Principles of Crop Protection

Module 2

Integrated Pest Management Program

as A Defensive Response to Pest Attack
Compiled by

Richie D. Miguel, Lic. Agr

Faculty, Agriculture Department
Institute of Agriculture and Related Sciences
Davao Del Sur State College
Module Overview

In any pest management program, there is no single approach that offers universal
solution to pest problem. The best crop protection is a fusion of various strategies and
practices that are based on ecologically sound principles. This module explores the
integrated pest management program as a defensive response to pest attack. In Unit I, we
will learn on how to properly diagnose pest problems in the field which include topics on the
determination of component factors causing the pest problem in the field. Unit II explains
the concepts of pest management. In Unit III, we will focus on the general considerations in
planning pest management programs which include discussions on the consumers
utilization of the product in relation to pest management program, pest management
programs in consideration with conserving the environment, the safety of the pest control
operation and the economic considerations of crop production in regards to pest
management strategy.

Objectives
At the end of this module, students are expected to:
1. Discuss the component factors causing the pest problem in the field.
2. Define terminologies related to pest management
3. Discuss the factors that led to the development of the pest management concept
4. Discuss the consumers utilization of the product in relation to pest management
program
5. Discuss pest management programs in consideration with conserving the
environment.
6. Discuss the safety of the pest control operation
7. Discuss the economic considerations of crop production in regards to pest
management strategy

Lessons in this Module

Unit I. Pest Problem Diagnosis
Unit II. Pest Management Concept
Unit III. General Considerations in Planning Pest Management Programs
 Module 2

Unit I. Pest Problem Diagnosis

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 1

Learning Objectives Determination of Component Factors

❖ Discuss the component
Causing the Pest Problem in the Field
factors causing the pest
problem in the field
Introduction
Pest in agricultural fields can greatly incur
losses to the farmers when they are not managed
religiously. But what are the reasons why pest
proliferate and became a problem in the field? This
lesson explains the factors that causes pest problem in
the field. It includes environmental factors, practices
and introduction of pest from other places.

Section11.1
Activity Brontispa Longissima: The Menace of Coconut
Activity

Brontispa longissima or the coconut hispine beetle is not a Philippine native species of insect
pest of coconut. The insect chews leaflets causing the young leaves to appear scorched as a result
of damage. The Philippine Coconut Authority have developed an integrated pest management
strategy to control this pest. To know more about this pest, its damage and its control, watch this
video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxaTyKeUcK4

Analysis
1. Explain how did the Brontispa Longissima became a problem in the
Philippines
2. What strategy/strategies need to be done to control its population?
Factors Causing Pest Problem in the Field

1. Deforestation and Cultivation of Forest lands

• Pest feeding on forest trees are forced to feed on crops
• Biomass/unit area more in forests than agricultural land
• Weather factors also altered - Affects insect development
2. Destruction of natural enemies
• Due to excess use of insecticides, natural enemies are killed
• This affects the natural control mechanism and pest outbreak occurs, e.g.
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides kill natural enemies.
3. Intensive and Extensive cultivation
• Monoculture (Intensive) leads to multiplication of pests
• Extensive cultivation of susceptible variety in large area - No competition
for food - multiplication increases e.g. Stem borers in rice and sugarcane
4. Introduction of new varieties and crops
• Varieties with favorable physiological and morphological factors cause
multiplication of insects.
5. Improved agronomic practices
• Increased N fertilizer - High leaf folder incidence on rice
• Closer planting - BPH and leaf folder increases
• Granular insecticides - Possess phytotoxic effect on rice
6. Introduction of new pest in new environment
• Pest multiplies due to absence of natural enemies in new area
7. Accidental introduction of pests from foreign countries
8. Large scale storage of food grains
• Serve as reservoir for stored grain pests
9. Urbanization
• Changes ecological balance - Rats found in underground drainage
10. Resurgence
• Tremendous increase in pest population brought about by insecticides
despite good initial reduction in pest population at the time of treatment.
o Deltamethrin, Quinalphos, Phorate - Resurgence of BPH in rice
o Synthetic pyrethroids - Whitefly in cotton
o Carbofuran - Leaf folder in rice

Losses caused by pests Crop loss from all factors

• 500 billion US $ annually world wide
o Insect pests - 15.6% loss of production
o Plant pathogens - 13.3%
o Weeds - 13.2%
 Section 1.2
Application Test Your Knowledge

To assess your understanding of this lesson, please login to

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 Module 2

Unit II. Pest Management Concept

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 1

Learning Objectives Basic Concept of Pest Management

❖ Define terminologies
related to pest
management
Introduction
❖ Discuss the factors that Pests such as insects, weeds, and disease-
led to the development causing microorganisms causes damage to crops and
of the pest
agricultural animals when they are not properly
management concept
managed. This lesson discusses the basic concept of
pest management. It presents the terminologies
related to pest management and the principles of pest
management.

Section11.1
Activity Traditional Pest Management Knowledge
Activity

Pest management had been practiced by farmers since the inception of crop cultivation. Our
ancestors have developed strategies to control pests in their farms. In this activity you will gain
knowledge on the effective ethno-practices of traditional farmers.

Procedure:

1. Interview your parents or grandparents about their practices to protect their crops
against pests using traditional knowledge.
2. Make a report on the knowledge you learned from the interview.

Analysis
1. Compare the traditional practices and modern practices in pest
management.
Terminologies in Pest Management

1. Host - A plant or animal on or in which a pest lives.

2. Juvenile hormones - Natural insect chemicals that keep the earlier stages of an
insect from changing into the normal adult form.
3. Labeling - The pesticide product label and other accompanying materials that
contain directions that pesticide users are legally required to follow
4. Mycoplasmas - The smallest known living organisms that can reproduce and exist
apart from other living organisms. they obtain their food from plants.
5. Nematodes - Small, usually microscopic, eel-like roundworms.
6. Non target organism - Any plant or animal other than the pest that is being
controlled.
7. Parasite - An organism living on, in, or with another living organism for the purpose
of obtaining food.
8. Pathogen - An organism that causes disease in other organisms.
9. Pheromones - Chemicals emitted by an organism to influence the behavior of other
organisms of the same species.
10. Predator - An organism that attacks, kills, and feeds on other organisms.
11. Scouting - Regularly searching for, identifying, and assessing numbers of pests and
the damage they are causing.

Concepts of Pest Management

A pest is anything that:

• competes with humans, domestic animals, or desirable plants for food or water
• injures humans, animals, desirable plants, structures, or possessions
• spreads disease to humans, domestic animals, wildlife, or desirable plants
• annoys humans or domestic animals.

Types of Pests
• insects - such as roaches, termites, mosquitoes, aphids, beetles, fleas, and
caterpillars.
• insect-like organisms - such as mites, ticks, and spiders,
• microbial organisms - such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses, and mycoplasmas,
• weeds - which are any plants growing where they arc not wanted,
• mollusks- such as snails, slugs, and shipworms, and
• vertebrates - such as rats, mice, other rodents, birds, fish, and snakes.

Most organisms are not pests. A species may be a pest in some situations and not in others.
An organism should not be considered a pest until it is proven to be one. Categories of pests
include:
• continuous pests that arc nearly always present and require regular control.
 • sporadic. migratory, or cyclical pests that require control occasionally or
intermittently.
• potential pests that do not require control under normal conditions. but may
require control in certain circumstances.

Pest Identification
❖ Accurate identification is the first step in an effective pest management program.
❖ Correct identification of a pest allows you to determine basic information about it,
including its life cycle and the time that it is most susceptible to being controlled.

To be able to identify and control pests, the following must be known:

• the physical features of the pests likely to be encountered.
• characteristics of the damage they cause,
• their development and biology,
• whether they are key, occasional or potential pests, and
• what your control goal is.

Pest Control
Things to remember when considering pest control:
• Control a pest only when it is causing or is expected to cause more harm than is
reasonable to accept.
• Use a control strategy that will reduce the pest numbers to an acceptable level.
• Cause as little harm as possible to everything except the pest.
• Even though a pest is present, it may not do very much harm. It could cost more to
control the pest than would be lost because of the pest's damage.

Pest Control Goals

• prevention - keeping a pest from becoming a problem.
• suppression - reducing pest numbers or damage to an acceptable level, and .
• eradication - destroying an entire pest population.

Prevention
❖ A goal when the pest' s presence or abundance can be predicted in advance.
❖ Key pests, by definition, are usually very predictable.
❖ Occasional and potential pests may be predictable if you know the circumstances or
conditions that will favor their presence as pests.
o For example, some plant diseases occur only under certain environmental
conditions. If such conditions are present, you can take steps to prevent the
plant disease organisms from harming the desirable plants.

Suppression
❖ Common goal in many pest situations.
❖ The intent is to reduce the number of pests to a level where the harm they are
causing is acceptable.
 ❖ Once a pest's presence is detected and the decision is made that control is
necessary, suppression and prevention often are joint goals.
❖ The right combination of control measures can often suppress the pests already
present and prevent them from building up again to a level where they are causing
unacceptable harm.

Eradication
❖ Eradication is occasionally attempted when a foreign pest has been accidentally
introduced but is not yet established in an area.
❖ Such eradication strategies often are supported by the Government.
❖ In indoor areas, eradication is a more common goal. Enclosed environments usually
are smaller, less complex, and more easily controlled than outdoor areas. In many
enclosed areas, such as dwellings; schools; office buildings; and health care, food
processing, and food preparation facilities, certain pests cannot or will not be
tolerated.

Threshold Levels
❖ Thresholds are the levels of pest populations at which you should take pest control
action if you want to prevent the pests in an area from causing unacceptable injury
or harm.
❖ Thresholds may be based on esthetic, health, or economic considerations. These
levels, which are known as "action thresholds," have been determined for many
pests.
❖ A threshold often is set at the level where the economic losses caused by pest
damage, if the pest population continued to grow, would be greater than the cost of
controlling the pests. These types of action thresholds sometimes are called
"economic thresholds."
❖ In some pest control situations, the threshold level is zero: even a single pest in such
a situation is unreasonably harmful. For example, the presence of any rodents in
food processing facilities forces action. In homes, people generally take action to
control some pests, such as rodents or roaches, even if only one or a few have been
seen.

Pest Monitoring
❖ In most pest control situations, the area to be protected should be monitored
(checked or scouted) often. Regular monitoring can answer several important
questions:
o What kinds of pests are present?
o Are the numbers great enough to warrant control?
o When is the right time to begin control?
o Have the control efforts successfully reduced the number of pests?
❖ Monitoring of insect, insect-like, mollusk, and vertebrate pests usually is done by
trapping or by scouting. Monitoring of weed pests usually is done by visual
inspection. Monitoring for microbial pests is done by looking for the injury or
damage they cause.
 ❖ Monitoring also can include checking environmental conditions in the area that is
being managed. Temperature and moisture levels, especially humidity, are often
important clues in predicting when a pest outbreak will occur or will hit threshold
levels.
❖ Monitoring is not necessary in situations where a pest is continually present and the
threshold is zero. For example, there is zero tolerance for the presence of bacteria in
operating rooms and other sterile areas of health care facilities. In these situations,
routine pest control measures are taken to prevent pests from entering an area and
to eradicate any pests that may be present.

Avoiding Harmful Effects

❖ Pest control involves more than simply identifying a pest and using a control tactic.
The treatment site, whether it is an outdoor area or inside a structure, usually
contains other living organisms (such as people, animals, and plants) and nonliving
surroundings (such as air, water, structures, objects, and surfaces). All of these could
be affected by the pest control measures you choose. Unless you consider the
possible effects on the entire system within which the pest exists. your pest control
effort could cause harm or lead to continued or new pest problems. Rely on your
own good judgment and, when pesticides are part of the strategy, on the pesticide
labeling.
❖ Most treatment sites are disrupted to some degree by pest control strategies. The
actions of every type of organism or component sharing the site usually affect the
actions and well-being of many others. When the balance is disrupted, certain
organisms may be destroyed or reduced in number, and others — sometimes the
pests - may dominate.

Integrated Pest Management

❖ Integrated pest management is the combining of appropriate pest control tactics
into a single plan (strategy) to reduce pests and their damage to an acceptable level.
❖ Using many different tactics to control a pest problem tends to cause the least
disruption to the living organisms and nonliving surroundings at the treatment site.
❖ Relying only on pesticides for pest control can cause pests to develop resistance to
pesticides, can cause outbreaks of other pests, and can harm surfaces or non-target
organisms. With some types of pests, use of pesticides as the only tactic will achieve
very poor control.

To solve pest problems. you must:

• identify the pest or pests and determine whether control is warranted for each.
• determine your pest control goal(s).
• know what control tactics are available.
• evaluate the benefits and risks of each tactic or combination of tactics.
• choose a strategy that will be most effective and will cause the least harm to people
and the environment.
• use each tactic in the strategy correctly.
 • observe local, regional and national regulations that apply to the situation.

Factors that Influence Control Strategies

Natural Controls
• Some natural forces act on all organisms, causing the populations to rise and fall.
o These natural forces act independently of humans and may either help or
hinder pest control.
o Natural forces that affect pest populations include climate, natural enemies,
natural barriers, availability of shelter, and food and water supplies.

Climate
• Weather conditions, especially temperature, day length, and humidity, affect pests'
activity and their rate of reproduction.
o Pests may be killed or suppressed by rain, freezing temperatures, drought, or
other adverse weather.
• Climate also affects pests indirectly by influencing the growth and development of
their hosts.
o A population of plant-eating pests is related to growth of its host plants.
• Unusual weather conditions can change normal patterns so that increased or
decreased damage results.

Natural enemies
• Birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and mammals feed on some pests and help control
their numbers.
• Many predatory and parasitic insect and insect-like species feed on other organisms,
some of which are pests.
• Pathogens often suppress pest populations.

Geographic barriers
• Features such as mountains and large bodies of water restrict the spread of many
pests. Other features of the landscape can have similar effects.

Food and water supply

• Pest populations can thrive only as long as their rood and water supply lasts.
• Once the food source - plant or animal - is exhausted, the pests die or become
inactive. The life cycle of many pests depends on the availability of water.

Shelter
• The availability of shelter can affect some pest populations.
• Overwintering sites and places to hide from predators arc important to the survival
of some pests.
Applied Controls
Unfortunately, natural controls often do not control pests quickly or completely enough to
prevent unacceptable injury or damage. Then other control measures must be used. Those
available include:
• host resistance,
• biological control,
• cultural control,
• mechanical control,
• sanitation, and
• chemical control.

Host resistance
Some plants, animals, and structures resist pests better than others. Some varieties of
plants, wood, and animals are resistant to certain pests. Use of resistant types, when
available, helps keep pest populations below harmful levels by making conditions less
favorable for the pests.
Host resistance works in three main ways:
• Chemicals in the host repel the pest or prevent the pest from completing its life
cycle.
• The host is more vigorous or tolerant than other varieties and thus less likely to be
seriously damaged by pest attacks.
• The host has physical characteristics that make it more difficult to attack.

Biological control
Biological control involves the use of natural enemies — parasites, predators, and
pathogens.
• Natural control can be supplemented by releasing more of a pest's enemies into
the target area or by introducing new enemies that were not in the area before.
Biological control usually is not eradication.
• The degree of control fluctuates.
• There is a time lag between pest population increase and the corresponding
increase in natural controls. But, under proper conditions, sufficient control can
be achieved to eliminate the threat to the plant or animal to be protected.
• Biological control also includes methods by which the pest is biologically altered,
as in the production and release or large numbers of sterile males and the use of
pheromones or juvenile hormones.
• Pheromones can be useful in monitoring pest populations. Placed in a trap, for
example. they can attract the insects in a sample area so that pest numbers can
be estimated. Pheromones also can be a control tool. Sometimes a manufactured
copy of the pheromone that a female insect uses to attract males can be used to
confuse males and prevent mating, resulting in lower numbers of pests. Applying
juvenile hormones to an area can reduce pest numbers by keeping some
immature pests from becoming normal, reproducing adults.
Cultural control
• Cultural practices sometimes are used to reduce the numbers or pests that are
attacking cultivated plants.
o These practices alter the environment, the condition of the host plant, or the
behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation.
o They disrupt the normal relationship between the pest and the host plant
and make the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce.
o Common cultural practices include rotating crops, cultivating the soil,
varying time of planting or harvesting, planting trap crops, adjusting row
width, and pruning, thinning, and fertilizing cultivated plants.

Mechanical (physical) control

• Devices, machines, and other methods used to control pests or alter their
environment are called mechanical or physical controls.
o Traps, screens, barriers, fences, nets, radiation, and electricity sometimes can
he used to prevent the spread or pests into an area.
o Lights, heat, and refrigeration can alter the environment enough to suppress
or eradicate some pest populations.
o Altering the amount or water, including humidity, can control some pests,
especially insects and disease agents.

Sanitation
• Sanitation practices help to prevent and suppress some pests by removing the pests
themselves or their sources of food and shelter.
o Urban and industrial pests can be reduced by improving cleanliness,
eliminating pest harborage, and increasing the frequency of garbage pickup.
o Management of pests attacking domestic animals is enhanced by good
manure management practices.
o Carryover of agricultural pests from one planting to the next can be reduced
by removing crop residues.
o Other forms of sanitation that help prevent pest spread include using pest-
free seeds or transplants and decontaminating equipment, animals, and
other possible carriers before allowing them to enter a pest-free area or
leave an infested area.
o The proper design of food-handling areas can reduce access and shelter for
many pests.

Chemical control
• Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy pests, control their activity, or prevent
them from causing damage.
o Some pesticides either attract or repel pests.
o Chemicals that regulate plant growth or remove foliage also are classified as
pesticides.
 o Pesticides are generally the fastest way to control pests.
o In many instances, they are the only tactic available.

Pest Control Failures

Pest Resistance
• Pesticides fail to control some pests because the pests are resistant to the pesticides.
o Rarely does any pesticide kill all the target pests.
o Each time a pesticide is used, it selectively kills the most susceptible pests.
o Some pests avoid the pesticide. Others withstand its effects. Pests that are
not destroyed may pass along to their offspring the trait that allowed them to
survive.
• When one pesticide is used repeatedly in the same place, against the same pest, the
surviving pest population may be more resistant to the pesticide than the original
population was.
o The opportunity for resistance is greater when a pesticide is used over a
wide geographic area or when a pesticide is applied repeatedly to a rather
small area where pest populations are isolated.
o A pesticide that leaves a residue that gradually loses its effectiveness over
time will help select out resistance.
o Rotating pesticides may help reduce the development of pest resistance.

Other Reasons for Failure

• Not every pesticide failure is caused by pest resistance.
• Sometimes a pesticide application fails to control a pest because the pest was not
identified correctly and the wrong pesticide was chosen.
• Other applications fail because the pesticide was not applied at an appropriate time
- the pest may not have been in the area during the application or it may have been
in a life cycle stage or location where it was not susceptible to the pesticide.
• Pests that are present may be part of a new infestation that developed after the
chemical was applied.

Section 1.2
Application Test Your Knowledge

To assess your understanding of this lesson, please login to

https://www.zipgrade.com/s/ to answer the questions. Use the access credentials
assigned to you. Good luck
 Module 2

Unit III. General Considerations in Planning Pest Management Programs

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 1

Learning Objectives Consumers Utilization of the Product

❖ Discuss the consumers
utilization of the
product in relation to
Introduction
pest management In a pest management program, variety of
program methods is employed including cultural, biological,
mechanical, physical and regulatory controls or the
combination of all these methods to control pests. The
utilization of these approaches is dependent on
farmers preferences, cost and the type of crop and the
level of technology adopted by the farmers. The
availability of the control methods is also in
consideration in planning pest management control
strategies.

Section11.1
Activity Pest Control Strategies
Activity

Adoption of various control methods is dependent on farmers preference, availability of the

control method, cost, technological background of the farmer and the type of crop. In this
activity, imagine yourself as a farmer.

Procedure

1. Identify a crop that you want to produce

2. Plan a combination of pest control strategies: Plant Host resistance, cultural control,
biological control, physical and mechanical control and chemical control.
3. Give 5 examples of each strategy that you are going to employ

Analysis
Compare each control strategies and enumerate the advantages and
disadvantages in using these strategies.
Methods of Pest Control
Biological Control Method
• Use of naturally-occurring organisms to regulate pest populations at acceptable
level
• Do not control sufficiently if used alone. They are used in combination with other
control measures
• Must be approached with care as control organism themselves may become pests

Beneficial species that are known to control other pests:

Parasites
• Usually attack or prey upon one insect species or few closely related species.
• Normally feeds upon a single host, gradually destroying it
• Generally insect species including wasps, flies: only the immature larval stage are
parasitic
Predators
• Feed upon and attack many species of insects, usually killing the prey by quickly
ingesting it or sucking its body fluids. Both the immature and adults stages may
attack the prey
Ways in which biological control can enhance the effectiveness of beneficial species:
1. Mass rearing and release of parasites
2. Importation of beneficial insects
3. Conservation of native parasites and predators

Use of Plant Resistance

Plant Resistance is the genetically inherited ability of a plant species to withstand or
tolerate insect pest or diseases
Types of Plant Resistance to Insect pests
1. Tolerance. The host plant can survive heavy infestation without a significant yield
loss
2. Nonpreference. Insect do not feed upon, lay eggs or use a resistant variety for
shelter
Types of Plant Resistance to Diseases
1. Immunity. The plant is not attacked by the disease under any condition
 2. Hypersensitivity. Infected plant cells are quickly destroyed which leave the infected
area localized and unable to spread.
3. Tolerance. Tolerance is the most common type of plant resistance to disease.
Tolerant plants are infected by the disease but the yield is greater than that of
susceptible varieties.

Cultural Control Methods

• Use consciously by farmers to improve yield by reducing pest population.

• The effectiveness is difficult to assess.
• Use of specific method my reduce one pest population while increasing another.
• Some practices may effectively control pest but at the same time, reduce crop yield
Examples of Cultural Control Methods
1. Plowing fields and burning stubble
2. Synchronous planting
3. Planting susceptible trap crops
4. Intercropping
5. Crop rotation
6. Sanitation

Mechanical and Physical Methods

• Physical methods involved mechanical removal or destruction of pests using
temperature, humidity and energy.
• Use of mechanical implements to control pest (i.e. plow, harrow)
• Physical collection and subsequent destruction of pest

Regulatory Control
• Pest problems are often induced by human activities (i.e. movement of commodities
or equipment contaminated with pest from one place to another)
• Quarantine laws have been promulgated in many countries to solve this problem

Chemical Control Measures

• Pesticides are important control measures for a wide variety of pests because they
are convenient to use, economical, provide quick control and able to reduce pest
population at an extremely low levels.
 • On the other hand, pesticide also have the potential to harm humans, livestock and
wildlife, pollute the environment and destroy beneficial organisms and the growing
concerns about the increasing resistance of pest to pesticides.

Types of Pesticides
1. Insecticide – to control insect pests
2. Herbicides – to control weeds
3. Fungicides – to control fungal diseases
4. Nematicides – to control nematodes
5. Rodenticide – t control rats

General mode of Action of Pesticides

1. Insecticides
• Stomach poisons are usually eaten by the pest and absorbed into the body
through the digestive tract
• Contact poisons enter an insect's body as a result of contact with treated
surfaces such as plant foliage.
• Fumigants are volatile and enter the insect's body through the respiratory
system.
• Systemic poisons are absorbed by the plant through the leaves, stems fruit,
or roots and move through the plant's vascular system to other parts of the
plant. Insects acquire these poisons by feeding upon the treated plants.
• Physical poisons may kill insects by suffocating them (e.g. dust) or by
disrupting the cuticle (e.g. petroleum oils) thus killing the insect by
desiccation.
2. Fungiddes
• Eradicants are applied to destroy diseases already established on plants.
• Protectants are applied to the plant prior to infection to prevent the
establishment or development of diseases.
3. Herbicides
• Contact herbicides kill that part of the plant to which they come in direct
contact.
• Systemic herbicides are absorbed by the plant's leaves or roots and
translocated within the plant to other tissues.
4. Rodenticides
• Acute poisons are highly toxic to rodents and, after ingestion, rapidly kill
them.
 • Chronic poisons are anticoagulants which cause rodents to die of widespread
bleeding after they have consumed the materials continuously over three to
ten days.

Types of Pesticide Application

1. Curative applications. These refer to the use of brad spectrum pesticides to quickly
remove or minimize pest populations. Insecticides and herbicides are often applied
as curative treatments.
2. Protectant applications. Pesticides are applied before the predicted Infestation or
stack of the pest. Fungicides are often applied as protective treatments so that
residues cover the plant surface before the germination of fungal spores.
3. Prophylactic programs. Pesticides are continuously applied throughout the crop
growth stages t prevent the expansion of pests.
4. Economic threshold programs. These are relatively new methods used In Integrated
Pest management programs. Pesticides are applied only when pest population reach
an economic threshold, i.e. the pest population level at which control measures
prevent pest damage from exceeding the economic injury level.
Types of Pesticide Formulations
1. Dry Formulations. These are usually applied undiluted and include dusts, granules
and wettable powders which are mixed with a liquid before application.
2. Dusts. The technical material is mixed with a Carrier such as finely-ground clay, talc
or volcanic ash. Dust requires no additional mixing and can be applied directly to
the plant
3. Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC). These consist of technical material, organic solvent,
emulsifier, spreaders and stickers. The organic solvent dissolves the pesticides
while the emulsifier allows the pesticide to be mixed with water. Spreaders and
stickers are added to enable the product to cover the target area more effectively,
Liquid formulation are easy to transport and store, require little agitation in the
tank to keep them mixed and are effective for treating foliage.
4. Flowable Formulations. Flowables are a special type of liquid formulation
containing finely ground solid particles of pesticides suspended in a liquid.
5. Seed Treatments. Seed treatments are similar to wettable powders, however, the
powder particles carrying the pesticides in seed treatments are more finely ground.
Thus, a relatively thick coating adheres to the seed.
6. Plant Drenches. In this treatment process, the roots of seedling plants or rooted
cuttings are soaked for several hours in a slurry or strong solution of systemic
pesticide until the pesticide is absorbed and spread throughout the plant.
7. Poisonous Bait. This formulation consists of a pesticide mixed with regular food
which, when eaten by pests, curses their death. Baits are commonly used to control
pests such as rats and birds.
8. Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a pest
management system which utilizes all suitable methods and techniques in as a
compatible manner as possible to maintain the pest population to a level below that
causing economically unacceptable damage or loss.
IPM Concept and Practices
1. Effective pest management involves maintaining the quality and quantity of
production in a cost-effective manner. While pesticides will continue to play an
important part In pest management. an integrated approach combining, where
appropriate, the use Of resistant varieties. biological control techniques and
modified cultural practices. together with the judicious use of chemicals, can offer
long term control and reduced environmental asks. At the same time, the integrated
approach increases the benefits and decreases the cost of the control measures.
Resistance to pesticides, particularly in Insect pests and plant pathogens, is a
serious constraint in the continued use of chemical control measures.
2. Economic Threshold Levels - Concepts and Applications The economic result
achieved by a pesticide's application is dependent upon the state of the pest
population against which It Is applied. The acceptable standard for maximizing
economic returns of a pesticide's use is known as the economic threshold".
3. Selective Use of Pesticides in IPM Programs
• Selective toxicity. Whenever possible, pesticides selected annual tin more
toxic to target pest species than to beneficial species.
• Ecological selectivity. Pesticide applications should coincide with the 'nest
susceptible stage of mot development and with periods when the beneficial
species is least numerous.
• Formulation and application selectivity. Certain formulations may be less
toxic to numerous and beneficial species and some application techniques,
such as seed treatment and root drenches, are more selective in delivering
pesticides to limited areas of a plant or a field.
• Selective dosages. Although a pesticide may be toxic to beneficial species, it
is sometimes possible to select low-dose rates that will kill the target pests
and allow useful species to survive.
• Implementation of the IPM Concept. Large-scale implementation of IPM at
the farm level is limited among both the developed and the developing
countries. Basic IPM research control tactics, Crop losses, sampling and
monitoring. and economic threshold levels, has been conducted on rice and
certain other make crops.
 Module 2

Unit III. General Considerations in Planning Pest Management Programs

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 2

Learning Objectives Conservation of the Environment

❖ Discuss the consumers
utilization of the
product in relation to
Introduction
pest management There are growing concerns of the impact of
program pesticide. Pesticides are known to cause pollution and
cause ecological imbalance. This lesson discusses the
effects of pest control methods and its impact to
environment particularly on the persistence and toxicity of
pesticides, effects of pesticide on the agroecosystem,
wildlife and livestock and non-target organisms.

Section11.1
Activity Effects of Pesticide on the Environment
Activity

Unregulated use of pesticide continuously affects environmental health. This activity will
develop your awareness on the effects of pesticides to the environment.

Procedure.

1. Find a research article on the internet related the effects of pesticide to the environment
2. Summarize the article

Analysis
1. Explain the result of the research.
2. What study can you propose based on the result of the research?
Potential Environmental and Health Effects
1. Toxicity and Persistence of Pesticides
• The major types of pesticides - insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and
rodenticides -are widely used in many of the region's countries. Although all
may adversely affect the environment.
• Insecticides generally pose the more serious and widespread risks mainly
due to their acute and chronic toxicity to living organisms, persistence in the
environment and cumulative properties.
• Most fungicides and herbicides and certain types of Insecticides
(organophosphates) bind the soil particle to break down relatively quickly
into less harmful materials after application - although water may become
contaminated form the use of soil-appiled herbicides.
• Persistent herbicides such as organochlorines (DDT, eldrin, heptachlor.
dieidrin and chlordane) remain unchanged in the environment for long
periods. The length of persistence varies with climatic conditions. i.e. the rate
of degradation is faster in tropical as compared in temperate climates.

2. Effects on Agroecosystem
• The magnitude and severity of pesticide-related problems vary greatly
among different types of age-ecosystems. Therefore, to identify the actual or
potential effects of pesticides, it is important to determine first the type of
agroecosystem in which the pesticide is to be applied.
• Both the selection of pesticides and the intensity of their use depend upon
the prevailing clops and cropping patterns.
• Because of the differences in bio-physical features of the environment, such
as soil, surface waters and ground water depth, the mobility and actual
distribution of pesticides and pesticides residues will vary greatly among
different agroecosystems.

3. Risks Associated with Certain Cropping Systems

• Though pesticides can have adverse effects on almost any type of two-
ecosystem in the Asia-Pacific region, the risks associated with certain
cropping systems may be particularly

4. Effects on Wildlife end Livestock

• Pesticides primarily insecticides because of their acute toxicity to mammals
and other vertebrates and their ability to persist and accumulate in
organisms, have induced serious effects in wildlife and livestock.
5. Effects on Nontarget Organisms
• In addition to destroying target insects and other arthropod pests.
insecticides particularly broad-spectrum types such as organophosphates
and pyrethroids, destroy beneficial predators and parasites that help
regulate pest population.
6. Resistance to Pesticides
• Pest populations can develop resistance to pesticides which ultimately
undermines the effectiveness as a means of pest control.
 Module 2

Unit III. General Considerations in Planning Pest Management Programs

Time Frame: 2.5 Hours Lesson 3

Learning Objectives Safety of the Pest Control Operation

❖ Discuss the consumers
utilization of the
product in relation to
Introduction
pest management There are growing concerns of the impact of
program pesticide. Pesticides are known to cause pollution and
cause ecological imbalance. This lesson discusses the
effects of pest control methods and its impact to
environment particularly on the persistence and toxicity of
pesticides, effects of pesticide on the agroecosystem,
wildlife and livestock and non-target organisms.

Section11.1
Activity Effects of Pesticide on Human Health
Activity

Toxic concentrations of pesticide residues in food have deleterious consequence in human

health. This activity will develop your awareness on the effects of pesticides to your health.

Procedure.

3. Find a research article on the internet related the effects of pesticide to human health
4. Summarize the article

Analysis
3. Explain the result of the research.
4. What solutions can be done to address pesticide toxicity.
Pesticide Residues in Food
• Pesticides may remain on a crop after application to protect against pest in the field
and in storage.

Effects on Health and Safely

1. Degree and Management of Toxicity
• Toxicity - is a physiological or biological properly which determines the
capacity of a chemical to do harm or produce Injury to a living organism by
other than mechanical means. Most chemicals used for pest control are not
only toxic to the Intended target organisms, but also to nontarget species.
• In determining the degree of toxicity, the first consideration Is the channel
through which the pesticides enter the human body. The routes of
contamination may be through the mouth (oral), skin (dermal), or lungs
(respiratory). Once Inside the body, they may produce symptoms of
poisoning, which may termed acute If it occurs from a single exposure or
intake, or chronic it the poisoning results from the repeated exposure or
absorption of smaller amount of toxicants.
• Toxicity is normally measured by a response of a single dose of pesticide
entering the body of a test animal, usually a rat or a rabbit. The units of
measurement are milligrams or active Ingredient per kilogram of body
weight. The accepted method of recording the relative toxicity of a pesticide
is the Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) value - a statistical estimate of a chemical dose
that will kill 50 percent of the test animals under stated conditions.
• Pesticide toxicity more generally refers to the toxicity of the active
ingredients. However, for practical purposes. the pesticide user Is more
interested in the toxicity of the formulation or of the mixture being applied
after dilution. Therefore, many pesticide manufacturers provide the acute
toxicity of the formulations as well as that of the active ingredients in their
published technical leaflets. When such information is not provided, an
approximate indication of the toxicity of the formulation can be obtained by
applying the following formula based on the concentration of active
ingredient or ingredients in the formulation;
𝐿𝐷50 0𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
LD50 of formulation = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥100
Toxic Properties of Some Chemical Groups
Organochlorines
• A few pesticides in the organochlorine group have high oral toxicity, must have long
residual action which is advantageous in insect control.

Examples: Aldrin Chlordane DieIdrin Heptachlor

• Organophosphates. Those compounds are esters of phosphoric acid or

phosphorothionic acid with methoxy- or ethoxy-molecule groups. They comprise
the largest number of Insecticides.
Examples: Disufoton, Parathion, Malathion, Dichlorvos Mevinphos, Diazinon
Azinphosmethyl, Dimethoate
• Carbamates. Carbamates are esters of carbamic acid. They resemble the
organophosphates in their biological action. Although they also exhibit the working
of the Cholinesterase enzymes, carbamates in general are rapidly metabolized in the
body and excreted. Carbamates insecticides such as aldicarb and carbofuran are
persistent. systemic pesticides with high oral, dermal and inhalation toxicities.
Because of their long residual action, the incorporation of carbamates in the soil is
recommended to control pests in early growth stages.
Carbamate insecticides: Aleacerb, Carbofuran
• Pyrethroids. Pyrethroids resemble natural pyrethrine. The two share the advantage
of high biological activity against insects and. in general, have a lower mammalian
toxicity than other insecticide groups. Mammals generally eliminate pyrethroids
rapidly ty metabolic processes and excretion. In the soil, biodegradation by soil
microorganisms considerably diminishes residual action. The lipophilic character of
these compounds adheres them to soil particles, precluding the possibility of
leaching.
Examples: Bioallethrin Allethrin S-Bioallethrin
• Dithiocarbamates and Related Compounds. Zinc, manganese and iron salts of
dithiocarbamates are used in agricultural fungicides. Thiram disulfides, formed by
oxidation of dithiocarbamates, are used as fungicides end seed dressings against sell
fungi.
Examples: Ferbam (iron salts), Maneb (manganese salts), Zined (zinc salts)
• Dinitrophenols and Pentachlrorophenols. These groups of ntrophenols. nitrocresols
and chlorophenols often have multipurpose use as insecticides, herbicides.
acaricides, fungicides and wood preservatives.
 Examples: Dinceob Dinocap Pentachlorophenol
• Phenoxyacetic Acid. The chlorophenoxy compounds, acids, esters and salts have low
toxicity for most individuals. Almost all of the compounds are broadleaf weed
herbicides which are widely used for selective weeding in rice and ether grain crops
Examples: 2, 4D, MCPA, MCPB, 2, 4, 5-T
• Substituted Ureas. This group of compounds comprise relatively nontoxic herbicides
ranging from selective ape herbicides to nonselective, long term residual herbicides
used for individual weed control.
Examples: Chlorbromuron, Fluometuron, Diuron, Neburon, Bromacil
• Triazines. The triazines comprise a group of selective herbicides of low mammalian
toxicity and include atrazine, simazine, ametryne, prometryn, terbutryn, and
propazine.

• Dipyridylliums. The two important herbicides in this group are diquat and paraquat.
Both are desiccants used for either weed control or as preharvest aids for some
crops.

• Guanidine and Napthoquinones. This group Includes dodine and dichlone, both are
fungicides having low mammalian toxicity.

• Trichlorobenzoic Trichloracetic, Trichloropicolinic Acids. This group which includes

TBA, TCA and picloram, is relatively nontoxic to humans. However, TCA can cause
bums from prolonged skin contact, and picloram is combustible. All are herbicide,
with soil residue properties of long duration.

• Mercury Compounds. Mercury compounds are useful fungicides for seed treatment.
However, they show high acute oral and dermal toxicity to mammals. in addition,
most post environmental hazards through accumulation in the food chain. Alkyl
mercurial cause severe disabling, permanent damage to the central nervous system
and should only be used under close supervision.

• Arsenicab. These include selective pre-emergent contact herbicides such as

methylarsonic acid (MSI\AA) to control grass weeds.

• Botanical Insecticides. The insecticides in this group are derived from plant
materials rather that from synthesized chemicals. Members include pyrethrins,
 rotenone, ryania and nicotine. Toxicity to humans and animals ranges from very low
for pyrethrins to very high for nicotine sulfate.

• Anti-coagulant Rodenticides. Anti-coagulants of the coumarin type (warfarin,

coumafene) and of the 1, 3-indandione type (diphacinone, pindone, valone) inhibit
coagulation of the blood causing rodents to die from internal bleeding.

• Acute Rodenticides. Arsenic trioxide and zinc phosphide are very poisonous
inorganic compounds capable of killing rats and mice after ingestion of a single
dose.

Pesticide Formulation
Formulation is the process by which herbicidal compounds are prepared for practical use, a
preparation containing a herbicide in a form suitable for practical use
Active Ingredient - the chemical in a product that is responsible for the affects
Inert ingredient- any ingredient in a formulation, which has no pesticidal action
Carrier- the liquid or solid materials added to a chemical compound to facilitate Its
application
Types of Formulations:
1. Activated- formulation within activator
• activator- substance added to a herbicide to increase Its phytctoxicity.
2. Emulsifiable concentrate- a concentrated solution of a herbicide and an emulsifier in
an organic solvent, which will form an emulsion spontaneously when added to
water with agitation
3. Granular - a type of formulation for dry application consisting of granules, which
serve as carriers for the herbicide
4. Pelleted- for dry application consisting of pellets of active herbicide or of inert
material containing herbicide
5. Wettable powder for spray application in which a homicide is mixed with an inert
earner, the product being finely ground, with a surface-acting agent added so that it
will form a suspension when agitated with water

Pesticide Application
Band - when the herbicide is applied as a band, normally straddling the crop row (opposite
to overall application)
Directed - where the herbicide is directed towards the ground or weeds to avoid or
minimize the contact with the crop
Overall - where the spray is applied uniformly over the whole area, as opposed to band
application
Overhead where the spray s applied Over the crop, as opposed to application directed
specially to weeds
Post-emergence - application of the herbicide after the crop has emerged from the soil
Pre-emergence - application of a herbicide where a crop is present but it has not emerged
from the soil
Contact preemergence - pre-emergence application of a contact herbicide to weeds
Residual Preemergence - pre-emergence application of s residual herbicide to the soil
Pre-planting (sowing) - application of a herbicide before panting a crop
Split - treatment In which the total dose of herbicide is divided into two or more times of
application
Spot - application of herbicides to individual. small patches or clumps of weeds
Sub-surface - application of a soil acting herbicide under the soil surface by means of
special equipment to provide a thin layer of herbicide-treated soil at specified depth
Volume rate - amount of liquid applied per unit area. The following definitions refer only to
herbicide use:
High volume - spray application of more than 675 liters/ha
Medium volume - spray application within the range of 225675 liters/ha
Low volume - Spray application within the range of 55-225 liters/ha
Very low - spray application within the range of 11-56 liters/ha
Ultra-low volume - spray application using unformulated compounds or
concentrated oil-based formulations within the range 1-111iters/ha
Herbicide Groups (General Properties and Uses)
Inorganic Herbicides - inorganic types such as sulfuric acid, inorganic chlorates and
arsenates, used as general weed killers but very limited in use due to their toxicity to
humans and their corrosiveness.
Organic Arsenicals - used as contact general weedkillers with very much reduced toxicity to
man. They have shown fungicide activity.
Examples; Cocadylic acid and corresponding salts. Mono- and di-sodium salts of
monomethyl arsenic acid (MSMA . and DSMA) and the monoammonium salt (MAMA)
Aliphatic Organic Herbicides - represented by trichloroacetic acid (TCA). dalapon.
(dichloropropionic acid) and Glyphosate.
Phenoxy Derivatives - generally considered broadleaf weedkillers but can also control
sedges and some grasses to some extent depending upon the manner of application. They
are widely used because they are more efficient and usually less hazardous and less
injurious to the environment than the the alternative methods. Examples: 2, 4-D [(2, 4-
dicioroptknoxy) acetic acid silvex, 2, 4.5-T (2, 4,5-trichlorophenoxyl).
Subtituted Ureas - most are physiologically non-selective and are absorbed more efficiently
by the underground organs. These represent a very monuron. diuron, inuron. chloroxuron,
chlorbomuron, K-223.141441 and thiochlormethyl.
S-Trlazines - grouped into three: the chlorotriazines (atrazine, propaxine, trietazine,
taimazine); the methoxytriazines. simetryne, ametryne).
Bipyrldillums (Quaternary Ammonium Compounds) - represented by the bypridillums,
paraquat and diquat, which constituted the most popularly used general weed killers in the
world today. Morphamquat is also Included but less popular.
Amides - a wry big group of herbicides with very diverse properties, effects and uses to this
group belongs alachlor, butachlor (Matchete 800 EC), propanil, napropamide, naptalan,
solan and diphenamid.
Carbamates and thlocarbamates -carbamates and thlocarbarnates are both derived • from
carbamic acid.
Dinitroanalines - these were discovered in the early 1980's. Examples: trilloraline, benefin,
nacelle, oryzain and butralin.
Benzoic Acid Derivatives - of this group, chloramben, MA, dicamba and tricamba are those
commercially used.
Phenolic Derivatives - used for over 35 years as contact toxicants. Example: DNOC, dinoseb
and pentachlorophenol (PCP).
Nitrite Derivatives - contain the -C - N group. Herbicidal nitrate compounds have hydroxyl
or halogen substituents. Their used is not popular in southeast asia owing to their toxicity
under tropical conditions. Examples: bromoxynil, loxynil and dichlobenil.
Miscellaneous Groups - represented only by one or two chemicals. Example: Picloram
Nitrophenyl ethers - to this group belong nitrofen, flourodifen, CNP and RH-2915.
Triazole - only herbicide representative of this group is amitrole which is a water-soluble
heterocyclic nitrogen, compound occurring as odorless white crystalline powder.
Terepthallic acid derivative - under this group is the DCPA. which is an odorless while
water soluble crystalline
Uracils - not promising in widespread use in tropics. Examples: bromacil, lenacil and DP-
233.

Application and Equipment

Crop protection chemicals may be applied to both the crop and the soil or directed to the
crop, to the environment where the pest occurs or directed to the pest.
Application or chemicals with respect to the area covered:
• Overall or broadcast application - spreading granules/ pellets by hand.
• Band application - application of chemicals around the plant.
• Spot treatment -- application of chemicals to patches of infested plants.

Spray system:
2. Tank - a leak proof storage of the spray material; holds the liquid
3. Pump - develops the pressure which forces the liquid materials out of the tank
4. Pressure regulator - maintains pressure at the desired level
5. Pressure gauge - indicate pressure and at the same time tells if the other part; of the
sprayer are functioning properly
6. Boom - distributes the spray solution to nozzles
7. Nozzles - breaks the liquid into spray droplets
8. Strainer/liter - keeps the larger particles form going to the pump or prevents
foreign matter or dirt from cogging the nozzles.

Types of sprayer.
1. Compressed air sprayer- useful for spot and small area spraying; simple to operate:
essential parts are spray tank, plunger-type pump, dirt tube, spray hose, extension
spray tube. (lance), cut off valve and nozzle, capacity Is between 7.5 to 15 liters and
can withstand pressure up to 50 lbs. per square Inch.
2. Knapsack sprayer - carried on the back by means of shoulder straps: the pump is
operated by hand lever situated at the bottom or top or the Sprayer 3 Tractor -
power sprayer - mounted on the tractors; tank capacity is about 100 priors
Nozzles type and spray pattern
1. Fan type - gave flat pattern
2. Cone type - give circular pattern
PESTICIDE CALCULATION
Active Ingredient (0.1) expressions:
1. For solid a.i. in solid formulation
%a.i = (weight of a.i./ Weight of formulation) x 100

2. for solid a.i in liquid formulation

%a.i = (weight of a.i. / Volume of formulation) x 100

3. For liquid a.i. in liquid formulation

%a.i. = (volume of a.i./ volume of formulation) x 100

Sample Problem
What is the %a.i of the available formulation if 2 liters of product contains 800 grams of
a.i.?
Solution: convert 2 liters to ml first, thus 2 liters —2000 mL
%a.i. = (weight of a.i /Volume of formulation) x 100
% a.i. = ( 800 grams a.i./2000 ml of formulation) x100 = 40%

Amount of formulated product required

Amount of formulated product required = (desired a.i x desired volume)/% a.i. formulation

Sample problem
How many liters of Folithlon 50 EC will be mixed to maintain 0.01% a.i. in 200 liters of
spray volume?
Amount of formulated product required = (desired a.i x desired volume)/% a.i.
formulation
= (0.01% x 200 liters)/50%
= 0.04 liters
Proper Handling and Disposing Pesticide
Route of entry of chemicals into the human body
1. Dermal absorption
2. Ingestion
3. Inhalation
Steps prior to purchase of pesticides:
1. Know the target pest
2. Determine if other control methods other than pesticide can be used
3. If no other control method is applicable, purchase the pesticide that is known to
have not
1. caused resistance to target pest and has a complete label
4. As long as possible, purchase pesticides with color bands of blue (moderately toxic)
and green (slightly toxic), rather than yellow (highly toxic) and red (extremely
toxic).
Proper way of reading of pesticide label: (Do not use pesticide without a label)
Example: Benomyl
Signs and their Meaning

Meaning of Pictorial Signs in Pesticides

Precautions When Mixing Pesticides with A Solution (Water or Other Pesticides)
• Often, accidents happen during mixing rather than during application due to the high
o concentration of the toxin.
o Dry Formulations: danger in inhalation; Respirator is required.
o Wet Formulations: danger when in contact with skin; Double or triple gloves are
required. Do
o not use leather or cotton gloves.

Precautions to remember when mixing:

o Always protect yourself
o Do not lift containers higher than your chest
o Never mix pesticides when alone, especially when mixing chemicals with color
band of yellow or red. Make sure you have a companion who will assist you in
case of emergency.
o Mix in an area with sufficient ventilation
o Be gentle when opening and closing container lids
o Wind direction must be away from you
o Never place your head on the container opening
o Place pesticide container in a stable table and avoid spilling the chemicals
o Only use appropriate measuring tools and containers and label them with “For
pesticide use only”. Do not use containers that are also used in the household.
o Always use a catch basin
o Wash hands and face before eating, drinking or smoking. Never place chemicals
on your mouth.
o Wash your clothing and take a shower after mixing
o Do not touch chemicals with bare hands

Precautions when applying in the field

o Place warnings all over the field, especially in entrances
o Wind speed must be 3 to 15 km per hour
o Wind direction must be away from water bodies
o Temperature: cool (<27°C) and high humidity (>45% relative humidity)
Proper way of transporting and storing

Proper disposal of chemicals

 Section 1.2
Application Test Your Knowledge

To assess your understanding of this lesson, please login to

https://www.zipgrade.com/s/ to answer the questions. Use the access credentials
assigned to you. Good luck

References
1. Zimdahl, R. (2007). Fundamentals of Weed Science. New York, USA: Elsivier.
2. Donayre, D.K.M., Martin, E.C., Santiago, S.E. & Lee, J.T. (2018). Weeds in Irrigated and
Rainfed Lowland Ricefields in the Philippines. Philippines: Philippine Rice Research
Institute.
3. Donayre, D.K.M., Martin, E.C., Santiago, S.E. & Lee, J.T. (2019). Weeds in Vegetables in
the Philippines. Philippines: Philippine Rice Research Institute.
4. Strange, R.N. (2003). Introduction to Plant Pathology. England: John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.
5. Gillot, C. (2005). Entomology (3rd ed.). Saskatchewan, Canada. Springer.