) = ∇ ( ∇ • A) − ∇ A 2

• Or, using the vector identity , and rearranging the terms a bit:
 2 ∂2 A   ∂V 
 ∇ A − µoε o 2  − ∇ ∇ • A + µoε o = − µoJ 
 ∂t   ∂t 
(3.7)
• Equations (3.5) and (3.7) contain all the information in Maxwell's equations.
Examples:
1. Find the charge and current distributions that would give rise to the potentials

20
  µok
 ( ct − x ) 2 kˆ for x < ct
V = 0, A =  4c 1
c=
 0 for x > ct µoε o

, where k is constant and
Solution: First we'll determine the electric and magnetic fields, using the following two Eqs.
∂A µok µok ∂
E = −∇V − =− ( ct − x ) kˆ B = ∇× A = − ( ct − x ) 2 ˆj = ± µok ( ct − x ) ˆj
∂t 2 4c ∂x 2c
, and

Fig. (Plus for x > 0, minus for x < 0). These are for Ixl < ct; when Ixl > ct, E = B = 0
Calculating every derivative in sight, I find
µok ˆ µok ˆ
∇ • E = ∇ • B = 0, ∇ × E =  j, ∇ × B = − k
2 2c
∂E µokc ˆ ∂B µok ˆ
=− k & =± j
∂t 2 ∂t 2

As you can easily check, Maxwell's equations are all satisfied, with p and J both zero. Notice, however, that B has a
discontinuity at x = 0, and this signals the presence of a surface current K in the yz plane.
2. Show that the differential equations for V and A can be written in the more symmetrical form

∂L ρ 
◊ 2V + =−
∂t ε o 
◊ 2 A − ∇L = − µoJ 
∂2 ∂V
where, ◊ 2 ≡ ∇ 2 − µoε o & L ≡ ∇ • A + µoε o
∂t 2
∂t

Solution

∂ 2V ∂ ( ∇ • A) + µoε ∂ V = ∇ 2V + ∂ ( ∇ • A) = − ρ
2
∂L
◊V+
2
= ∇ V − µoε o 2 +
2
εo
o
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t 2 ∂t

Similarly, we have

21
 ∂2 A  ∂ 2V 
◊ 2 A − ∇L = ∇ 2 A − µoε o − ∇ 
 ∇ • A + µo ε  = − µoJ
∂t 2 
o
∂t 2 

Assignment two
3. Find the fields, and the charge and current distributions, corresponding to

1 qt
V (r , t ) = 0 & A(r , t ) = − rˆ
4πεo r 2

4. Suppose V =0 and A = AO sin (kx - wt) y, where AO, w, and k are constants. Find E and B, and check that they satisfy
Maxwell's equations in vacuum. What condition must you impose on w and k?

ρ2
A= a z Wb/m
4
5. Given the magnetic vector potential , calculate the total magnetic flux crossing the surface

π ψ = ∫ A • dl = ψ 1 +.. + ψ 4
φ= ,1 ≤ ρ ≤ 2m,0 < z < 5m
2 l
, (Hint, to obtain the magnetic flux, we use )

A = x 2 ya x + y 2 xa y − 4 xyza z Wb m
A current distribution gives rise to the vector magnetic potential A
Calculate
(a) B a t (- 1, 2, 5)
z = 1,0 ≤ x ≤ 1,−1 ≤ y ≤ 4
(b) The flux through the surface defined b y

22
  Coulombs and Lorentzs gauges
The Coulomb Gauge.
ρ
∇ 2V = −
∇• A = 0 εo
As in magneto statics, we pick , thus,
This is Poisson's equation, and we already know how to solve it: setting V = 0 at infinity,
1 ρ ( r ', t )
V (r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dr '

And the differential equation for A (3.7) in the Coulomb gauge reads

∂2 A ∂V
∇ 2 A − µoε o = − µoJ + µoε o ∇
∂t 2
∂t
The Lorentz gauge. In the Lorentz gauge we pick
∂V
∇ • A = − µoε o
∂t
This is designed to eliminate the middle term in Eq. 3.7. With this:
∂2 A
∇ 2 A − µoε o = − µoJ
∂t 2
(3.9)
While, the differential equation for V, becomes
∂ 2V ρ
∇ 2V − µoε o ∇ =−
∂t 2
εo
(3.10)
The virtue of the Lorentz gauge is that it treats V and A on an equal footing: The differential operator in brackets in
Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) is called the d’Alembertian, after Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717–1783), and is sometimes
denoted by the symbol □. The differential equations (3.9) and (3.10) are called d’Alembert equations.

∂2
∇ 2 − µoε o
∂t 2
□2=
(Called the d'Alembertian) occurs in both equations:
ρ
V =−
εo
□2
A = − µoJ
2
□
In the Lorentz gauge V and A satisfies the inhomogeneous wave equation, with a "source" term (in place of zero) on
the right.

23
Examples
Which of the potentials in Prob. a, and Prob. b, are in the Coulomb gauge? Which are in the Lorentz gauge? (Notice
that these gauges are not mutually exclusive.)
1 qt
V (r , t ) = 0 & A(r , t ) = − rˆ
4πεo r 2
a.
b. V =0 and A = AO sin (kx - wt) j
Solution

qt  rˆ  qt ∂v
∇• A = − ∇ •  2  = δ 3 ( r ) and =0
4πεo  r  εo ∂t
a. Neither, where, from the product rule

 rˆ  1
(
∇ •  2  = 2 ( ∇ • rˆ ) + ∇r 2 • rˆ )
r  r

∂v
=0
∇• A = 0 ∂t
b. and both
Continuous charge distributions
 Retarded potentials
In the static case, the d'Alembertian reduce to (four copies of) Poisson's equation,
ρ
∇2 A = − and ∇ 2 v = − µoJ
εo

With the familiar solutions:

1 ρ ( r ') 1 J ( r ')
V (r ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ ' and A( r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ '

24
Where r, as always, is the distance from the source point r ' to the field point r
The natural generalization of the above Eq. for non-static sources is therefore

1 ρ ( r ' , tr ) 1 J ( r ', tr )
V (r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ ' and A(r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ '

ρ
Here (r’, tr ) is the charge density that prevailed at point r ' at the retarded time tr=t-r/c, Since message must
travel a distance r, the delay is t-r/c:, Because the integrands are evaluated at the retarded time, these are called
retarded potentials.

Chapter. Four
Jefimenko's Equations
Given the retarded potentials
1 ρ ( r ', tr ) 1 J ( r ', tr )
V (r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ ' and A(r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ '

It is, in principle, a straightforward matter to determine the fields:

∂A
E = ∇v − ,& B = ∇ × A
∂t

But the details are not entirely trivial because, as I mentioned earlier, the integrands depend on r both explicitly,
through r = /r - r'/ in the denominator, and implicitly, through the retarded time tr = t - r/ c in the argument of the
numerator.

25
Where, the gradient of V


∇v =
1
∫  ( ∇ρ ) 1 + ρ  ∇ 1 dτ '
4πε o  r  r 

ρ ' ∇ι
∇ρ = ρ ' ∇t r = −
c
Where, ,(the dot denotes differentiation with respect to time).

1 ιˆ
∇ι = ιˆ and ∇  = − 2
ι  r
Now,

1  ρ 'ιˆ  1  ιˆ  1  ρ ' ιˆ ιˆ 
4πε o ∫  c  r 4πε o ∫  c r
∇v =  −  + ρ  −  d τ ' = − − ρ dτ '
2
 r  r 2 
So,
Taking the divergence,

1  1  ιˆ  ιˆ   ιˆ  ιˆ  
( ) ( )
4πε o ∫  c  r
∇ 2v =  − • ∇ ρ ' + ρ ' ∇ •   −
  2 • ∇ρ + ρ  ∇ •  d τ '
 r   r  r 2  

ρ ' ' ∇ι ρ ' 'ιˆ

∇ρ ' = − =−
c c
Here,

 ιˆ  1
∇•  = 2
r r

ιˆ
∇• 2
= 4πδ 3 (ι )
r

Thus,

1  1  ιˆ  ιˆ   ιˆ  ιˆ   1  1 ρ '' 
∇ 2v = ∫  −  • ( ∇ ρ ' ) + ρ ' ∇ •    −  • ( ∇ ρ ) + ρ  ∇ • 2  
dτ ' = ∫  − 4πδ 3 (ι ) dτ '
4πε o  c  r  r   r
2
 r   4πε o  c r
2

1 ∂ 2v 1
∇ 2v = − − ρ ( r, t )
c 2 ∂t 2 ε o

And the time derivative of A is easy:

•
∂A µo J
∂t 4π ∫ r
= dr '

26
 1
c2 =
µoε o
Putting them together and using , we obtain:

 •

1 + ρ ' ι
ˆ ιˆ 1 J dτ '
4πε o ∫  c r
E= + ρ −
r 2 c2 r 
 
(*)
This is the time-dependent generalization of Coulomb's law, to which it reduces in the static case (where the second
and third terms drop out and the first term loses its dependence on tr).
As for B, the curl of A contains two terms:

µo  1
B = ∇XA = ∫  ( ∇ × J ) − J  ∇ 1 dr '
4π  r  r 

∂J y
( ∇ × J ) x = ∂J z −
∂y ∂z
Now,
∂J z ∂J z ∂tr • ∂tr 1 • ∂r
= = Jz = − Jz
∂y ∂tr ∂y ∂y c ∂y
And
Hence,

( ∇ × J ) x = − 1  J z ∂r − 1 J y ∂r  = 1  J × ( ∇r ) 
• • •

c ∂y c ∂z  c x

∇r = rˆ
But
Thus,

( ∇ × J ) = 1  J × rˆ
•

c 

While,
1 rˆ
∇ =− 2
r r

µo  1
B= ∫  ( ∇ × J ) + J  ∇ 1 dr ' = µo ∫  1 ( ∇ × J ) + J  ∇ 1 dτ '
4π  r  r  4π  r  r 
µo  1 • J (r ' , tr ) 
= ∫ 
4π  rc
J ( r ' , tr )+
r 2 
× rˆdτ '

(|*|*)

27
Equations (*) and (**) are the solutions to Maxwell's equations.
Problems: A piece of wire bent into a loop, as shown in Fig below, carries a current that increases linearly with
time:
I ( t ) = kt

Calculate the retarded vector potential A at the center. Find the electric field at the center. Why does this (neutral)
wire produce an electric field?

 r
I t − 
1 J ( r ', tr ) µo I ( t r ) µo  c  µok  dl 1 
A(r , t ) =
4πε o ∫ r'
dτ ' =
4π ∫ r
dl =
4π ∫ r
dl = t ∫ − ∫ dl 
4π  r c 

∫ dl = 0,
But for the complete loop,

µok  1 1
a
dx 
A= t  ∫ dl + ∫ dl + 2 xˆ ∫ 
4π  a 1 b2 a
x
Hence,

∫ dl = 2axˆ, (inner circle ) and ∫ dl = −2bxˆ (inner circle )

1 2
Here,
Thus,

µok  1 1 b µok b
A= t  ( 2a ) + ( − 2b ) + 2 ln  xˆ = t ln xˆ
4π  a b a 2π a

Lienard-Wiecherts potentials
To calculate the (retarded) potentials, V(r, t) and A(r, t), of a point charge q that is moving on a specified trajectory
w( t ) ≅ position of q at time t
(1)
The retarded time is determined implicitly by the equation

28
r − w( tr ) = c( t − tr )

Where, for the left side is the distance the "news" must travel, and (t - tr) is the time it takes to make the trip (Fig.
below).
I shall call w (tr) the retarded position of the charge; 'r- is the vector from the retarded position to the field point r:
r = r − w( tr )

No charged particle can travel at the speed of light, it follows that only one retarded point contributes to the
potentials, at any given moment.
1 ρ ( r , tr )
v ( r , tr ) = ∫ dτ
4πε o r

To calculate the total charge of a configuration you must integrate p over the entire distribution at one instant of
time, but here the retardation. tr = t-r/c, obliges us to evaluate p at different times for different parts of the
configuration.
In Maxwell's electrodynamics, a point charge must be regarded as the limit of an extended charge, when the size
−1
 ˆ v
1 − r • 
 c
goes to zero throws in a factor of .where v is the velocity of the charge at the retarded time:
Thus,
q
∫ ρ ( r, tr ) dτ = v
1 − rˆ •
c
It follows, then, that
1 qc
v( r , t ) = 
4πε o ( rc − r • v )

(w)

Where v is the velocity of the charge at the retarded time and r. is the vector from the retarded position to the field
point r.
Since the current density of a rigid object is pv”, we also have
µo J ( r , tr ) µo ρ ( tr ) v( tr ) µo v( tr ) µo qcv v
A( r , t ) = ∫ dτ = ∫ dτ = ∫ ρ ( tr )dτ =  = 2 V ( r,t )
4π r 4π r 4π r 4π rc − r • v c
(ww)

29
Equations (w) and (ww) are the famous Lienard-Wiechert potentials for a moving point charge.
Examples:
1. Find the potentials of a point charge moving with constant velocity v.
Solution:
Let’s say the particle passes through the origin at time t = 0, so that
w( t ) = vt

We first compute the retarded time,

r − vtr = c( t − tr )

By squaring on both sides:

(
r 2 − 2r • vtr + v 2 t 2 r = c 2 t 2 − 2ttr + t 2 r )
Solving for tr by the quadratic formula, we find that

tr =
(c t − r • v) ± (c t − r • v) + (c
2 2 2 2
)(
− v 2 r 2 − c 2t 2 )
c −v
2 2

To fix the sign, consider the limit v = 0:

r
tr = t ±
c
In this case the charge is at rest at the origin, and the retarded time should be (t - r / c); evidently we want the minus
sign.
Now, from Eqs
r − vtr
r = c( t - tr ) and r̂ =
c( t − tr )

So,
 v  ( r − vtr ) v  v • r v 2 tr
r1 − rˆ •  = c( t - tr ) 1 − •  = c( t - tr ) − +
 c  c ( t − tr ) c  c c
1 2
c
[( ) (
c t − r.v − c 2 − v 2 tr = ) ]
1
c
( 2
) (
c 2 t − r.v + c 2 − v 2 r 2 − c 2 t 2 )( )
Therefore,
1 qc 1 qc
V ( r, t ) =  =
4πε o ( rc − r • v ) 4πε o ( c t − r.v ) + ( c
2 2 2
)(
− v 2 r 2 − c 2t 2 )
And
v µo qcv
A( r , t ) = V ( r, t ) =
4π ( c t − r.v ) + ( c )( )
2
c 2 2 2
− v 2 r 2 − c 2t 2

(p)

30
2. A particle of charge q moves in a circle of radius a at constant angular velocity w. (Assume that the circle
lies in the xy plane, centered at the origin, and at time t = 0 the charge is at (a, 0), on the positive x axis.) Find the
Lienard-Wiechert potentials for points on the z axis.
Solution

[
w(t ) = r ( t ) = a cos( wt ) iˆ + sin ( wt ) ˆj ]
v( t ) =
dv
dt
[
= aw − sin ( wt ) iˆ + cos( wt ) ˆj ]
At time t the charge is at

[
r = r − w( tr ) = zkˆ − a cos( wtr ) iˆ + sin ( wtr ) ˆj ]
Therefore,

r = z + a ⇒ r = z + a and rˆ =
2 2 2 2 2

=
[
r zkˆ − a cos( wtr ) iˆ + sin ( wtr ) ˆj ]
r z2 + a2
Hence,

rˆ • v =
1
r
[
− wa 2 { − sin ( wtr ) cos( wtr ) + sin ( wtr ) cos( wtr ) } = 0 ⇒ 1 −
c
]
rˆ • v
=1

Therefore,

V ( r, t ) =
1
4πε o
q
and A( r , t ) =
1 qwa
4πε o c 2 z 2 + a 2
[
− sin ( ωtr ) iˆ + cos( ωtr ) ˆj ]
z2 + a2
z2 + a2
where, tr = t − r / c = t −
c

3. Show that the scalar potential of a point charge moving with constant velocity (Eq. p) can be written
equivalently as
1 q
V ( r, t ) =
4πε o R v2
1− sin 2 (θ )
c2

R = r − vt θ
Where , R is the vector from the present, Position of the particle to the field point r, and is the angle
between R and v (Fig. 10.9).

31
 v 2 << c 2
Evidently for non-relativistic velocities ,
1 q
V ( r,t ) =
4πε o R

Solution:

( ) ( 2
)( )
let k = c 2t − r.v + c 2 − v 2 r 2 − c 2 t 2 = c 4t 2 − 2c 2t ( r • v ) + ( r • v ) + c 2 r 2 − c 4t 2 − r 2 v 2 + v 2 c 2t 2
2

= ( r • v) + ( c − v )r + c 2 ( vt ) − 2c 2 ( r • vt ) putting vt = r − R, we have :
2 2 2 2 2

= ( r • v) + ( c − v )r ( )
+ c 2 r 2 − 2r • R + R 2 − 2c 2 ( r • { r − R} )
2 2 2 2

= ( r • v) + ( c − v )r + c (r − 2 r • R + R ) − 2c ( r )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
− r• R
= ( r • v) − v 2r 2 + c 2 R 2
2

but ( r • v ) − v 2 r 2 = [ ( R + vt ) • v ] − ( R + vt ) v 2
2 2 2

[ ] [ ]
= R • v + v 2t − R 2 + 2 R • vt + v 2t 2 v 2 = ( R • v ) + 2( R • v ) v 2t + v 4t 2 − R 2 v 2 − ( 2 R • vt ) v 2 − v 4 t 2
2 2

= ( R • v ) − R 2 v 2 = ( Rv cosθ ) − Rv = − R 2 v 2 (1 − cos 2 θ ) = − R 2 v 2 sin 2 θ

2 2

thus
 v2 
k = − R 2 v 2 sin 2 θ + c 2 R 2 = c 2 R 2  1 − 2 sin 2 θ 
 c 
hence,
1 q
V ( r,t ) =
4πε o R v2 2
1− sin ( θ )
c2
v 2 << c 2
For non-relativistic velocities , we obtain
1 q
V ( r,t ) =
4πε o R

Field of moving point charge

We are now in a position to calculate the electric and magnetic fields of a point charge in arbitrary motion, using the
Lienard-Wiechert potentials:
1 qc v
V ( r,t ) =  & A( r , t ) = 2 V ( r , t )
4πε o ( rc − r • v ) c

(1)

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And the equations for E and B:
∂A
E = −∇V − &B = ∇× A
∂t
(2)
The differentiation is tricky, however, because
 •
r = r − w( tr ) and v = − w( tr )
(3)
Are both evaluated at the retarded time, and tr-defined implicitly by the equation
r − w( tr ) = c( t − tr )

(4)
is itself a function of rand t
To find the fields, let’s begin with the gradient of V;
1 qc 
∇V ( r , t ) =  2 ∇( rc − r • v )
4πε o ( rc − r • v )
(5)
Since,
 
r = c( t − tr ) ⇔ ∇r = −c∇tr
(6)
Using the following product rule the second term gives:

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