Journal of Financial Therapy

Volume 5
Article 3
Issue 1 Volume 5, Issue 1

2014

Factors Related to Financial Stress among College

Students
Stuart Heckman
Ohio State University

HanNa Lim
Ohio State University

Catherine Montalto
Ohio State University

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Heckman, Stuart; Lim, HanNa; and Montalto, Catherine (2014) "Factors Related to Financial Stress among College Students," Journal
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Journal of Financial Therapy Volume 5, Issue 1 (2014)

Factors Related to Financial Stress

Among College Students

Stuart Heckman, Ph.D.

HanNa Lim, Ph.D.
Catherine Montalto, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University

Concerns that debt loads and other financial worries negatively affect student wellness are a
top priority for many university administrators. Factors related to financial stress among
college students were explored using the Roy Adaptation Model, a conceptual framework used
in health care applications. Responses from the 2010 Ohio Student Financial Wellness Survey
were analyzed using proportion tests and multivariate logistic regressions. The results show
that financial stress is widespread among students – 71% of the sample reported feeling stress
from personal finances. The results of the proportion tests and logistic regressions show that
this study successfully identified important financial stressors among college students. Two of
the most important financial stressors were not having enough money to participate in the
same activities as peers and expecting to have higher amounts of student loan debt at
graduation. The results also indicate that students with higher financial self-efficacy and
greater financial optimism about the future are significantly less likely to report financial
stress. Implications for student life administrators, policymakers, financial counselors, and
financial therapists are discussed.

Keywords: college students; financial stress; financial self-efficacy; adaptation

INTRODUCTION

Student wellness is an important topic on college campuses nationwide as higher

education and student life administrators are becoming increasingly concerned with stress
among students. Given that stress has been shown to negatively impact student persistence
(Letkiewicz, in press), increased scrutiny of graduation rates from federal and state
governments should motivate administrators to understand the causes of stress among
students. More specifically, stress resulting from personal financial difficulties is worth
exploring in more detail given the challenge college students and recent graduates face
regarding the growing burden of student loans. The institutional environment surrounding

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Factors Related to Financial Stress Among College Students

the college education decision has changed dramatically – grants and other forms of aid
have not kept pace with the rapid increase in tuition (College Board, 2011; Draut, 2007). As
a result, students are relying more heavily on student loans in order to pay for their
education (Draut, 2007). “Working your way through college” is no longer realistic since
tuition has increased more rapidly than inflation for the last few decades.

Research regarding sources of stress confirms the influential role that personal
financial problems play in the lives of college students. Financial difficulties are often cited
among college students as sources of stress (Northern, O’Brien, & Goetz, 2010; Ross,
Niebling, & Heckert, 1999). In fact, a recent report from Inceptia, a non-profit financial
education advocate, found that four of the top five stressors among college students
involved problems related to personal finances (Trombitas, 2012). Although the incidence
of financial stress has been well-documented, much less is known about the factors related
to financial stress among college students. This study sought to fill this gap in the literature
by identifying the factors that are associated with increased likelihood of financial stress.
This is the first step in understanding the causes of financial stress among students and will
provide valuable information to administrators and practitioners of financial therapy,
financial counseling, and financial planning.

Since administrators are concerned with student persistence and graduation rates,
understanding the occurrences of financial stress can help identify at-risk students and
guide efforts to decrease financial stress among students. Furthermore, the identification of
factors associated with increased likelihood of financial stress will help practitioners and
financial therapy researchers understand the issues and circumstances that are especially
influential among college students. Given the important developmental stage of traditional
undergraduate students, the experience of financial stress during the college years may
have a long-term impact on consumer wellness. Lastly, since financial therapy is a young
discipline, this study contributes by introducing a new theoretical framework based on the
concept of adaptation that may be useful in the practice of financial counseling and
financial therapy.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Financial stress may be defined as the inability to meet one’s financial obligations,
but can also include psychological or emotional effects (Northern et al., 2010). Much of the
literature on financial stress has focused on stress outcomes. Research has documented the
following negative outcomes of financial stress: (a) depression (Andrews & Wilding, 2004;
Clark-Lempers, Lempers, & Netusil, 1990), (b) anxiety (Andrews & Wilding, 2004), (c) poor
academic performance (Andrews & Wilding, 2004; Harding, 2011), (d) poor health
(Northern et al., 2010), and (e) difficulty persisting towards degree completion (Letkiewicz,
in press; Joo, Durband, & Grable, 2008; Robb, Moody, & Abdel-Ghany, 2011). Other research
has focused on coping behavior of financially-stressed students, such as seeking help (Britt
et al., 2011; Lim, Heckman, Letkiewicz, Fox, & Montalto, 2012).

Hayhoe, Leach, Turner, Bruin, and Lawrence (2000) examined spending habit
differences among college students and included financial stress as a variable in their

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model. Financial stress was measured by summing the number of positive responses to
seven financial stressors, such as “not able to save for an emergency” and “not able to pay
utilities.” Hayhoe et al. (2000) found that the number of good financial behaviors was
negatively associated with number of financial stressors.

Very few studies have examined factors related to the likelihood of reporting
financial stress. Brougham, Zail, Mendoza, and Miller (2009) examined different sources of
stress, including academics, financial, family, social, and daily hassles, but the primary focus
of their study was to identify coping behavior among students. They found that college
women were more likely to report financial stress than college men (Brougham et al.,
2009). Anticipated debt has also been shown to be a strong predictor of financial stress
among medical students (Morra, Regehr, & Ginsburg, 2008). Archuleta, Dale, and Spann
(2013) found that among college students, higher levels of financial satisfaction were
significantly and negatively related to financial anxiety.

As discussed by Northern et al. (2010), some researchers have used financial data
exclusively to measure financial stress. While being unable to pay bills and other financial
difficulties may indeed produce stress, there are important psychological aspects of stress
that may be missed when using financial data alone (Northern et al., 2010). Being unable to
pay bills on time may plausibly be a stressful event for one student, but not for another
student. Stress is certainly a complex construct, but the differences in measurement of
financial stress are likely a result of a lack of theory-based research. Many of the studies
mentioned above do not include an explanation of the theoretical framework used to
investigate issues related to financial stress.

Two important concepts have been linked to stress in the college student literature:
self-efficacy and optimism. Perceived self-efficacy can be described as a person’s perceived
ability to handle different situations (Bandura, 1977). Bandura (1982) describes this as a
complex process in which “component cognitive, social, and behavioral skills must be
organized into integrated courses of action…(p. 122).” Perceived self-efficacy is distinct
from concepts such as mastery and locus of control. While self-efficacy is a perception,
mastery is about behavior experienced and is a source of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977;
1982). Locus of control is about orientation of control (Rotter, 1966). A person who has a
high level of perceived self-efficacy is confident that he or she can be effective in bringing
about the desired results for a given situation.

Research has shown that self-efficacy is associated with a reduced likelihood of

stress among college students (Zajacova, Lynch, & Espenshade, 2005) and is positively
related to academic performance (Chemers, Hu, & Garcia, 2001; Zajacova et al., 2005).
Optimism refers to positive expectations about future outcomes (Scheier & Carver, 1987).
Optimism has also been found to be an important construct among college student
academic outcomes (Chemers et al., 2001) and health outcomes (Scheier & Carver, 1987).
Since self-efficacy and optimism have been used to explore other student wellness
outcomes, these concepts may be meaningful when exploring financial wellness, and
specifically financial stress, among students.

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Factors Related to Financial Stress Among College Students

As this review has shown, there are several important gaps in the financial stress
literature. The current study will contribute to the literature by providing an exploration of
the factors associated
ciated with financial stress among college students. Since most of the
research on financial stress considers stress outcomes and coping behavior, this study will
also contribute to the literature by exploring an application of the Roy Adaptation Model
(Roy and Andrews, 2008) in explaining financial stress among college students.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Financial stress is a concern because of the negative health outcomes associated

with increased levels of stress. Therefore, as researchers examine factors related
r to the
likelihood of reporting financial stress, it may be useful to turn to a health care model. The
Roy Adaptation Model (RAM), see Figure 1, is a well well-known
known theoretical framework for
designing nursing intervention for patients (Rice, 2011).. Under this framework, the patient
is viewed as an adaptive system that manages external or internal stimuli through control
processes and effectors (coping
coping mechanisms
mechanisms) and the output is either adaptation (health)
or ineffective responses (illness) (Roy, 1970, 1984; Roy & Roberts, 1981).. Since the details
of the RAM are discussed in the nursing context, the specific, technical features of the
model will not be discussed here. For a detailed coverage of the model, interested readers
are referred to Roy and Andrews (2008).

Figure 1. Roy Adaptation Model

Source: Adapted
ted from Roy and Andrews (2008)

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Empirical Specification of the RAM

This study developed an empirical model based on the RAM. In this framework, the
student is the adaptive system of interest and given the literature on college student
wellness, the primary coping mechanism (referred to as effectors in the RAM) of interest is
the self-concept. Roy and Andrews (2008) identified the self-concept
concept as one of the primary
effectors of a human adaptive system. While other effectors were identified in the RAM, the
current focus on the self-concept
concept is primarily practical in nature du
duee to data limitations
(i.e., the self-concept
concept could be proxied from the dataset). As the student is presented with
possible financial stressors (stimuli), he or she processes these stressors based on previous
adaptation and his or her self self-concept (coping mechanism). The output is either low
financial stress (adaptation/health) or high financial stress (ineffective responses/illness).
Since it is assumed that each student has a unique level of adaptation given his or her
experiences and personal history, de demographic
mographic characteristics represent the student’s
studen
current level of adaptation. In n the RAM framework, adaptation refers to their level of
learning, emotion management, and judgment (Roy & Andrews, 2008). That is, as students
experience life events and financial difficulties, such as working, having children, or
experiencing financial hardships, they learn to more effectively cope with or adapt to new
financial stressors. Self-efficacy
efficacy and optimism, in the context of personal finances, were
chosen to represent the student’s selfself-concept.
concept. This empirical model is presented in Figure
2.

Figure 2. Conceptual framework based

ased on the Roy Adaptation Model

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Factors Related to Financial Stress Among College Students

Hypotheses

Based on this theoretical framework, three hypotheses were developed.

H1: Students experiencing financial stressors will be more likely to be financially stressed.
H2: Students reporting greater financial self-efficacy will be less likely to be financially
stressed.
H3: Students reporting greater financial optimism will be less likely to be financially
stressed.

METHOD

Data

Data are from the Ohio Student Financial Wellness Survey (OSFWS). The survey was
conducted at 19 colleges and universities across the state of Ohio and 5,729 respondents
completed the survey in November and December of 2010. The survey was administered
online, contained 100 questions, and students were given the incentive of being entered to
win an iPad. After accounting for missing data, this study analyzed completed surveys from
a total of 4,488 students.

Proportion Tests

Proportion tests were used to compare the distribution of stressed students to the
distribution of non-stressed students by each independent variable. Since little is known
about financially stressed students, these comparisons provide useful insights in describing
differences between students reporting financial stress and those reporting no stress. The
test statistic (Z-statistic) compares the observed frequency (Oi) to the expected frequency
(Ei) for each categorical independent variable and is constructed as ∑(Oi – Ei)/Ei. The test
statistic has a chi-square distribution, and large values of the test statistic (or small p-
values) indicate statistically significant differences in the respective characteristic between
students reporting financial stress and those reporting no stress. The Z test statistics and p-
values are provided in Table 1.

Logistic Regression

Logistic regression was used to model the logarithm of the odds that financial stress
varies in relation to a set of predictor variables. The logistic regressions were carried out in
three blocks. The first block included only financial stressors (stimuli), the second added
current adaptation level (control processes), and the third added self-concept (effectors).

Dependent variable. A binary variable representing financial stress served as the

response variable. This variable was based on the following statement: “I feel stressed
about my personal finances in general.” Students responded on a four-point Likert-type
scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The four possible responses were
collapsed into two groups; those who disagreed or strongly disagreed were coded 0, and

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those who agreed or strongly agreed were coded 1. This variable was dichotomized due to
the focus on whether or not the student reported stress rather than the magnitude of the
reported stress. Although there is certainly a continuum regarding the amount of stress a
student experiences, this focus is justified since the RAM dichotomizes the output as either
adaptation or ineffective responses. Thus the logit modeled the likelihood of reporting
stress.
Independent variables. The conceptual framework for this study suggests that
there are three broad categories of variables that need to be considered in modeling
financial stress: financial stressors, current adaptation level, and effectors. Due to the
exploratory nature of this study, several financial stressors and effectors not included in
the final model were initially considered. Proportion z-tests were used to explore whether
there were differences in stress levels among the categories. Financial stressors or
effectors that were not significant at a descriptive level and in the logit were not included in
the final model.

Financial stressors. There were several different questions from the OSFWS that
asked the student to identify negative financial circumstances. The responses to the
following survey items were classified as financial stressors that could potentially cause
financial stress among college students:

1. “I have enough money to participate in most of the same activities as my peers

do.”
2. “I regularly spend more than I have by using credit or borrowing.”
3. “I pay my bills on time every month.”
4. “Do you currently have debt from any source, including student loans, credit
cards, car loans, personal loans from financial institutions or from
family/friends, or any other type of credit or loans?”
5. “How much student loan debt do you expect to accumulate by the time you
graduate?”

Items 1, 2, and 3 allowed students to respond on a four-point Likert-type scale,

ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). These responses were condensed
into two categories – those who agreed and those who disagreed. This coding was used
since an ordinal variable would have assumed that the scale between responses (i.e.,
strongly agree to agree compared to agree to disagree etc.) is constant. For the purposes of
this study, it was more useful to distinguish students who exhibited the circumstances or
behaviors in items 1 through 3 from those who did not – the degree to which these
circumstances or behaviors were true was not the focus. Students responded yes, no, or
don’t know to item 4, regarding whether the student has debt from any source – credit card
debt, car loans, etc. Students were given 11 possible responses for item 5, regarding the
expected amount of student loan debt and ranged from none to over $100,000. This study
condensed the categories into four groups: (a) no student loans, (b) below average, (c)
average, and (d) above average. The average category was $20,000-29,000 since the
average undergraduate student is graduating with $26,600 in student loans (The Institute
for College Access and Success, 2012). Dummy variables were used to represent each of the
financial stressors or categories of financial stressors. Students disagreeing with Items 1

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and 3 and agreeing with Item 2 were expected to be more likely to report financial stress.
Therefore, Items 1 and 3 were reversed coded so that each of the financial stressors was
expected to increase the likelihood of reporting financial stress.

Current adaptation level. Since it was assumed that each student has unique
experiences and circumstances, it is important to control for demographic characteristics
that may represent current adaptation levels. For example, it is possible that seniors are
more adapted to the college environment and the associated stressors than freshmen.
Therefore, the following demographic characteristics were introduced as dummy variables
to the logistic regression to control for the current level of adaptation that a student has
developed: sex (i.e., male, female), race/ethnicity (i.e., White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, Other),
class rank (i.e., freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, other), GPA (i.e., below 3.0, above 3.0),
institution type (i.e., community college, 4 year public, 4 year private), whether or not the
student has dependents, and current living situation (i.e., on-campus or off-campus).
Dummy variables or sets of dummy variables were used to distinguish each of these
factors. This set of variables was primarily used as a proxy to capture the underlying
differences between people regarding current adaptation levels.

Self-concept. The modified RAM used in the current study suggests that students’
self-concept may be useful in helping students respond to financial stressors. Self-efficacy
and optimism have been chosen to represent a student’s self-concept. Since both of the
constructs were asked in the context of personal finances, this study refers to financial self-
efficacy and financial optimism. Financial self-efficacy was measured by a single item on
the OSFWS, “I manage my money well.” Students responded to the self-efficacy measure on
a four-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Previous
literature has used similar, one-item measures to represent financial self-efficacy (Danes &
Haberman, 2007; Heckman & Grable, 2011). An ordinal variable was used to represent this
measure.

Financial optimism was measured by two items, a general optimism question and a
question about the students’ ability to support themselves after graduation. The general
optimism question made the following statement: “When I think about my financial
situation, I am optimistic about my future.” The other item stated “I will be able to support
myself after I graduate.” Students responded to both items on a four-point Likert-type scale
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Ordinal variables were used to represent
responses from these items. Each of these effectors was expected to decrease the likelihood
of reporting financial stress.

RESULTS

Descriptive Results

Considering the demographic composition, the sample had high proportions of

females (67.8%), White students (83.9%), and students with GPAs above 3.0 (76.5%). The
sample was fairly evenly distributed across class rank. The majority of students were from
4-year private schools (39.6%) or 4-year public schools (37.1%). Most of the students in

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the sample (76.1%) did not report having any dependents. In terms of living situation,
47.3% of the sample lived on-campus. Approximately 71% of the sample reported feeling
stressed from personal finances. Table 1 presents the full descriptive statistics for the
sample.

Proportion Tests

The results of the proportion tests are also presented in Table 1. Comparisons of the
proportion of students reporting financial stress are presented for each of the independent
variables used in the study. Of the comparisons, race/ethnicity, class rank, and the self-
concept variables contained comparisons that were not significant (p >.05), although only
class rank did not contain any significant differences. The most striking differences in the
proportion of financially stressed students were found when analyzing the financial
stressors. For example, 91.4% of students who do not have enough money to participate in
the same activities as peers were financially stressed while only 59.2% of students who had
enough money for such activities were financially stressed. Additionally, greater
proportions of students with debt from any source and students who expected to have
student loan debt at graduation were financially stressed. See Table 1 for a complete
comparison by independent variable.

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Table 1
Descriptive results and proportion tests

Sample % Financial Z test

Variables p-value
proportion stress = Yes statistic
FINANCIAL STRESSORS
Does not have enough money to participate in same activities as peers
No (Base) 62.1% 59.2% - -
Yes 37.9% 91.4% 23.175 <.001
Regularly overspends by using credit or borrowing
No (Base) 84.9% 68.9% - -
Yes 15.1% 85.2% 8.625 <.001
Does not pay bills on time
No (Base) 83.0% 68.1% - -
Yes 17.0% 85.1% 10.753 <.001
Current debt from any kind
No (Base) 25.0% 50.4% - -
Yes 70.6% 78.9% 18.169 <.001
Doesn’t know 4.4% 70.9% 5.343 <.001
Expected student loan debt at
graduation
None (Base) 21.1% 48.3% - -
Below average 29.6% 71.1% 10.999 <.001
Average 15.7% 76.8% 11.708 <.001
Above average 33.6% 83.9% 18.620 <.001
ADAPTATION LEVEL
Gender
Female (Base) 67.8% 75.1% - -
Male 32.2% 63.5% -8.057 <.001
Race/Ethnicity
White (Base) 83.9% 71.7% - -
Black 6.8% 73.0% .497 0.619
Hispanic 2.1% 75.8% .876 0.381
Asian 2.4% 52.7% -4.328 <.001
Other 4.7% 71.4% -.105 0.916
Class rank
Freshman (Base) 25.8% 69.3% - -
Sophomore 24.2% 72.8% 1.841 0.066
Junior 19.7% 71.6% 1.102 0.270
Senior 25.3% 71.3% 1.017 0.309
Other 4.9% 75.2% 1.766 0.077
Institution type
Public (Base) 37.1% 68.1% - -
Private 39.6% 71.4% 2.070 0.038
Community college 23.3% 76.6% 4.751 <.001
GPA
Low (Base) 23.5% 79.1% - -
High 76.5% 69.0% -6.354 <.001
At least one dependent
No (Base) 76.1% 68.9% - -
Yes 23.9% 79.3% 6.601 <.001
Living situation
Off-campus (Base) 52.7% 66.8% - -
On-campus 47.3% 76.5% 7.217 <.001

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Sample % Financial Z test

Variables p-value
proportion stress = Yes statistic
SELF-CONCEPT
Manage well
Strongly disagree (Base) 3.0% 83.7% - -
Disagree 17.8% 85.5% .544 0.586
Agree 60.0% 70.8% -3.246 0.001
Strongly agree 19.2% 58.3% -5.646 <.001
Optimism-Future financial situation
Strongly disagree (Base) 6.4% 80.0% - -
Disagree 28.9% 84.7% 1.944 0.052
Agree 53.1% 66.1% -4.732 <.001
Strongly agree 11.6% 57.7% -6.382 <.001
Optimism-Support self after graduation
Strongly disagree (Base) 3.0% 77.0% - -
Disagree 19.3% 82.8% 1.633 0.102
Agree 60.2% 69.6% -1.850 0.064
Strongly agree 17.5% 64.1% -2.936 0.003
OUTPUT
Feel stressed from personal finance
No 28.6% - - -
Yes 71.4% - - -
N 4,488
Source: 2010 Ohio Student Financial Wellness Survey

Logistic Regressions

The results of the logistic regression, shown in Table 2, will be discussed according
to the empirical model, beginning with Model 1.

Model 1. Financial stressors were the only variables included in Model 1. These
were added first to see whether the financial stressors chosen are adequate predictors of
financial stress. The model had a Cox and Snell R-squared value of .194, indicating that
approximately 20% of the variance in financial stress is predicted by the included financial
stressors. Additionally, every financial stressor was significantly and positively associated
with financial stress. To interpret the magnitude of the effects, it is most helpful to refer to
the odds ratio (OR), the ratio of the probability of financial stress and the probability of no
financial stress. An OR less than 1 indicates a reduced likelihood of financial stress while an
OR greater than 1 indicates an increased likelihood of financial stress.

Not having enough money to participate in the same activities as peers had the
largest positive effect (OR=5.708) on reporting financial stress. Students who regularly
spent more than they could afford by using credit or by borrowing were significantly more
likely to report financial stress than those who did not regularly overspend (OR = 2.201).
Students who were not able to pay their bills on time were significantly more likely to
report financial stress than students who did pay their bills on time (OR = 1.698).

Students who had debt (OR = 1.811) or who didn’t know if they had debt (OR =
1.525) were significantly more likely to report financial stress than students who did not

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have any debt. Compared to students who did not expect to have any student loan debt at
graduation, students who expected to have below average debt (OR = 1.686), average debt
(OR = 2.023), and above average debt (OR=3.024) were significantly more likely to report
financial stress.

Model 2. Demographic characteristics representing a student’s current level of

adaptation were added to the financial stressor variables in the second model. Model 2 had
a Cox and Snell R-squared value of .208, and all of the financial stressors remained
consistent in the direction of the effect and significant. Of the demographic variables added
in Model 2, class rank, institution type, having dependents, and living situation did not have
significant effects. Males were significantly less likely to report financial stress than females
(OR = .593). Black students were significantly less likely to report financial stress than
White students (OR = .465). Lastly, students with high GPAs (above 3.0) were significantly
less likely to report financial stress (OR = .755) than students with low GPAs.

Model 3. The final model added financial self-efficacy and financial optimism
variables to Model 2 and had a Cox and Snell R-squared value of .227. All of the financial
stressors remained consistent in Model 3. Of the demographic variables, the dummy
variables for male students, and Black students remained significant while the effect of
having a high GPA became insignificant. Students reporting higher financial self-efficacy
were significantly less likely to report financial stress (OR = .670). Lastly, students who
were optimistic about their financial situation in the future and who believed they would
be able to support themselves after graduation were significantly less likely to report
financial stress (OR = .819 and .771, respectively).

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Table 2
Multivariate Logistic Regressions for whether the student reports financial stress

Model 2
Model 1 Model 3
(Financial Stressors
(Financial Stressors Only) (Full Model)
& Adaptation Level)
Odds Odds Odds
Variablea β S.E. p-value β S.E. p-value β S.E. p-value
Ratio Ratio Ratio
Intercept -.723 .078 .000 .485 -.319 .145 .027 .727 2.154 .287 .000 8.618
FINANCIAL STRESSORS
Not enough money to participate in same 1.742 .099 .000 5.708 1.775 .102 .000 5.902 1.692 .104 .000 5.433
activities as peers
Regularly overspends .789 .123 .000 2.201 .787 .126 .000 2.196 .675 .128 .000 1.963
Does not pay bills on time .530 .126 .000 1.698 .589 .131 .000 1.802 .415 .133 .002 1.514
Current debt from any source (No) - - - - - - - - - - - -
Yes .594 .095 .000 1.811 .572 .100 .000 1.772 .580 .101 .000 1.785
Doesn’t know .422 .185 .022 1.525 .460 .188 .015 1.584 .389 .190 .040 1.475
Expected student loan debt at graduation
- - - - - - - - - - - -
(None)
Below average .523 .107 .000 1.686 .539 .110 .000 1.714 .502 .112 .000 1.652
Average .704 .131 .000 2.023 .742 .136 .000 2.100 .716 .138 .000 2.046
Above average 1.107 .117 .000 3.024 1.123 .123 .000 3.075 1.060 .125 .000 2.885
ADAPTATION LEVEL
Sex (Female) - - - - - - - - - - - -
Male - - - - -.522 .078 .000 .593 -.477 .080 .000 .621
Race/Ethnicity (White) - - - - - - - - - - - -
Black - - - - -.766 .159 .000 .465 -.716 .162 .000 .489
Hispanic - - - - -.096 .273 .725 .908 -.155 .276 .573 .856
Asian - - - - -.396 .225 .078 .673 -.422 .230 .067 .656

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Model 2
Model 1 Model 3
(Financial Stressors
(Financial Stressors Only) (Full Model)
& Adaptation Level)
Odds Odds Odds
Variablea β S.E. p-value β S.E. p-value β S.E. p-value
Ratio Ratio Ratio
Other - - - - -.204 .181 .260 .816 -.259 .185 .162 .772
Class Rank (Freshman) - - - - - - - - - - - -
Sophomore - - - - .149 .106 .159 1.161 .183 .107 .088 1.201
Junior - - - - .099 .115 .387 1.104 .118 .116 .308 1.126
Senior - - - - .173 .110 .115 1.189 .163 .112 .145 1.177
Other - - - - .131 .194 .502 1.139 .139 .196 .479 1.149
Institution Type (4 year public) - - - - - - - - - - - -
4 year private - - - - -.130 .088 .139 .878 -.159 .090 .075 .853
Community college - - - - -.079 .127 .533 .924 -.075 .128 .556 .927
GPA (Low) - - - - - - - - - - - -
High - - - - -.282 .097 .004 .755 -.188 .099 .057 .828
Has dependents - - - - -.109 .110 .281 1.109 -.015 .112 .896 .985
Living situation (Off-campus) - - - - - - - - - - - -
On-campus - - - - .103 .096 .231 1.123 .183 .098 .062 1.201
SELF-CONCEPT
Manages personal finances well - - - - - - - - -.400 .061 .000 .670
Optimistic about future financial situation - - - - - - - - -.200 .066 .002 .819
Able to support self after graduation - - - - - - - - -.260 .060 .000 .771
Model Fit χ2 (df) 969.212 (8) <.001 1046.844 (22) <.001 1154.412 (25) <.001
Cox & Snell R2 .194 .208 .227
-2Log Likelihood 4403.995 4326.362 4218.794
Likelihood Ratio Testb χ2 (df) - - 77.633 (14) <.001 107.568 (3) <.001
Source: 2010 Ohio Student Financial Wellness Survey. Bolded effects were significant at the .05 alpha level.
a Reference categories in parentheses.

b For Model 2 and Model 3, the likelihood ratio tested whether or not the additional variables added significantly to the preceding model.

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DISCUSSION

This study has provided useful insight into financial stress among college students.
Results were consistent with expectations, as each of the three hypotheses was confirmed.
Students who reported negative financial situations (i.e., financial stressors) were
significantly more likely to feel financially stressed than students who did not report
negative financial situations (H1). Students with greater financial self-efficacy were less
likely to report financial stress (H2). Lastly, students who were more optimistic about their
financial futures were less likely to report financial stress (H3).

Before addressing the implications of this research, a few limitations regarding the
data and method should be noted. Self-efficacy has been identified as an important concept
influencing behavior and perceptions. Various approaches to the measurement of self-
efficacy appear in the existing literature. A one-item self-efficacy measure was used in this
research. While the item has face validity, future research should continue to explore best
approaches to measure this construct with attention to both validity and parsimony.
Similarly, as financial stress among the college age population receives continued attention,
scales for the measurement of financial stress should be assessed to ensure reliable and
valid measurement. Although several financial stress scales have recently been developed
(e.g., Northern et al., 2010; Archuleta et al., 2013), these measures were not available in the
OSFWS; therefore, the best available measure had to be used. The sample also had a large
proportion of students who were female and carried a 3.0 GPA or above. This may indicate
that the sample is not perfectly representative of college students. Despite these
limitations, there are a number of important implications of this study.

Consistent with prior research (Trombitas, 2012), the results show that financial
stress is a considerable problem for the majority of university students (71%).
Furthermore, this study has identified financial stressors that greatly increase the odds that
a student will report financial stress. Over 90% of students who did not have enough
money to participate in the same activities as their peers reported feeling financial stress.
This variable had the largest positive effect on financial stress in the multivariate analysis
when controlling for other financial stressors, demographic characteristics, and self-
concept. While reviewing the literature on peer effects in college, Ficano (2012) showed
that the literature is mixed in terms of evidence of the strength of peer influence. Our
findings support the notion that the peer environment is influential in student outcomes.

This study also confirmed previous findings that expected debt at graduation is a
better predictor of financial stress than current student loan debt (Morra et al., 2008).
Although current student loan debt was initially considered a financial stressor, it did not
contribute significant explanatory power so it was not included in the final model. Expected
debt at graduation was a significant positive predictor of financial stress. Students with
larger amounts of expected debt were increasingly more likely to feel financially stressed.
This provides evidence that the increase in student loan debt is having a negative impact on
student wellness.

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Factors Related to Financial Stress Among College Students

This study also found significant effects for several demographic characteristics. As
found in Brougham et al. (2009), college women were significantly more likely to report
financial stress in the current study. Additionally, Black students were significantly less
likely than White students to report financial stress. Although significantly lower
proportions of Asian students report financial stress, when controlling for other variables
Asian students were not significantly less likely to report stress. A possible explanation is
that Asian and White students systematically differ across the distribution of other
explanatory variables, and once these differences are controlled there is no additional
effect of being Asian.

Although the effect of GPA was significant in Model 2, the effect became less
significant (p < .10) in Model 3. This may be explained by the measurement of GPA and the
lack of variation within this variable. Since a binary variable was used, as more variables
are added to the model, the effect becomes less noticeable. An alternate explanation is that
there is a relationship between academic performance and self-efficacy and optimism.

Interestingly, a number of demographic characteristics that had significant

differences in the descriptive results were not significant in either Model 2 or Model 3,
including class rank, type of institution, having dependents, and living off campus. This
suggests that the descriptive differences were largely due to variation of the other
covariates. For example, those with dependents may experience some financial stressors
more than those without dependents; thus, significant differences at a descriptive level
disappear in the multivariate analysis. Future research might investigate these differences
further.

As previously mentioned, other financial stressors and effectors were initially

considered. Of these other variables, two are important to note: (a) working during the
school year and (b) taking a personal finance class in college. Trombitas (2012) found that
working was one of the top five stressors for college students. In the current study,
working status dummy variables did not significantly add to the model as a financial
stressor. Since it is plausible that working influences the likelihood of a student
experiencing financial stressors, this finding may indicate that working has an indirect
effect on financial stress (i.e., by influencing other financial stressors that affect financial
stress). In other words, students who work may differ systematically from students who do
not work on the financial stressors included in this study.

Financial literacy has also been a popular topic among university administrators.
Students who are more financially knowledgeable are expected to be able to handle
financial stressors more effectively than financially less knowledgeable students. When a
dummy variable representing whether or not the student took a personal finance class in
college was added to the model as an effector, it did not have a significant effect. The most
likely explanation for this is that the self-efficacy measure accounted for the effect of taking
a financial class. This is consistent with prior research that has shown that financial
knowledge is a strong predictor of self-efficacy (Heckman & Grable, 2011). Additionally,
although self-efficacy was not specifically mentioned by Gillen and Loeffler (2012), they

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found that knowledge was positively correlated with confidence in students’ financial
management.

The findings also provide possible options to help lower financial stress among
students. Since students with greater self-efficacy and optimism were less likely to feel
financially stressed, helping to increase self-efficacy and optimism may help reduce
financial stress among students. Prior research has shown that positive financial behaviors
are positively related to financial well-being of college students (Gutter & Copur, 2011).
Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1993) applied to a personal finance domain
suggests that people with higher self-efficacy would be more likely to exhibit positive
financial behaviors. Thus, helping students increase their self-efficacy should help increase
financial wellness. Although a causal relationship should not be interpreted from these
results, there is a relationship between self-efficacy and financial stress. Increasing
financial literacy could help students feel more confident and competent in dealing with
financial stressors, thus increasing their self-efficacy. Helping students understand future
job prospects in their field could also increase financial optimism among students. This
study does suggest that further research is warranted to examine whether a causal
relationship between financial self-efficacy and financial stress or financial optimism and
financial stress exists.

From a theoretical standpoint, this study has demonstrated the application of a

health care adaptation model to examine financial wellness. As a young discipline, financial
therapy lacks a strong theoretical base (Archuleta & Grable, 2010). Therefore, future
research may consider ways to build upon the key features of the Roy Adaptation Model; an
adaptation model may be a useful perspective in helping clients respond to changing
financial circumstances. Since student and family personal finances (e.g., income, expenses,
and assets) are subject to great uncertainty and unpredictable shocks, promoting
adaptability among consumers may be a very productive goal. Furthermore, under an
adaptation model, financial therapists may function as facilitators of adaptation who help
clients understand the financial stressor, ways in which the client is currently processing
the information, and possible solutions that could help promote healthy responses to these
stressors. As clients articulate financial problems or circumstances that create anxiety, the
financial therapist may identify information asymmetries between consumers and financial
markets and provide relevant education or literacy resources.

Student life administrators, policymakers, financial counselors, and financial

therapists should note several important implications from this study. Administrators
should consider ways to use the strong effect of the peer environment to help increase the
normalcy of financial education and counseling. Offering low-cost social activities on
campus (i.e. concerts, cultural events, and sporting activities) provide students with
affordable ways to engage with their peers and may be another way to reduce the financial
stress among students. Policymakers should also consider the implications of student loans
accounting for an increasing proportion of educational funding. There may be serious
negative consequences of this debt burden on student wellness. Lastly, given the
widespread occurrence of financial stress, financial counselors and financial therapists
should consider using a reduction of financial stress as a measure for counseling success

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Factors Related to Financial Stress Among College Students

(see Northern et al., 2010). Through experimental designs (e.g., randomized pre- and post-
testing), it may be possible to demonstrate that financial counseling and therapy results in
measurable reductions in financial stress, which would help to establish the benefits of
such assistance. Peer financial counseling programs could also be used to help students
adapt to the many financial stressors that occur during college.

Conclusion

Financial stress, and its associated negative health and academic outcomes, is a
serious concern for college students today. While the effects of stress have been well-
documented by prior research, factors associated with financial stress among college
students have not been adequately explored. This study provides an exploratory
examination of financial stressors that are associated with increased likelihood of reporting
financial stress, as well as possible factors (e.g., financial self-efficacy) that could be
targeted to help students respond to financial stressors. Future research should use
experimental designs to test for causal relationships between the variables explored in this
study.

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