THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION
 The French Revolution started in 1789, and dethroned the then existing
political institutions, removed the French Monarchy, and cemented a just,
responsible government.
 The siege of Bastille on 14 July 1789 led to the France revolution. It ended
with Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power.
 This revolution put forward the ideas of liberty, fraternity and equality.

FRENCH SOCIETY DURING 18TH CENTURY

Right after the war in 1774, with Louis XVI ascending the throne, these were the main
traits shaping up the French Society during the 18th century:

 Upholding the traditional and hierarchical values, the French society was
divided into three estates. The first and the highest form of estates consisted of
Clergymen, the second were the Nobles, and the third consisted of common
people including peasants.
 Almost 60% of French land was owned by the small group of clergymen and
nobles. On the other hand, the peasants who were the 90% of the entire French
population hardly owned any causing a very distinct difference in the living
standards of these three societies.
 Although the clergymen and noble sowed 60% of French land, they were
exempted from paying taxes by the king. Only one-third of the entire French
population which comprised of the peasant class was required to pay taxes.
 Other than paying land tax to the King, the peasant community also had to pay
feudal dues to the higher classes which added extra burden to their financial
situation and many ended up selling their lands to the feudal class.
 The church, which was the highest institution after the King, also levied
religious taxes called ‘tithe’ on the French population. Other than that, the third
estate was also charged with direct taxes called ‘taille’ and indirect taxes on
tobacco, salt, and other such essential commodities.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

1. Social Causes:
The French society was divided into 3 states: 
 The first estate consisted of the clergy class. These people were exempted from
paying any taxes.
 The second estate consisted of the nobilities. On top of being exempted from
taxes, they also enjoyed favourable feudal laws and privileges. One of those
privileges was feudal dues extracted from the peasants.
 The third estate consisted of the majority of the population. It comprised big
businessmen, merchants, lawyers, peasants, servants, and labourer. The third
 estate was oppressed with Taille taxes levied on essential daily items like salt
and tobacco.
2. Economic Causes:
 An overbearing population rise in France was one of the major causes of the
French Revolution. The population grew from 23 million to 28 million in
1789. The increment in daily essentials was not met, breaking the society.
 The labour class was employed on fixed wages, which remained the same
through inflation of prices. On top of it, the third estate had to meet three
different taxes and feudal dues.
 All of this led to a subsistence crisis (people couldn’t meet the necessities of
living).

3. Political Causes
Other than a failing political administration that focused on levying numerous
taxes, these were the main political causes behind the French Revolution:
 1774 saw the appointment of Louis XVI as the monarch king of France,
also known as the puppet king. He faced an empty treasury, drained through
years of wars. He was manipulated by the queen- Marie Antionette.
 He was helping his overseas allies gain victory over Britain, their common
enemy. But this drained their resources in an unprecedented manner.
 The heightened money demand to keep up necessities from the government
caused a significant increment in taxes.

ROLE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS

 The French Revolution was in major parts due to the rise of another social
stratum, the middle class.
 The 18th century saw the rise of educated men who had the means to bring
about large-scale changes and get their voices heard.
 The middle class consisted of overseas tradesmen, manufacturers, and large-
scale business owners.
 They actively worked on spreading freedom philosophy and ideas against
oppression. 

Philosophers:

 Charles Montesquieu – A nobleman by birth, he was outspoken against

oppressive policies. He was a lawyer and fought for the division of power
inside the government, against the absolute power of the government. 
 Jean Jacques Rousseau – He is also known as the architect of the French
Revolution. He proposed a social contract between people and their
representatives, and if the government is found in violation of this contract,
they had the right to take action against them. 
 John Locke – A political thinker that refuted the divine doctrine and worked to
empower the people.

THE OUTBREAK OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

1780-90: Struggle Surviving

 There was a sudden increase in the French population which led to a rapid
demand in food consumption. This started to cause food scarcity in the society.
 The production amount of essential grains was comparatively less than the
growing population required. Due to this there were sudden hike in food prices
and the peasant class could hardly afford it.
 The natural calamities such as drought or hail were also major factors that
affected an already submerging food production level of France.
 As labourers and peasants were getting paid very low wages during that time,
the standard of living gap between the rich and the poor widened.

An envisage to end privileges

 With access to education and new ideas, the third estate became aware of their
rights and started participating in revolts against taxes and food scarcity.
 Emergence of new social groups that acted as the pressurizing factors to the
monarchy started to earn a significant amount of wealth through overseas
trading.
 This emerging middle class mostly consisted of lawyers and administrative
officials as social positions were started to be categorised through a person’s
merit.
 These middle-class societies believed in meritorious achievements and not in
any form of privileges by birth.
 With philosophers and political thinkers such as Rosseau and Montesquieu
proposing ideas on social contracts and a new type of governments, France
started inclining towards a future that looked less monarchical.
 A new form of government was proposed by Rousseau based on a social
contract between people and their representatives.
 Similarly, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government
between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary.
 In the USA, this model of government was put into force.
 Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to meet the expenses.

Outbreak

 In France, the monarch didn’t have the power to impose taxes. They had to call
a meeting of the Estates-General, a political body to which the three estates
sent their representatives, to pass proposals for new taxes.
 Louis XVI, on 5 May 1789, called an assembly to pass proposals for new taxes,
which was boycotted by the third estate.
 They found the voting system unfair and swore not to attend any assembly
unless a constitution is drafted limiting the power of the monarchy.
 On the other hand, rumours started spreading amongst the peasant community
that the nobility were hiring bands of brigades to destroy ripe crops in order to
increase the shortage of food production in the market.
 The peasants retaliated by looting stored grains and burning down records of
mortgage payments while the nobilities fled.
 Louis XVI accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the
principle that his powers would from now on be checked by a constitution.
 The Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and
taxes on 4 August 1789.
 Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated.

France becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

 1791 was when the national assembly drafted the constitution. It divided the
powers to the judiciary, executive, and the legislature, taking away powers
from just one institution. 
 An indirect election was used as the method to make laws in the national
assembly.
 Citizens above 25 years of age and tax payee of at least three days of
 labourer’s wage were termed active citizens allowed to vote.
 Basic rights were ingrained in the constitution. Freedom of speech, freedom of
opinion, equality of law, etc. were some of those rights.

Becoming Republic
 Louis XVI started secret negotiations with the king of Prussia.
 Neighbouring countries wanted to seize the opportunities of the events ongoing
due to the French Revolution. The National assembly declares war on Prussia
and Austria.
 The 1791 constitution gave political rights to the rich section of the public. This
led to a revolt in Paris against the people. Later, the Royal families were
imprisoned and elections were held.
 The newly elected assembly was termed the Convection. It abolished the
Monarchy in 1792 and made France a republic.

THE REIGN OF TERROR

 From 1793 to 1794, Robespierre Convection used strict policies and brutal
punishment to gain effective control.
 All opposers were shut down, imprisoned, or incarcerated.
 If found guilty, they were mercilessly guillotined in public settings to send a
message.
 Meat and bread were rationed, and peasants suffered losses due to selling at
fixed prices set by the government.

DIRECTORY RULES FRANCE

 A new constitution abolished voting on non-propertied sections of society.
 It introduced a directory that was elected by two legislative councils.
 The clashing of the directory with the legislative paved the way to the rise of
Military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

ROLE OF WOMEN
 Women were active participants from the beginning which brought important
changes in the country France.
 Women from the third estate had to work for a living and they didn’t have
access to education or job training.
 Daughters of nobles of the third estate were allowed to study at a convent.
 Working women also had to care for their families. Compared to men, their
wages were lower. Women also started their political clubs and newspapers.
 The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was one of the most
famous women’s clubs. They demanded equal political rights as men, the right
to vote and to hold political office.
 The revolutionary government introduced laws to improve the lives of women.
Schooling became compulsory, divorce made legal and they could run small
businesses.
 During the Reign of Terror, the government closed women’s clubs banning
their political activities.
 After much struggle, women in France in 1946 won the right to vote.

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY
 Jacobin regime’s most revolutionary social reform was the abolition of slavery
in the French colonies.
 In the seventeenth century, slavery trade began. Slaves were brought from local
chieftains, branded and shackled and were packed tightly into ships for the
three-month-long voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean.
 Slave labour met the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee,
and indigo. Throughout the eighteenth century, there was little criticism of
slavery in France.
 In 1794, the Convention legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas
possessions.
 Napoleon introduced slavery after ten years. In 1848, slavery was abolished in
French colonies.

REVOLUTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

 France during 1789 saw changes in the lives of men, women and children.
Abolition of censorship happened in the summer of 1789.
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech
and expression to be a natural right.
 Freedom of press meant opposing views of events could be expressed. Plays,
songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people.

RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

 In 1804, Napoleon seized the reins of France and declared himself the
Emperor. He started conquering neighbouring nations and established his
dominance by making kingdoms ruling through his family members.
 The feudal system was abolished. Bonaparte saw himself as a modernizer and
introduced private property protection laws and equal weight & measure
systems in decimals.
 Initially hailed as a liberator, his military tactics were soon termed crude,
invading, and violent.
 The battle of Waterloo in 1815 saw his defeat.