Railway Engineering: Lec. No.

1- Introduction
The history of railways is closely linked with civilization. As the
necessity arose, human beings developed various methods of transporting
goods from one place to another. In the primitive days goods were carried
as head loads or in carts drawn by men or animals. Then efforts were
made to replace animal power with mechanical power.

In 1769, Nicholes Carnot, a Frenchman, carried out the pioneering work

of developing steam energy. This work had very limited success and it
was only in the year 1804 that Richard Trevithick designed and
constructed a steam locomotive. This locomotive, however, could be used
for traction on roads only. The credit of perfecting the design goes to
George Stephenson, who in 1814 produced the first steam locomotive
used for traction in railways.

The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27

September 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in the UK.
Simultaneously, other countries in Europe also developed such railway
systems; most introduced trains for carriage of passenger traffic during
that time. The first railway in Germany was opened from Nurenberg to
Furth in 1835. The USA opened its first railway line between Mohawk
and Hudson in 1833. The first railway line in Iraq was Baghdad line
(Istanbul – Baghdad) 2400 km between (1903-1940).

Railway Network in Iraq:

Baghdad – Mosul 412 km
Mosul – Rabi 112 km
Baghdad – Basra 542 km
‫كركوك – حديثة – بيجي‬ 272 km
‫بغداد – شعيبة‬ 572 km
‫القائم – عكاشات‬ 150 km

Different Modes of Transport

Our environment consists of land, air, and water. These media have
provided scope for three modes of transport—land transport, air transport
and water transport. Rail transport and road transport are the two
components of land transport. Each mode of transport, depending upon its

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various characteristics, has intrinsic strengths and weaknesses and can be

best used for a particular type of traffic as given below.

Rail transport Owing to the heavy expenditure on the basic infrastructure

required, rail transport is best suited for carrying bulk commodities and a
large number of passengers over long distances.

Road transport Owing to flexibility of operation and the ability to

provide door to-door service, road transport is ideally suited for carrying
light commodities and a small number of passengers over short distances.

Air transport Owing to the heavy expenditure on the sophisticated

equipment required and the high fuel costs, air transport is better suited
for carrying passengers or goods that have to reach their destinations in a
very short period of time.

Water transport Owing to low cost of infrastructure and relatively slow

speeds, water transport is best suited for carrying heavy and bulky goods
over long distances provided there is no consideration of the time factor.

Railway as a Mode of Land Transport

There are two modes of land transport, railways and roads, and each has
its relative advantages and disadvantages. These have been summarized
in Table 1.
Table 1. Rail transport versus road transport

Feature Rail transport Road transport

The movement of steel

wheels on steel rails has the The tractive resistance of
basic advantage of low a pneumatic tyre on
Tractive
rolling resistance. This metalled roads is almost
resistance
reduces haulage costs five times compared to
because of low tractive that of wheels on rails.
resistance.
A railway track is defined on
Roads, though having
two rails and is within
well defined limits, can
protected limits. Trains work
be used by any vehicular
Right of way as per a prescribed schedule
traffic and even by
and no other vehicle has the
pedestrians they are open
right of way except at
to all.
specified level crossings.

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Owing to the heavy

The cost of construction
infrastructure, the initial as
Cost analysis and maintenance of roads
well as maintenance cost of a
is comparatively cheaper.
railway line is high.
The gradients of railways Roads are constructed
tracks are flatter (normally normally with steeper
Gradients
not more than 1 in 100) and gradients of up to 1 in 30
and curves
curves are limited up to only and relatively much
10° on broad gauge. sharper curves.
Due to the defined routes and Road transports have
facilities required for the much more flexibility in
Flexibility of
reception and dispatch of movement and can
movement
trains, railways can be used provide door-to-door
only between fixed points. services.
Road transport creates
Railways have minimum
Environment comparatively greater
adverse effects on the
pollution pollution than the
environment.
railways.
Barring member state
Railways are government
Organization government transport,
undertakings, with their own
and control road transport is managed
organization.
by the private sector.
Road transport is best
Railways are best suited for
suited for carrying lighter
carrying heavy goods and
Suitability goods and smaller
large numbers of passengers
numbers of passengers
over long distances.
over shorter distances.

2- Railway Track Gauge:

Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between the inside heads of
two rail 5/8 in. below the top of rail. Iraqi Railways follows this standard
practice and the gauge is measured as the clear minimum distance
between the running faces of the two rails as shown in Fig. 2.1. In
European countries, the gauge is measured between the inner faces of the
two rails at a point 14 mm below the top of the rail.

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2.1 Gauges on World Railways

Various gauges have been adopted by different railways in the world due
to historical and other considerations. In British Railways, a gauge of
1525 mm (5 feet) was initially adopted, but the wheel flanges at that time
were on the outside of the rails. Subsequently, in order to guide the
wheels better, the flanges were made inside the rails. The gauge then
became 1435 mm (4' 8.5"), as at that time the width of the rail at the top
was 45 mm (1.75"). The 1435-mm gauge became the standard gauge in
most European Railways. The approximate proportions of various gauges
on world railways are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Various gauges on world railways

Type of Gauge Gauge % of total

Countries
gauge (mm) (feet) length
England, USA,
Standard
1435 4' 8.5" 62 Canada, Turkey,
gauge
Persia, and China
India, Pakistan,
Broad gauge 1676 5' 6" 6 Ceylon, Brazil,
Argentina
Broad gauge 1524 5' 0" 9 Russia, Finland
Africa, Japan, Java,
Cape gauge 1067 3' 6" 8 Australia, and New
Zealand
India, France,
Metric gauge 1000 3' 3.5" 9 Switzerland, and
Argentina
23 various Different Different
6 Various countries
other gauges gauges gauges

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2.2 Choice of Gauge

The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge
and all new railway lines are constructed to adhere to the standard gauge.
However, the following factors theoretically influence the choice of the
gauge.

Cost Considerations

There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider gauge
is adopted. In this connection, the following points are important.

(a) There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land,

earthwork, rails, sleepers, ballast, and other track items when constructing
a wider gauge.

(b) The cost of building bridges, culverts, and tunnels increases only
marginally due to a wider gauge.

(c) The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters,

level crossings, signals, etc. associated with the railway network is more
or less the same for all gauges.

(d) The cost of rolling stock is independent of the gauge of the track for
carrying the same volume of traffic.

Traffic Considerations

The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and the speed and
hauling capacity of the train.

(a) As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can
theoretically carry more traffic.

(b) A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed
is a function of the diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the
width of the gauge.

(c) The type of traction and signalling equipment required are

independent of the gauge.

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Physical Features of the Country

It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a narrow

gauge as compared to a wider gauge.

Uniformity of Gauge

The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth, speedy,

and efficient operation of trains. Therefore a single gauge should be
adopted irrespective of the minor advantages of a wider gauge and the
few limitations of a narrower gauge.

2.3 Problems Caused by Change of Gauge

The need for uniformity of gauge has been recognized by all the
advanced countries of the world. The ill effects of change of gauge (more
popularly known as break of gauge) are numerous; some of these are
enumerated here.

Inconvenience to Passengers

Due to change of gauge, passengers have to change trains mid-journey

along with their luggage, which causes inconvenience such as the
following.

(a) Climbing stairs and crossing bridges

(b) Finding seats in the compartments of the later trains

(c) Missing connections with the later trains in case the earlier train is late

(d) Harassment caused by porters

(e) Transporting luggage

(f) Uncertainty and delay in reaching the destination

Difficulty in Trans-shipment of Goods

Goods have to be trans-shipped at the point where the change of gauge

takes place. This causes the following problems.

(a) Damage to goods during trans-shipment.

(b) Considerable delay in receipt of goods at the destination.

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(c) Theft or misplacement of goods during trans-shipment and the

subsequent claims.

(d) Non-availability of adequate and specialized trans-shipment labour

and staff, particularly during strikes.

Inefficient Use of Rolling Stock

As wagons have to move empty in the direction of the trans-shipment

point, they are not fully utilized. Similarly, idle wagons of one gauge
cannot be moved on another gauge.

Hindrance to Fast Movement of Goods and Passenger Traffic

Due to change in the gauge, traffic cannot move fast which becomes a
major problem particularly during emergencies such as war, floods, and
accidents.

Additional Facilities at Stations and Yards

(a) Costly sheds and additional facilities need to be provided for handling
the large volume of goods at trans-shipment points.

(b) Duplicate equipment and facilities such as yards and platforms need
to be provided for both gauges at trans-shipment points.

Difficulties in Balanced Economic Growth

The difference in gauge also leads unbalanced economic growth. This

happens because industries set up near MG/NG stations cannot send their
goods economically and efficiently to areas being served by BG stations.

Difficulties in Future Gauge Conversion Projects

Gauge conversion is quite difficult, as it requires enormous effort to

widen existing tracks. Widening the gauge involves heavy civil
engineering work such as widening of the embankment, the bridges and
tunnels, as well as the tracks; additionally, a wider rolling stock is also
required. During the gauge conversion period, there are operational
problems as well since the traffic has to be slowed down and even
suspended for a certain period is order to execute the work.

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2.4 Loading Gauge

The loading gauge represents the maximum width and height to which a
rolling stock, namely, a locomotive, coach, or wagon, can be built or
loaded. Sometimes, a loading gauge is also used for testing loaded and
empty vehicles as per the maximum moving dimensions prescribed for
the section.

In order to ensure that the wagons are not overloaded, a physical barrier is
made by constructing a structure as per the profile of the loading gauge
(see Fig. 2.2). This structure consists of a vertical post with an arm from
which a steel arc is suspended from the top. The function of this structure
is to ensure that the topmost and the widest portion of the load will clear
all structures such as bridges and tunnels, etc. along the route.

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2.5 Construction Gauge (Structure Gauge)

The construction gauge is the limit above and to both side of track within
which permanent structure or installation is permitted to be built. The
construction gauge is decided by adding the necessary clearance to the
loading gauge so that vehicles can move safely at the prescribed speed
without any infringement. The various fixed structures on railway lines
such as bridges, tunnels, and platform sheds are built in accordance with
the construction gauge so that the sides and top remain clear of the
loading gauge.

1. Structure Gauge ( I ).
2. Structure Gauge ( II ).
3. Structure Gauge ( III ).

Structure Gauge I: no structure / installation of any type are permitted

within this gauge. This gauge is the exceptional minimum clearance. First
isolated structure like signal in between track where structure gauge.

Structure Gauge II: recommended minimum clearance for isolated

structures such as signals, columns and posts. It is the exceptional
minimum clearance for other structure.

Structure Gauge III: it is recommended within clearance for all other

structures.

Structure Gauge in Tunnels: this shall be determined individually for

each case taking into account all relevant factors such as speeds, No. of
tracks, (both present and future), length of tunnels, geotechnical features,
…. etc.

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