CAM01 Reading Skills

Reading
4. Category chart This question type consists of five to seven answer choices and
two categories into which you are asked to drag and drop the choices. You may
not use all of the answer choices in answering the question. This question type
is worth more than one point. These items appear as follows:
Directions: Select the appropriate features from the answer choices

and match them to the category of airline safety to which they relate.
TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth
3 points.
Answer Choices Aircraft Safety Features

emergency exits •
seat belt
•
bathrooms
•
escape slide
Individual Safety Items
passageway lights
oxygen masks •
food service cart •
PRACTICE WITH UNDERSTANDING MEANING

FROM CONTEXT
The Reading section of the TOEFL test includes multiple-choice vocabulary
questions that test your understanding of certain words in the reading passages.
You will be given a word that is highlighted in the passage and four different words
from which to choose the one that is closest in meaning to the highlighted word.
Determining meaning from context

It may be possible to determine the meaning of the highlighted word from the
context. For example, consider this sentence:
Timothy scowled when he saw the dent in his new car.
We can guess that Timothy was upset when he noticed a dent in his new car.
Although we can't know the exact meaning of scowl from the context, we can
guess that it is a way of showing displeasure. Since most people show that they are
upset by their facial expression or body language, we might guess that a scowl is a
physical display of displeasure.
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Part 2 Building Skills
It is not always possible to get a clue to a meaning of a word from the context of
the immediate sentence. For example, consider this sentence:
Timothy scowled when he saw Aunt Lauren.
Unless we know how Timothy feels about Aunt Lauren, we cannot guess the
meaning of scowled in this sentence. However, other sentences in the passage
might indicate his opinion of Aunt Lauren, and these could give a clue to the
•
meamng.
Timothy scowled when he saw Aunt Lauren. Whenever she came to visit,
pleasant family conversations turned into angry family feuds.
We can now guess that Timothy might be upset about Aunt Lauren's visit because
of the way she affects family conversations. His displeasure might be indicated by
his facial expression or body posture.
Sometimes a word is defined by another word or phrase in the passage.
A scowl came over Timothy's face when he saw Aunt Lauren. Whenever she
came to visit, pleasant family conversations turned into angry family feuds.
His look of displeasure deepened when he noticed that she was carrying an
overnight bag.
We can guess from this passage that a scowl is a facial expression. The situation
indicates that it is probably a disagreeable look. The phrase "his look of displeasure"
refers to scowl and thus gives us the meaning that a scowl is a facial expression
showing displeasure.
Identifying meaning from a given definition

Vocabulary can be defined in a passage in the ways outlined below.
1. the verb be
An object following the verb be is frequently used to define the subject.
A salmon is a fish.
The meaning of salmon is identified by the word fish.
2. appositives
A noun or noun group that follows another noun and is set off by commas is
called an appositive. It defines the noun it follows.
Mercury, the silver-colored metal used in thermometers, is usually in a
liquid form.
The meaning of mercury is identified by its appositive: "the silver-colored metal
used in thermometers."
By adding the words which is/are or who is/are, you can test if a noun is an
appositive. If the sentence is still grammatical, the phrase is an appositive.
Mercury, which is the silver-colored metal used in thermometers, is
usually in a liquid form.
3. punctuation
Punctuation marks are sometimes used to set off a word that defines another
word. Some punctuation marks you may see used in this way are:
comma , brackets [ ]
dash - single quotation marks ' '
parentheses ( ) double quotation marks " "
144
Reading
Mercury - the silver-colored metal used in thermometers - is usually in a

liquid form.
The meaning of mercury is identified by the words between the dashes, "the
silver-colored metal used in thermometers."
4. the word or
A word or phrase is sometimes defined by a synonym following the word or.
The husky, or sled dog, of the North is a hardy breed.
The meaning of the word husky is identified by the phrase sled dog following the
word or.
5. examples
A word or phrase is sometimes defined by examples. These terms often introduce
examples:
as for example such as
like for instance
Percussion instruments, such as drums, cymbals, and tambourines, were
the preferred instruments in the study.
The meaning of percussion instruments is identified by three examples: drums,
cymbals, and tambourines.
Sometimes the word or words used in the example can be defined by the word
that is exemplified.
Everything we know about early humans such as Neanderthals is based
on fossilized remains.
The meaning of Neanderthals is identified by the phrase "early humans," of
which Neanderthal is one example.
6. adjective clauses
Adjective clauses sometimes define words. (See Grammar Review: Noun,
Adjective, and Adverb Clauses, p. 89.) They are introduced by these words:
that where who
when which whom
Airships, which are cigar-shaped steerable balloons, can be used for many
purposes, such as filming, advertising, and entertainment.
The meaning of airships is identified by the adjective clause "which are cigar-
shaped steerable balloons."
7. referents
Referents are words that refer back to or forward to other words in the sentence
or paragraph. (See Grammar Review: Referents, p. 113.)
The solar-powered batteries in the ERS-1 are expected to function for at
least two years, during which time this satellite will be able to gather
more information than any previous satellite.
The meaning of ERS-1 is identified by its referent, this satellite.
145
8. contrasts
Sometimes the meaning of a word can be understood because it is in contrast to
another word in the sentence. Some words that indicate a contrast are:
but in contrast or rather
while,
despite in spite of unlike on the contrary
however instead whereas
The brief scenes in the movie focus on the boy's point of view, whereas the
longer scenes depict the father's side.
Brief scenes are understood to be short scenes because they are in contrast to the
longer scenes.
9. other words in the sentence
Other words in a sentence can sometimes give a general meaning of a word but
not always a specific definition.
In order to sip the nectar with its long tongue, the bee must dive into the
flower and in so doing becomes dusted with the fine pollen grains from
the anthers.
We can guess that nectar is the substance that bees collect from a flower because
the bee must "sip ... with its long tongue" and "dive into the flower." We can
guess that anther is a part of the flower because the bee gets "dusted with the
fine pollen grains from the anthers" when it dives into the flower.
10. apply knowledge
Improving of word
your ability to parts (roots, prefixes,
understand words in suffixes...)
context to help
and understandyour
increasing the meaning.
vocabulary in general will help you succeed in the Reading section of the
• TOEFL test .
Exercises R1-R3 Use Reading Exercises Rl-R3 to practice understanding meaning

from context.
EXERCISE R1 Understanding words in context

This exercise consists of two types of questions. Examples of these two types,
including directions, are shown in the boxes below.
Read the sentence and write the definition of the underlined word.
A cutlass is a short, curved sword.
a short curved sword
You should write a short, curved sword as the meaning of cutlass because the
definition is included in the sentence. The definition follows the verb be.
146
Reading
Read the paragraph, and choose the letter of the word or phrase that completes the
sentence that follows it.
In law, a nuisance is an act that has no legal justification and that interferes with the
safety or comfort of other people. Public nuisances, those that are injurious to the
community, may be prosecuted as crimes.
A public nuisance is
® a protective law
® an injurious act
© a legal justification
® a safety precaution
You should choose B because a public nuisance is an act that interferes with the
safety of others; that is, an injurious act.
Using be to understand meanings

1. Hypoxia is an illness caused by a deficiency of oxygen in the tissues of the body.
2. A porcupine is a large climbing rodent that is covered with sharp spines for defense.
3. The atom is the smallest part of a chemical element that can exist and still have the
properties of the element.
4. The Celtic religion centered on the worship of a pantheon of nature deities. Their
religious ceremonies included animal sacrifices and various forms of magic. Druids
were the priests who led the people in this highly ritualistic worship.
Druids are
® deities
•
® ceremonies
© sacrifices
® priests
5. Waste that has been made useful is said to have been recycled. Empty bottles can be
returned and used again. Other things that can be recycled are paper, plastic, and
metals. Besides the aesthetic value of recycling, there are many environmental
reasons to do so.
Recycled material is
® strewn garbage
® common waste materials
© paper, glass, and coffee
® reused waste
6. Both the Rocky Mountains in North America and the Swiss Alps in Europe
have high peaks that challenge the most skilled of mountain climbers. As
these climbers ascend the steep, rocky crevices, they may come across
edelweiss.
147
Although edelweiss is the Swiss national flower, it is also found in the Rocky
Mountains. It grows wild near areas with year-round snow and can be recognized
by its small, white, star-shaped blossoms.
Edelweiss is a
•
® crev1ce
® flower
© star
® peak
Using appositives to understand meanings

7. Pacemakers, small electrical devices that stimulate the heart muscle, have saved
many lives.
8. Many residents of Hawaii used to believe that a volcano's flarings were tirades of
their goddess, Pele.
9. Studying supernovas, the catastrophic explosions of dying stars, may give answers
to questions of modern cosmology.
10. Seventeenth-century attempts to preserve anatomical specimens brought about

modern techniques of embalming, the preservation of the body tissue after death
by artificial chemical means. The most common agent used today is formaldehyde,
which is infused to replace body fluids.
Embalming is
® death by a chemical means
® the preservation of body tissue
I
© a common agent related to formaldehyde
® the replacement of body fluids
11. The grasslands of the world are inhabited by the magnificent and impressive
ungulates, the long-legged hoofed mammals, such as bison. The greatest varieties of
ungulates are found on the African savanna, where the herds of gazelles and
wildebeests in mass movement are a spectacular sight.
Ungulates are
® grasslands
® herds
© African animals
® hoofed mammals
12. Samuel Morse spent twelve years perfecting his own version of Andre Ampere's
idea for an electric telegraph. However, this inventor is best known for the Morse
code, a system of telegraphic signals composed of dots and dashes. The dot
represents a very brief depression of the telegraph key. The dash represents a
depression three times as long as the dot. Different combinations of dots and
dashes are used to code the alphabet, numerals, and some punctuation.
Morse code is a system of telegraphic
® signals
®keys
©dots
® depression
148
Reading
Using punctuation to understand meanings

13. Long barrows- Stone Age burial mounds made of earth or rubble - are widely
distributed throughout northern Europe.
14. If you are ectomorphic, "the slender type," you are likely to be good at such sports
as track, tennis, and basketball.
15. The occlusal (biting) surfaces of the back teeth tend to be the most frequent sites for
dental cavities.
16. At the age of 19, Galileo discovered isochronism -the principle in which each
oscillation of a pendulum takes the same time despite changes in amplitude.
Isochronism is
® a principle
® an oscillation
© apendulum
® an amplitude
17. A composer indicates to a musician how a musical passage is to be played through
the use of dynamic markings. The symbol for soft is p, whereas the one for loud is f
The intensity -loudness or softness - depends on the extent or amplitude of the
vibrations made by the particular instrument being played.
Intensity is
® dynamic markings
® the symbol for soft and loud
© the extent of the vibrations
® loudness or softness
18. Oral history, the use of the tape recorder to capture memories of the past in private
interviews, has become increasingly popular among professional historians. Studs
Terkel is the best known of America's historians to use this method for recording
historical events. He has interviewed people about their experiences during
important events such as the Great Depression and World War II.
Oral history is
® private interviews
® the recording of people's memories
© experiences during important events
® the history of tape recording
Using or to understand meanings

19. Altitude, or the height above sea level, is a factor that determines climate.
20. Osteoblasts, or cells responsible for the formation of new bone, tend to be
concentrated on bone surfaces.
149
21. In seagoing vessels, bulkheads, or internal walls, form watertight compartments

and strengthen the overall structure.
22. According to many psychologists, phobias, or irrational fears, represent or are

symbolic of repressed anxiety. They are usually persistent, illogical, and intense.
The most useful treatment has been behavior-modification therapy.
A phobia is a
CD psychologist
®fear
©symbol
® treatment
23. Honeybees live in colonies of many thousand members. A typical colony has a
queen that lays eggs; fertile males, or drones; and sexually undeveloped females
called workers. The workers care for the queen and larvae, gather nectar, make and
store honey, and protect the hive.
A drone is
CD anegg
® amalebee
© an undeveloped female
® aworker
24. The nervous system of an insect is not a simple electrical circuit. When a signal
gets to one end of a nerve cell, the cell sprays various molecules out for the next cell
to pick up. The central nervous system of grasshoppers, fruit flies, and other insects
includes both the brain and a chain of simpler segmental ganglia, or groups of nerve
cells.
Ganglia are
CD nervous systems
® electrical circuits
© groups of nerve cells
® the molecules the cells send out
Using examples to understand meanings

25. Large fish such as groupers and moray eels recognize the wrasse as a friend that
will help them.
26. Creatures such as the camel and the penguin are so highly specialized that they
can only live in certain areas of the world.
27. The sand absorbs enough moisture to support drought-resistant plants such as
mesquite, as well as several species of grasses.
28. Much can be done to halt the process of desertification. For example, an asphalt-
like petroleum can be sprayed onto sand dunes, and seeds of trees and shrubs can
then be planted. The oil stabilizes the sand and retains moisture, allowing
vegetation to become established where the desert had previously taken over.
150
Reading
Desertification is the
CD spraying of oil onto sand dunes
® planting of trees and shrubs
© vegetation becoming established
® desert taking over a fertile area
29. Of all the electronic devices that engineers have produced, the computer has
had the greatest impact on society. At the heart of every computer, there are
microchips. Microchips consist of large collections of tiny devices like the diode
and transistor, connected on a single piece ("chip") of silicon.
Diodes and transistors are
CD collections of computers
® microelectronic devices
© silicon pieces
® computer engineers
30. How complicated the preparations for a camping trip are depends on the duration of
the trip as well as the isolation of the area in which the camper intends to be. If a
camper intends to stay at one of the many commercial campsites, most needs are
provided for. However, for outdoor enthusiasts who want to get far from civilization,
choosing camping paraphernalia such as tents, sleeping bags, cooking implements,
and other supplies should be done with care.
Paraphernalia is
CD eqmpment
® food supplies
© sleeping bags
® campsites
Using adjective clauses to understand meanings

31. Recent tests show that silver sulfadiazine, which is a compound used in the
treatment of burns, can cure the most serious types of African sleeping sickness.
32. Melody, which is the succession of sounds, takes on new interest when fit into a
rhythmic pattern.
33. The 0 at the beginning of many Irish names comes from the Gaelic word ua,
which means "descended from."
34. The Pueblo Indians are those who dwell in pueblos, a name derived from the
Spanish word for village. The pueblo is usually built against the face of a cliff and
generally consists of connected houses rising in a series of receding terraces. The
roof of one house is the yard or patio of the next house. The kiva, where Pueblo
Indians hold their secret ceremonies, is entered by an opening in the roof.
A kiva is a
CD patio
® ceremonial room
© series of terraces
® Pueblo Indian village
151
35. The coyote resembles a medium-sized dog with a pointed face, thick fur, and a
black-tipped, bushy tail. Although its main diet consists of rabbits and other
rodents, it is considered dangerous to livestock. Consequently, thousands of
coyotes are killed yearly. In recent years, nonlethal techniques, those that do
not kill coyotes, have been developed to protect sheep and other livestock while
allowing the coyote to remain in the wild.
Nonlethal techniques are those that
CD are dangerous to livestock
® injure thousands of coyotes yearly
© allow livestock to live in the wild
® are not deadly to wild animals
36. The phenomenon of a mirage, which is an atmospheric optical illusion in which an
observer sees a nonexistent body of water, can be explained by two facts. First, light
rays are bent in passing between media of differing densities. Second, the boundary
between two such media acts as a mirror for rays of light coming in at certain
angles.
A mirage is
CD an illusion
® a body of water
© a medium acting as a mirror
® the boundary between two media
Using referents to understand meanings

•
37. An agricultural concern is the growing number of boll weevils. An infestation of

these insects is capable of destroying a cotton crop overnight.
38. The analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes can be used to identify the skeletal
remains of carnivores. Because they are higher up the food chain, these meat-eating
animals have larger proportions of heavy isotopes in their bone remains.
39. The perfection of the chronometer by John Harrison was a lifesaving development
for sailors. This marine timekeeping device allowed accurate computation of
longitude during long sea voyages.
40. Important officials visiting President Theodore Roosevelt were surprised by his
menagerie of pets. No previous president had filled the White House with such a
variety of animals.
A menagerie is a varied group of
CD officials
® presidents
© animals
® staff members
•
41. At least 50 different weed species fight off competitors by emitting toxins from
their roots, leaves, or seeds. These poisons do their work in a variety of ways, such
as inhibiting germination of seeds and destroying photosynthesis abilities.
152
Reading
Toxins are
® roots
® leaves
© seeds
•
® pmsons
42. The English longbowmen did not draw their bows but bent them by leaning on
them with one arm and the upper part of their body. This method utilized the
strength of the body instead of just the arm and gave the archers endurance to
use the longbow for extended periods.
A longbowman is
® anarcher
® a bowing technique
© a method for utilizing the strength of the body
® a way to increase endurance for longer use of the longbow
Using contrasts to understand meanings

43. The bite of a garter snake, unlike that of the deadly cobra, is benign.
44. The bluebonnet, the Texas state flower, thrives in dry, poor soil but struggles in
overly wet conditions.
45. In contrast to some fluids like water, which has relatively low resistance to motion,
honey is highly viscous.
46. A unified field theory is one in which two forces, seemingly very different
from each other, are shown to be basically identical. According to such a theory,
unification will take place at various stages as the energy and temperature increase.
Identical is
® different
® unified
© equal
® level
47. The campanile is chiefly a medieval form of Italian architecture. Built in
connection with a church or town hall, it served as a belfry, watchtower, and
sometimes a civil monument. Unlike other bell towers that are attached to
buildings, the campanile generally stands as a detached unit.
A campanile is a
® church
® townhall
© tower
®unit
48. While the methods used at other learning institutions are based on the theory that
children need a teacher, the Montessori method is based on the theory that a child
will learn naturally if placed in an environment rich in learning materials. These
153
materials are suited to children's abilities and interests, and learning takes place as
the child plays. Children following this method are autodidactic, and only when a
child needs help does the teacher step in.
Autodidactic is
CD playful
® self-taught
© able to learn
® dependent on teachers
Using other words in the sentence to understand meanings

49. The bright purple gentian grows wild in Colorado and blooms in late summer.
50. While blowing air into the leather bag, a bagpipe player produces melodies by
fingering the chanter.
51. Unfortunately, the modified potato plant's hairs kill useful insects, but this
problem can be alleviated by controlling the amount of hair.
52. The much larger hull of the multidecked round ship allowed it to carry more
supplies, more men, more guns, and more sails, all of which were necessary for
long voyages of commerce and discovery.
A hull is a
CDstorage place
®deck
© kind of sail
® type of commerce
53. In the third century BCE, Ctesibius, the Greek engineer and theorist, first exercised
his inventive talents by making an adjustable mirror and then creating ingenious
toys that could move under their own power.
Inventive is
CD regional
® creative
© flexible
® effective
54. Vitamin D is called the sunshine vitamin because it is absorbed through bare skin.
The body uses it to form strong bones, and therefore, it is essential for growing
children. People who are not exposed to the sun can become deficient in vitamin D
and may develop the bone disease rickets.
Deficient is
CD overexposed
® infected
© lacking
® improved
154
Reading
EXERCISE R2 Choosing the best synonym

Read each passage. Choose the letter of the word or phrase that best completes each of
the sentences that follow it.
The horse has played a little-known but very important role in the field of
medicine. Horses were injected with toxins of diseases until their blood built up
immunities. Then a , ·••,,· , • , was made from their blood. Serums to fight both
diphtheria and tetanus were developed in this way.
The word " ~~~~~~ is closest in meaning to
®ointment
® antitoxin
©blood
®acid
According to the passage, horses were given toxins to which they became immune.
The blood was made into serums, which acted as antitoxins against the toxins of
diseases. Therefore, you should choose B.
Questions 1-6
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--- _, '- - is closest in meaning to
'"-' '"-'' '" __ -
®gadgets
® cutlery
©hammers
®weapons
2. The word~~~~~~~" is closest in meaning to
® cultivated
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© cumbersome
® proficient
155
3. The word "mci~l" is closest in meaning to

®piece
®meat
©food
®spoon
4. The phrase 11 '§¢~Ri~S:1J,p" is closest in meaning to
® packingup
® hoisting up
•
© messmgup
® picking up
5. The word 11 ~;in~~ " is closest in meaning to
.. . ... y •.
•
®handles
®blades
©prongs
®bowls
6. The word p~{ij~~" is closest in meaning to
11
® continues
® operates
© traces
® impresses
Questions 7-12
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1 lifestyle. Although _Je~sye
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,,, Although singing was in her blood, it was not until she attended Howard University that
ill Jessye Norman took her first voice lesson with Carolyn Grant, who recognized her talent
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iii
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7. The word r~:tiawn~~" is closest in meaning to

11
•
®infamous
® celebrated
© notorious
® precocious
156
Reading
8. The word 11 irtteg:J;a). 11 is closest in meaning to

C£) demanding
® persistent
© essential
® intuitive
9. The word 11 higlbligijt~. 11 is closest in meaning to
C£) emphasized
® contradicted
© conveyed
® belittled
®
® experts
© voice lessons
® sheet music
11. The word 11 c;h~~l 11 is closest in meaning to
® station
® irrigate
© exploit
® direct
12. The word Slj!l:gut~ is closest in meaning to
11 11
•
C£) flattering
® exceptional
© fluctuating
® different
Questions 13-18
~m- ~''&:mlr83""'8''' -3%/ ·~'"'Sf"'""'"""""'''~'? ~y- ""'8'="-"'Af - 0ElJ '"'"''""'""*'='>·-==x='"""-~'~-~~~;r-o.o<>•--o•••-•· • · - -'"'"''"'"'"""''"""''"'~-··-"''""'T=-=m-' - - ·''~'' '' ' ~ ''' '
;,;;;vo
ir 0
~'"' #3'~'3l -«" "''"'
__ ;.,;,,, "'''" "'"'""""'-'. ""''-"'"'" ''"'' , !';-; ~'""'""'"-"""-"-"""~'"""·=~"'' _¥W __ A-="'"-2Mm"""""''""-""""" '""'~'"""=""'*""'""'~ ~ """'"-"""' __ , 'II ~ • =· , ____ ""-"""' =''-'""""'""'"'"'""83'- '"'~- , '"'"''""· "''"'== __ ,m%~-~-,-' -o ,. ~ ''11.
0
·& q_
g' &''
11 Many laws that were passed in the various states of the United States over the years f:
I are now out of date or seem .~.~~~~~:l.jij. For example, the laws in one state make it illegal ;i
D for women to e.l('p(l$~ their a~kie~~~d for men to go without their guns. Obviously, these ~'
" ;;.
:1, laws are broken daily. With current trends in fashion, every woman who walks down the :r
~ !t
~ street or goes to a beach or public swimming pool is committing a crime. While it was once 1
j1 considered of utmost importance that a man be armed and ready for action on the frontier, !I
" ~'
I
¥.•
it is hardly necessary for a man to tote guns to work today. However, a man without a gun 1•}\.
I
Wf
is also technically breaking the law. n
~-
I On the other hand, other laws aren't ever likely to be broken. For example, another
:r
~~
I law makes it illegal to te~~~f one's horse to the fence surrounding the capitol building. It is .~
I1n hard to imagine anyone riding a horse into. the city and leaving it tied outside of the capitol ii
m building today. One would have to go to great lengths in order to break this law. !1
j These outdated laws remain on the record because the time needed for state i
I legislatures to de'ba~ the issues and make changes in the existing laws would keep the i
li members from attending to more important current and reii~nt issues. It would be hard to I~
~ill calculate the cost to the taxpayers for these laws to be ~f~~ijor updated. Consequently, it ~
IJ
I••
is likely that these laws will remain on the books.
'' -~~'~ >V' "''j'WL 0bJ'"'
i\,.s-\s,3%iii@@t.sl&ru:w,.,wc""1l:NS'lltH
-, 1
ffi';o,Sl;s;s,\ll,+W, ,"o'_•_ '" "' -·-·@
,.~ ' ' "'" 8J:3J'8\eY"'"''''8JW__
""''""""'""''"''''"" '"~ JMi'llf\{,,11§ __ , _ -~ ' ~ '='"'-·-~-
flv'%@\\j!Weo"%§mmo==w '"""- =~"'"-'''-"'"
,_ im&~~~~""- ''
,__ •- ' %£:_fll_,.~)f£'j
''"'"'""""'Mi'&%?/Wl~~k ~~ ~' ~ '""""' ~,~,,_, __ , ___ ,.~•'>>U--
33133_ 53_ Keyti_#s,w,,,,,JJts,ro'G;cMM""'"' .. ,.,,~-,)8)
'--
M
~
157
130 The word "l~~~~"" is closest in meaning to

® insipid
® demeaning
© ridiculous
® incomprehensible
140 The word~~~~~" is closest in meaning to
®
0
spram
® conceal
© decorate
® display
150 The word " 1t~{~~~·" is closest in meaning to
® gallop
® fasten
© saddle
® conduct
160 The word "i~~t~"
... .· ·.
' ·.•
·'
is closest in meaning to
® challenge
® contemplate
© discuss
® overturn
170 The word "J!:¢l~!in:~ " is closest in meaning to
® pertinent
® fashionable
© extraneous
® inadequate
180 The word "pl].~~" is closest in meaning to
® eliminated
® restored
© remedied
®amended
158
Reading
EXERCISE R3 Understanding the author's meaning

Read each passage. Choose the letter of the word or phrase that best completes the
Although originally formed to prevent illegal trade in whiskey, the Royal

Canadian Mounted Police, or "Mounties" as they are informally called, now
enforce all federal laws throughout Canada. Their diverse duties also include
participating in peacekeeping efforts and supplying expertise in areas like forensics
to Canadian and international police forces. About l,Q()(i)J'l.:l~l;j),Jj~r~..~fthef()~®are
•a .•.. •.
· ·s·····s· gn•
~ · .
·ea··
· .
.... •
. • · ~~c
•······ ·. ····t''et··
·.1·us Y: · ·· ·1!· ·········t··n:·e·••t·l!t·lll·k·· • 'f. • · ···n·
··;y·
..... ·•. ·o> . . ·•· .. · Q ·co· . ••·()•·1·1'
···tt·
··.·•··. · ··....•.•n:····
•.tnor · e::s ...................
•t· ;l···~·.<.t. . . .:..d.ru
·a·· •·()··f: l·.:tc~
· ·•· ·p····t'•e· .. ·· ·
·• · ·g·
· •·..·s,· •·· ·
•a·
· ··
',,',_, ,;,,,,_' ', ''',"''""'" "" '''" '' ,,,,,,,,,,",' -- .. -. ·,; ">'· '",'' ----~-----;-------- ......;.-.0 . ..., .. ·,,,.-.;"___ ,',, _,.- .. ,-' ','-', --' --------;·····--;-" "''
· t h at
1n statmg ,,·roo.o· >···b.····· ·
•.'l•• ; • ·~~:nl· ¢li;s:~ .t
. ·~·11'£ •• ................................... ·~···· ... ···r ;;. e:~:······· ·li!···ta;··~· t
e:•oiQ~::a~£1!~s~.• ·~.Psl.'¥: .YtQt .e .·...s .. 9 .
~&at{OUijlgttJi~.s~t~~ft:·~:ill~~~~:~~g~," the.~uth~rtne~~~ th~t these members ...
CD deal only with work involving drug control
® are excluded from the task force assigned to drug control
© work with those who are assigned to the task of drug control
® are assigned all law enforcement tasks excluding that of drug control
You would choose A because the word exclusively means without exception.
The members' only task is that of controlling the spread of illicit drugs.
1. Astronomers have recently gained new knowledge of the behavior of galaxies. It has
been discovered that spiral galaxies sometimes collide with each other. The huge
forces created in such a cosmic event can tug long trails of stars and create new ones
from compressed gases. After repeated collisions, galaxies may eventually merge,
forming a single elliptical shape. Our own galaxy, tb:e~!lk..MWa)IJisofiac()o}lf~ion
course with the nearby Andromeda Galaxy. Hundreds of millions of years frotn ..
now, these two star systems may combine to form one giant configuration.
In stating that "tlle·MUk;t:.W::aY'::i~~n~crill~io~'bilti:~;:S~/'' the author means that
" ' ,· ' , , ','o",; ; , ' ,',",', • • ",·,, :0 -·;·;, ," <:·-,;';'-;"-:o,o, • -.. • • .;· ,;, ' ',' "' ',' ,' ';,,' '.. ; o' ..•,i ,'" '! ,-, , '
CD the Milky Way is going to crash into our own galaxy

® the Milky Way is heading toward the Andromeda Galaxy
© the Milky Way is the result of an impact that created one giant configuration
® the Milky Way will crash into two star systems in hundreds of millions
of years
2. As long ago as the thirteenth century, :l*~ger~~~~t·~l'),~~ele~t!1lted.pbJ_l~.a9plj~~~l'ld
Fra~e1$~$1l:ftii£~~~~~~~~~~~~~:}~~~~~!1i~$~~~~~~·t£~ with the aid of a large ball
constructed of thin copper filled with air. Throughout the centuries, other scientific
dreamers hypothesized the construction of a variety of flying devices. Leonardo da
Vinci, in particular, studied aspects of flight and made sketches for flying machines.
It was not until 1783 that the first people, Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis
d'Arlandes, successfully took off from the ground, in a balloon designed by the
Montgolfier brothers.
"ri.()lili,hirn'>:if'o'~·····:·•·•··~·o···s·••t•i.iate
In stating that II ,:~-:;_p~::,:'·'·~~-s',,': 11 •t:t.··~··t"hJEl~'lla~t;;l·;,jl1 could t~y·····. II the author
. :~~->1' :;t:--~:;:Jt::;:, ;, :.:~;-:·. '--<·:_· -~:·_: --~~~ _<·:-_., :- ::-::<.:---,;. :.1.~~----~~t·t :: ·:, :. :.: : _·" ::·--:.: _ -''I
means that Roger Bacon
CD witnessed human flight
® wanted to show how humans could fly
© knew why it was important that humans fly
® thought that human flight was possible
159
3. Christmas Island, discovered by Captain James Cook on Christmas Eve in 1777, was
once populated by a wide variety of bird species. In recent years, at least 18 species
of birds - a total of 17 million birds - have been observed to leave or to on the
island. It is suspected that ·•·• ·:··. i •. ....... ··. ·· ...•. ·. : .• •·:.: · · .. .. . . . .. . ·. ..
',,,,
. ' ' ' ' ' " ' " ' ' ''" ,,,,, '
.'"'. ..,_'...
'
.'' "·•· •· •·-' · • ·•· .· ·'· •'· · i in the Pacific that alters winds, salinity, and ocean
' ', ' ' '' ' ' ' ' --
currents. These variously repeating conditions have resulted in higher water

temperatures, which may have caused the fish and squid that the birds live on to die.
In stating that :;_;. •'_,•'. .,._ •·.· · · •· · · · i. ;_ ', 'i ' ' " --' ' ' :, ':__ ,_ '
11
• •• • the author means that the cause is related to
® hurricanes and cyclones
® recurring climatic conditions
© a succession of environmental patterns
® a combination of wind, salt, and ocean currents
'' ' ' ' ,- " ,, ·• or '-' ; "' ' ; .-,, d· ',' ' -;'
neglect and now attract tourists eager to view the gracious old houses. Of particular
interest for the visitor is the exquisite decorative ironwork found throughout the
older parts of both cities, especially on porch and stair railings and banisters. Both
wrought and cast iron became popular there in the early 1800s, since fire was a
constant threat and iron would not burn. Pig iron, which was used as ballast in ships
coming from Europe to pick up cargoes of cotton, was bought cheaply, and a local
industry producing beautiful ironwork developed.
In stating that " •" :-- '
i .··•
,,,, ,-:- ' ' :' ' '' '
•
' '' '

•. • ·. • . .
" , ' ',, '
.f ·. the author means that the city centers
' ' '
11
have
® been kept intact
® remained neglected
© been elegantly restored
® saved the tourist industry
Reading Mini-test 1
Check your progress in understanding meaning from context (Exercises Rl-R3) by
completing the following Mini-test. This Mini-test uses question types used in the
Reading section of the TOEFL iBT test.
Select the correct answer.
Questions 1-4
The incorporation of broken-down •. ·•• •.•. : tires into asphalt to produce a blend suitable
for the construction of road surfaces is becomi wi . The resulting material,
asphalt-rubber, has several advantages over •: ·.•· •··•···••· • ·•·.· · •· road-building materials. It can '''""""
be applied in a reduced thickness, and this means that less material has to be mined and
transported to the road site. Furthermore, roads constructed with this material require less
., i· ' ' :' ' ',_ ,' ---- ,, '' '" ''
maintenance than more conventional roads. :•. ;· · . .... . .... .. . .... ·. · ·

~~~~~:· a serious issue in urban areas. Perhaps most important, the r~ductio~ and possible
eventual T. ·· ··.· · ·· ··..••....•. of waste tires with all their attendant environmental problems may one
day become a reality.
160
Reading
11
1. The word 11
, is closest in meaning to
®waste
®outdated
©rough
®broken
2. The word ~~~~iiij~~~~ is closest in meaning to
"'0 " ' " ' " '"" """" '
® special
®unusual
© regular
® suitable
3. In stating " " the author means that
the traffic noise has
® subsided
® become beneficial
© become a serious issue
® benefited from the construction
4. The word ~~~~~~ii~;tij" is closest in meaning to
11
® revision
® fulfillment
© reduction
® eradication
•
Questions 5-8
~®.Wi1l1J®%ffi'W:~~;;SB!l@Wimif4Wiffi:!*%§WRffi8Wffi§l@x~!Wi%rm%mlffiMlWJ:&l@1WI!%\\iW®ffiiWW!fu::S~M~ &Wt- t.!tWB1:J'Bliiit'!!Hill iliwtCJJffiKKPTJ . - H'%f!tt&~&mWlliill iliili- SUW' ili11@WUt®R'1WW<liH:SEJt
~
Emily Dickinson published only a handful of poems during her lifetime, and she was so m
secretive about her writing that even her own family was not aware of her literary activities. I"
_,, '" ' ,,' ._,. :::-
Emily never married, and after the age of 30 she became increasingly , ..•, ·. . ·• ·.· .• ' .·.· rarely 1
ryj
venturing out of her family home in Amherst, Massachusetts. She did, however, take a keen m
'•""--~•- *
,.
interest in contemporary culture and science and was a lively and . ... .,'. . . W
Her poetry was also abundant, and it was much concerned with the themes of religious I
conflict, nature, love, and death. Technically her show innovative use of rhyme and ~"
i
rhythm and exhibit , ,·..· · emotion clearly and · • . · expressed. After her death in 11
1886, her sister, Lavinia, discovered her entire unpublished output, over 1,700 poems in all, Il*l
I ll
concealed in drawers. Four years after Emily's death, a selection of these was published, 1
"8;
£
and since then her reputation has grown immensely. Her poetry is now acclaimed li
11·
throughout the world. ~·
'.,~'
, , • J@:i!<Mi@ ®!@'@Gi ' :: i!Wm~ilmi ¥Mitl%3@ § )\t\1 'F•F :But t &JWi\WiX.ill!! Mlm'00\3JlWl7't'W:\&iiiWU\U. 1A1*»1$%¢#8l&J!i~
5. The word 11
, . ,,,, • is closest in meaning to
® solitary
® distinct
© hostile
®lonely
161
11
6. In stating that Emily Dickinson was a •" the author
means that
CD her letters were profound
® her letters were entertaining
© she held many serious discussions
® she communicated a lot through letters
7. The word 11 lfit~ns:en
",,' -, . ,,, is closest in meaning to
' __ __ __ ,____ '
CDfocused
® inhibited
©weird
® strong
8. The word 11
1;Qn<:ri.s:elr" is closest in meaning to
CD accurately
® cryptically
© movingly
® succinctly
Questions 9-12
;3Mi#il,hJ'L"i8#i2@;:J'iMAf-J4'%;£itfpJsiJe¥M"JsmJ8%JeJs{Je\sW10}8\ilj8{8{ffiJBW_JB;ill]a\8W30i?8/ffi:iB_;o,1e~4iMWI\'M'M'd!stJ:M'¥%m%-,"#ii&'%iW&Jffiibo\S~%'0t~~~~M%[CfA~£0f'@@1H L tiW~\NWIW!l_i;l@ t m11 ~d . H; iJ;@I!(@\I'IJ!'llihtWWs!Wi'*Wffi
""m
,,, I',,I
I!
,_,
In the last couple of decades, marine researchers have observed that epidemic diseases I ll'-
m are attacking a variety of sea creatures. Some of them are affecting rare species that are ~
~·· ~
W already at risk of extinction. For example, in the 1980s a mysterious epidemic struck a 1
I species of sea urchin in the Caribbean, wiping out over 90 percent of the population. Later I
i~
in the same decade, harbor seals in the Baltic and North Seas succumbed to an unidentified
' -- '
I 'i
11 ~ffliQ~Qfl. · •.·• . . ... · . · ...• as a result of developing ~

~ tumors, known as fibropapillomas, which eventually cover the creature and prevent it from ~
tj seeing or eating. M
m ~
m Coral reefs and the species that inhabit them have also witnessed an explosion of new 11
1d
diseases. Most of these reported diseases are infections that have appeared recently or
~
W
1 are increasing in jilC!~~~~ or geographic range. Some scientists infer that human activity i
•L
W!W"#J'¥%!WWMWJWWP~'PJ~l&~10J'<BL'WH~'M'K~\!'lffii!!t"%1H'M~~Wlmil'l0iffitiW:tiCttKG§W~~iffiti\RiE?Til'irlill:t# 11Wlli .. I. - !Ji .. l.!. .!~::: :~ ... 1
I ~ t;:; J
I ; 'tEll!¥!' 7 <ifl!$ g NRW18tirnil0-'' 0
9. The word "afl~d'QJ;["

.. ·'·'
is closest in meaning to
- _, __ ._ "''"';
CD situation
® toxin
© disease
.
® seizure
10. In stating Th~g·Jf"n;~litQ:~l~•lii~~~~~~~.~::·~~;·J;[·:ti~IS;," the author means
11
• " • "" • • r ' • • '• " " 0 ' '-'" ' ' " -~ ' <'"" " " " " ' 'i'c '0' " - " ' , ',' ",' ~'" " " " ' " ' ' ' " - , ''"" , " '"' C , - - --- 0 , ,, ,, _,, ,- o
that the sea turtles have

CD died from an illness
® declined in numbers
© quit coming to the Caribbean
® become extinct in the Baltic and North Seas
162
Reading
11. The word i:Q~i~~~~:" is closest in meaning to

11
® rate of occurrence
® degree of circumstance
© degree of severity
® rate of exposure
12. The word "susc~itlbl~" is closest in meaning to
,, _,_, '' '"'•'<'•'•
® attractive
® heedful
© perilous
® vulnerable
Questions 13-16
.@fM''%$0#ihi'\i'il~b."':Bifu1Biiiff:mBW&JiC~i:~W"'~i:'\1~1 Te?;:_,c;o;s(o;~<,fZ,tsitte¢§ik£%~;?W8:$1i~"J%iP,\ffi1\B!®J.lG:fM-i~JI#WWWA\!ii#%'Wf£BW80$ii!WR·%S<;NillBB1t"'B~mi'lR!i8'1110®1sj@s~;j)W4",<.18%0WWW#f6®i\ii\S<WMHBWJiJ,¥\4'!<A"~S''\'>"I'j~
;;:, 'l•
~ Psychologists have found that privately made :~~Ul~tiuij~ are rarely followed, whereas !)
i li
330 ------"-' ·.:·.- " ' ' " " " ' ' '
a public commitment to achieve some goal, such as losing weight or giving up smoking, is
-~
K
·;I
likely to be much more effective. This is because the approval of others for reaching one's m
~:
.
!I
W
target is valued. In contrast, disapproval for failure can lead to feelings of shame.
Advertising agencies have designed studies bearing out the truth of this observation. In
~
~
!i
~
;J
their research, a group of strangers was ,'bomb!it~~-
',"
with information about the qualities ,_'O, _",' o ' " ' " "-' '
!!!:J
~
11
of a particular product. They were then asked to either announce out loud or write down i'•'
lt privately whether they intended to buy the product. It was later discovered that those who ~
8, !•i
11 publicly declared their intention to buy were considerably more likely to do so than those ~
~ who affirmed their intentions in rivate. ~
~ In another study, ·. . .... .~·
I ··. · •·
telling them he was investigating ways in which energy B
~ consumption could be reduced. Half the subjects, randomly selected, were told that if they W
I agreed to conserve energy, their names would be mentioned in an article published in the
i"
W
ll•~
1 local newspaper; the remaining half were told their names would not be used. All those
R
ii
1
g
interviewed agreed to cooperate and signed a form either giving 'Q~~~~~f for their names to jl
~
1 be used or stating that their names would not be used. Later in the year, the amount of gas ;•
i
811 bo
m consumed in each house was recorded. The owners who had agreed to their names being
I
•"
published had used significantly less gas than those who remained anonymous. t...
;&JW£'•OOo<>«o''"'"'·'''"-'"~-~-e--~"WxO>CoSCSC=ai"-"Jl'M'Jl:&:iW'"'''l>%#0>lli\lli8l~'"'"'"''"~N-''~~"''"'"''"''-'-'"'-""~"-%-·
',, ;; , 5<>'"'P'•o•<O 00~"'"""'" ="'"''~"'~ ~---"'"''-~ '"'"·''"'=" _.'""'' , ,, '""00""0~~0-0,"''"""'·""' ~ >O "'"'"'' , ~ ' , , ,
-~--·
<CO>'</Oi'<
----~o-.o-&fu'"'"="''"'""""--fu--·-"''*"'"''-"<~'-"""'"~"'"-~-·"w~;·
>' 0 , $W ,, '"-"''"""~-~"'
>' ,,,'"""""""' """"""'"""'"""''"' <;\8,
, ,
T''<&i'Ji
,,,,(:) ;8 iJ"; wo8M" u
13. The word ";t:"¢8:~1.\it~ij~" is closest in meaning to

® declarations
® explanations
© speculations
•
® persuasiOns
14. The word b~ml:!~tle~" is closest in meaning to
11
®bombed
® attacked
© saturated
® hampered
163
Part II Building Skills
11
15. In stating ·••••··· ••·
. . . . . .' . . . ·::-•?•: :::: · ••· •• " the author means that the experimenter \\Tho
',,' ' ' " ~ '
interviewed the homeowners was

® committing fraud
® working for a state utility company
© hiding his identity from the people in the study
® representing a claimant in a law case against the utility company
16. The word ~-~eili is closest in meaning to
11
,< ' " ' " - '-'" ,<',', <o'-.",;',
11
® permission
® submission
© justification
® consideration
PRACTICE WITH UNDERSTANDING THE CONNECTION

OF IDEAS
Recognizing and understanding how sentences and ideas are linked throughout
a passage will help your comprehension of the passage. Your ability to follow the
flow and organization of a passage depends upon your ability to understand how the
major points, facts, and details are arranged in support of the main idea. The skills
you will need in order to make these connections are outlined below.
Understanding referents
Instead of repeating the same words over and over, writers use pronouns and short
phrases to refer to these words. These pronouns and short phrases are called referents.
They may refer back to a previously used word, phrase, or idea. They can also be used
to anticipate a word, phrase, or idea that follows. Read the following example:
Instead of picking the children up on his way to the supermarket, Tom waited
until he was on his way home to get them.
In this sentence, them refers to the children and he refers to Tom. Them and he are
referents.
Improving your understanding of referents will help you to follow the flow of ideas
in reading passages, to answer specific referent questions, and to answer many
other questions on the TOEFL test.
(For more information on and practice with referents, see Grammar Review:
Referents, p. 113; Practice with Understanding Connections, p. 257; Practice with
Cohesion, p. 317; and Practice with Cohesion, p. 379.)
Understanding transitional expressions

Recognizing and understanding transitional expressions will help you follow the
flow and organization of ideas in the reading passages on the test. (For more
164
Reading
information on and practice with transition words and phrases, see Grammar
Review: Connecting Ideas, p. 116; Practice with Understanding Connections, p. 257;
Practice with Cohesion, p. 317; and Practice with Cohesion, p. 379.)
Becoming familiar with the following list of transition words and phrases will help
you follow the flow of ideas in a passage. Recognizing these words will help you
recognize the organization and purpose of a passage more clearly and quickly.
Words that:
qualify but, however, although, yet, except for
emphasize surely, certainly, indeed, above all, most importantly
- -- - -- -- ----·- -
illustrate for example, next, for instance, thus, such, such as
-
contrast unlike, in contrast, whereas, on the other hand, instead

-- -- -- - -
concede although, yet, nevertheless, of course, after all

- -· - " --
conclude finally, in conclusion, at last, in summary, to sum up
add in addition, also, moreover, then, first, second (etc.)
-- --~-
-- - - - - --
compare similarly, like, in the same way, both, equally important

- -- --···- -----
explain now, in addition, furthermore, in fact, in this case, at this

pomt
- -- ---- -
state a consequence therefore, as a result, consequently, accordingly, otherwise
Understanding the organization of ideas

One of the question types that you will encounter on the TOEFL test requires you
to insert a sentence in the correct place in a passage. Referents, connecting words,
and surrounding words can help you identify where the sentence fits best. The
sentence can be one of the following three types:
1. A general sentence that introduces the topic A well-written passage has a
main idea, called the topic. The topic is what the passage is about. The topic of the
passage is usually stated in the first sentence, although other positions are also
possible. The sentence that states the topic is called the topic sentence.
If the sentence to be inserted is the topic sentence, it will introduce the general
topic of the passage and it will contain words that relate to words in the first
sentence of the passage. Read the passage below and the sentence to be inserted.
The Korean Warrior kite is usually constructed of four or five spars tied
together in the center. The spars form a sturdy frame for a rectangular
cover whose center is pierced by a circular hole several inches in diameter.
The surface of the cover is often decorated with stripes and designs
reminiscent of the sun. This kite is especially suited for flying in
strong winds.
Kite design varies around the world.
This sentence describes a general topic and would precede the sentence introducing
the specific topic- the design of the Korean Warrior kite. The sentence would
logically be the first sentence in the passage and would be inserted at A.
165
2. A sentence that gives details of a supporting idea within the passage If the
sentence to be inserted gives details of a supporting idea, it will probably contain
transitions or connecting words. Additionally, it will often contain a word or phrase
that refers to the supporting idea. Read the passage below and the sentence to be
inserted.
Cheese is made from the curd of milk. Although there are literally
thousands of varieties, which differ according to the method of preparation
and quality of milk, they can be divided into three main classes. Soft
cheeses are those with rinds and very soft, creamy centers. Of these, Brie and
Camembert are perhaps the most famous. Blue-veined cheeses have been
injected with a penicillin mold, which creates the characteristic blue veins.
Pressed cheeses are those placed in a mold and firmly pressed. There are
uncooked pressed cheeses, such as Cheddar, and cooked pressed cheeses,
such as Gruyere.
Roquefort, for example, is a well-known blue-veined cheese from France.
This passage is about the three main classes of cheese. Roquefort is "a well-known
blue-veined cheese," the second class of cheese that is discussed. The connecting
words for example, along with the phrase "blue-veined cheese," link this sentence
to the sentence that explains blue-veined cheeses. The sentence would logically be
inserted at D.
3. A sentence that ends the paragraph A sentence that is meant to be inserted
at the end of a paragraph will either be a detail of the final supporting idea of
the passage or will summarize the ideas in the passage. Referents and/or
transitions and connecting words will refer to the previous sentence. Read the
passage below and the sentence to be inserted.
In areas of extreme conditions, people have found functional ways
to use limited resources. A case in point is the desert dwellers who, for
thousands of years, have sheltered themselves in extremely functional
buildings. These buildings are constructed of one of the most readily
available, dependable, and inexpensive materials we know of on earth: mud,
the ideal insulator.
This material absorbs heat during the day and slowly releases it at night.
The phrase "this material" refers back to "mud, the ideal insulator." The rest of the
sentence describes mud's ideal insulating properties. The sentence would logically
be inserted at D.
Improving your ability to recognize and use all the clues given through referents,
transitions/connectors, and surrounding words will help you identify where a given
sentence should be inserted in the passage items on the TOEFL test.
166
Reading
Exercises R4-R8 Use Exercises R4-R8 to build your skills in understanding the
connection of ideas in reading passages.
EXERCISE R4 Locating referents within sentences

Read the sentence. Find the referent for each underlined word or words, and write it in
the space.
Under the ice, bubbles gather against the ice roof until they overflow and escape
through the tide cracks.
they bubbles
You should write bubbles because they (plural) agrees with bubbles, and bubbles
can overflow and escape.
1. Arctic people must not only defend themselves from the environment and wild
animals, but they must also protect these natural resources.
themselves ___________________________________________________________
they _________________________________________________________
these natural resources _________________________________________________
2. Amnesty International consists of over 900 groups of individuals who work for the
release of political prisoners incarcerated for their beliefs.
who _________________________________________________________________
their ________________________________________________________________
3. In 1863, when a Hungarian count recognized the potential of Californian soil and
sun for growing wine grapes, he planted the first European variety there near the
town of Sonoma.
when _______________________________________________________________
he _____________________________________________________________
the first European variety -----------------------------------------------

there _____________________________________________________________
4. The first complete American dictionary of the English language was compiled in
1828 by the lawyer and lexicographer Noah Webster, who was particularly eager to
show at this time that the English spoken in America was distinct from that spoken
in Britain.
the lawyer and lexicographer-----------------------------------------
who ________________________________________________________________
at this time __________________________________________________________
that ___________________________________________________________
167
EXERCISE R5 Locating referents within a passage

Read the passage. Choose the letter of the word or phrase that best completes the
Differences in the way men and women process language is of special interest
to brain researchers. It has been known that aphasia - a kind of speech disorder - is
more common in men than in women when the left side of the brain is damaged in
an accident or after a stroke. However, women are more likely than men to suffer
aphasia when the front part of the brain is damaged. This clearly indicates that the
brains of men and women are organized differently in the way -~: process
speech.
The word~~~~)?'" in the passage refers to
®men
®women
©brains
® researchers
You should choose C because they (plural) agrees with brains, and brains can
process speech.
1. One of the most potentially explosive international problems is that of mass

tourism. Of the more than six billion people in the world, an increasing number
of them are determined to travel. Annually a vast number of travel-hungry tourists
traipse around the globe, and thousands of perfect beaches, quaint villages, historic
cities, and regions of exquisite natural beauty have become victims of developers'
building schemes. Attempts to accommodate ••.. · ·•••·· ·• ••• · • • have led to the
destruction of the very attractions that they have come to enjoy and have made daily
living almost impossible for the local residents.
The phrase "~n~s~p~~pte·" in the passage refers to
''" ""- ',, o----· "' .,, '• ·--· ---
® people in the world

® tourists
© developers
® residents
2. Traditionally, America's fast-food companies have hired teenagers. While teenagers
provide cheap labor, they are sometimes unreliable. Consequently, fast-food
companies often use another source of cheap labor - the elderly. Older people are
less likely to skip a day of work or quit without giving notice, but because they
have not been brought up with computers, they view the high-tech fast-food counter
with terror. Training centers have opened in order to teach "mature workers" how
to operate computerized cash registers, timed deep-fat fryers, and automatic drink-
dispenser software. r~l~s~~~ij''-~J; are put into classrooms with their peers and,
since mental arithmetic is a thing of the past, are taught how to use a calculator.
The phrase "'ll~.•.$t}#J~n~$"
- ,
'
in the passage refers to
'""' - '" ' ' ' ___ ,' ''" -- -
® teenagers
® fast-food employers •
© the elderly
®peers
168
Reading
3. The Bettmann Archive is a picture library that was founded in the 1930s by German
immigrant Otto Bettmann. He arrived in New York City with two suitcases of
photographs and opened a picture library, which he built into the biggest commercial
operation of its kind in the world. Among the millions of photographs the archive
contains are sill.,
....... ' .....
of the most memorable images of the twentieth century: Marilyn
Monroe standing by a street grate ventilating her skirt, Einstein sticking out his
tongue, and the Hindenburg exploding into flames. According to Bettmann, the
archive's success was due to his unique filing system which he designed to suit
journalistic needs. For example, the Mona Lisa was not filed under "Paintings" or
"Leonardo da Vinci"i it was filed under "Smiling."
The word "some" in the passage refers to
® suitcases of photographs
® picture libraries
© commercial operations
® archive photographs
EXERCISE R6 Locating multiple referents within a passage

Read the passage. Then draw a line from each highlighted word to its referent.
People often assume that athletes are healthier and more attuned to tliei~ overall
well-being than nonathletes. However, two researchers recently conducted a
survey of college students. ·.~:Y:· reported that athletes are more likely than those
•
who aren't into sports to engage in behaviors that ;if't~~ health at risk .
1. Scientists used to believe that animals scream to startle predators into loosening
their grip or to warn their kin. However, now some researchers have concluded that
the piercing, far-reaching cries of animals may have another function. Recent studies
indicate that thesesi;fe;~;ms
" . . . . . "' .,._- . may have evolved to attract other predators, which will
_.,
give the prey a chance to escape during the ensuing struggle between predators.
2. When cartoonists take on the task of drawing real people, t~~ do so by making a
caricature. 'I'h,~s~ki~d~of~jJj1;(')®~j~~~~ are frequently used to satirize well-
known people. Most famous people have several particular characteristics that
distinguish them, such as facial features, body posture, or gestures, which are
familiar to the general public. Cartoonists can cleverly exaggerate t,I:J,em,: to the
point of ridiculousness.
3. Satellites routinely relay pictures of desert areas. From ~~~np~~ttli~~' it can be

determined where locusts are likely to breed. With information on the locusts'
breeding areas, agriculture officials can use pesticides to kill ~'h~m,'~nmcts before
• , -·-·--.·--.·" •••• 0' •
they become a menace. If not eradicated, a single swarm can devour 80,000 tons
of corn a day - sustenance for half a million people for one year.
169
EXERCISE R7 Understanding transition words

Complete the sentences by choosing the letter of the phrase or clause that would most
likely follow the underlined transition words.
Although potatoes are richer in food value than any other vegetable, they are not
always a wise choice for a garden crop because they need a considerable amount of
space to grow. Consequently,
® they are the most common vegetable in a garden
® people don't eat potatoes very much
© they can be more economically grown on farms
® farmers overcharge for their potatoes
You should choose C because consequently introduces a consequence of a
previously stated fact. If potatoes are not a wise choice for a garden because of the
amount of space they need, they could be grown on a farm more economically,
since a farm has more space than a garden.
1. Glass was precious to Egyptians, who used it interchangeably with gemstones, but
® it is over 4,000 years old
® its novelty as an artist's material prevents its being taken seriously
© today it has come out of factories and into the workshops
® today it is so commonplace that it is seldom given a second thought
2. Glimpses into the prenatal world via ultrasound imaging occasionally show
behavior such as
® the development of the central nervous system
® the sex of the baby-to-be
© a fetus sucking its thumb
® structures as small as the pupil of an eye of a second-trimester fetus
3. Although the animals and plants that live in the world's various deserts come from
different ancestral stocks,
® they have solved their problems of survival differently
® none of them have adapted to the jungles
© they are from different deserts
® they resemble one another to a surprising degree
4. Children dress up in witches' hats or ghost costumes to play pranks when
celebrating the fun October holiday of Halloween. In contrast,
® Thanksgiving is a traditional holiday
® Thanksgiving is always celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November
© families dress more formally and set elegant tables for the more serious
occasion of Thanksgiving
® children enjoy Thanksgiving
5. Everything from chairs and fishing poles to rope and paper can be made from
bamboo. Equally important,
® this giant grass grows in warm climates
® fresh spring bamboo shoots take longer to cook than winter ones
© a variety of foods can be made from this giant grass
® preserved bamboo shoots can be used in soups instead of fresh ones
170
Reading
6. Earth satellites transmit telephone and television signals, relay information about
weather patterns, and enable scientists to study the atmosphere. This information
has helped people communicate ideas and expand their knowledge. In conclusion,
C£) satellites have enriched the lives of humankind
® satellites are expensive to send into space and sometimes are difficult to
maintain
© a dish antenna can pick up 300 TV channels from satellites
® satellites are placed in an orbital region around Earth called the geostationary
belt
7. In the 1940s, when today's astronauts hadn't even been born, comic-strip detective
Dick Tracy fought crime in an atomic-powered space vehicle. In addition to that,
C£) many of today's astronauts have used a kind of atomic-powered space vehicle
® he used lasers to process gold and a two-way wrist TV for communication
© "Dick Tracy" was a very popular comic strip in the United States
® astronauts used lasers to process gold and communicated on long-distance
flights using two-way wrist TVs
8. According to dental researchers, a vaccine that could significantly reduce the
number of microorganisms thought to cause cavities will soon be ready for human
trials. Consequently,
C£) cavity prevention programs may soon be eliminated
® immunization of test animals will no longer be necessary
© children will be able to consume more sugary foods and drinks
® long-term protection against tooth decay could soon be available on the
market
9. Medical researchers have recently developed a nonsurgical method of treating heart
disease that, in some cases,
C£) is just as effective as coronary bypass surgery but is much less expensive
and disabling
® can replace a clogged artery by the transplantation of a vein or artery from
another part of the body
© continues to be underused because coronary bypass operations are lucrative
for hospitals and surgeons
® requires opening up the chest and operating under local anesthesia
10. Neurons, which cannot divide, are the basic cells of the brain. Glial cells, which
can increase in number, provide support and nourishment to the neurons. It was
hypothesized that if Einstein's brain had been more active, more glial cells would
be found there. Indeed,
C£) scientists found that the physicist's brain contained more glial cells per
neuron than the brains of eleven normal males
® scientists' previous work had shown that animals put in environments that
stimulate mental activity develop more glial cells per neuron
© scientists examined sections of the upper front and lower rear of both
hemispheres because these areas are involved in "higher" thinking
® scientists found that even though there was evidence he had greater
intellectual processing, it cannot be determined whether Einstein
was born with this or developed it later
171
EXERCISE RS Inserting sentences

For each passage, choose the letter of the square where the bold sentence would best fit.
For more than 2,000 years, nomads of Central Asia and the Far East have lived
in portable, circular dwellings called yurts. These structures are highly durable
and use resources very efficiently. They typically have a low profile and circular
shape. This allows the wind to slip around and over them so they can withstand
very high winds. The basic shape is formed from wooden poles crisscrossed to form
a circular lattice frame in which a wooden door is set. The outside covering is
made of fabric that is supplemented with animal skins during cold weather.
Roof poles are made from wooden beams that are tied at the lower end to the
lattice and are secured to a central roof ring.
The sentence to be added gives details on how the basic shape is made. It would
follow the sentence describing the basic shape and precede the sentence that
describes the covering of the basic shape. The sentence would logically be
inserted at D.
1. Pragmatism is essentially an American school of thought that has had few

supporters elsewhere. One of the first pragmatists, William James, wrote that it
was impossible to discover the real world outside our senses and therefore we must
concern ourselves primarily with human experience. Because the world would be
a worse place without a belief in human responsibility, morals, and free will, it was
necessary, he considered, to believe in these concepts. Another pragmatist, John
•
Dewey, held that since truth is an instrument for solving problems, it must change
as the problems it confronts change.
Pragmatists believe that the test of any belief should be its practical consequences
and that the truth of a proposition should be judged on how well it corresponds with
experimental results.
2. In the early years of the twentieth century, the American art scene was
dominated by painters who had established their reputations in the previous
century. At this time, there was a general intolerance both by critics and by the
public of any deviation from the kind of work championed by academic institutions.
Acceptable art generally employed detailed realistic technique and focused on
subject matter of historical or mythological scenes or sentimental landscapes.
In 1908 a group of artists organized an exhibition in a New York gallery that
constituted a revolt against these current orthodoxies. Their unconventional
work often depicted the seamy side of urban life in settings such as backyards,
saloons, dance halls, and theaters. Surprisingly, the show was a success, and for
a time these artists enjoyed widespread popularity.
The artists, who came to be called "the Eight" and were later dubbed the "Ashcan
School," used vigorous brush strokes and dramatic lighting.
3. Seeds are dispersed to new sites by various means. Many, such as dandelion or
thistle seeds, have fine tufts that allow them to be scattered by the action of the
wind. Some seeds such as the coconut can float and are dispersed by currents
around the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Other seeds have evolved ways of getting
around through the activities of an intermediary animal. This can happen in a
number of different ways. For example, animals may devour the fruit containing
seeds. Sometimes a seed needs to be buried before it can germinate. This might
172
Reading
happen when a hoarding animal such as a squirrel fails to return for its hidden meal.
Some seeds have sticky or spiky surfaces, often called burrs, which may catch on
the coat of a passing animal and later drop off at a considerable distance from their
• •
ong1n.
In fact, a seed may require passage through the gut of the bird or animal before it
•
can germinate.
4. The technique of using wind power to grind grain between stones to produce
flour is ancient and was widely practiced. Exactly where the first windmill was
constructed is unknown, although certainly the Persians ground corn more than
2,000 years ago. Tradition has it that the knowledge spread to the Middle East and
from there to Northern Europe during the Middle Ages. The power of the wind
replaced animal power in several regions of Europe where millwrights became
highly skilled craftsmen and rapidly developed the technology. In England the
device became a ubiquitous feature of the landscape, and by 1400 there were 10,000
windmills concentrated in the southeast part of the country, each capable of
grinding 10,000 bushels of grain a week. Starting in the nineteenth century the mill
started to decline in importance with the advent of steam power. By the mid-
twentieth century few working mills remained in use, but in recent years efforts
have been made to restore and maintain these romantic souvenirs of a bygone age.
The Dutch in particular made considerable improvements and used windmills to
pump water as well as to produce flour.
Reading Mini-test 2
Check your progress in understanding connections (Exercises R4-R8) by completing
the following Mini-test. This Mini-test uses question types used in the Reading section
of the TOEFL iBT test.
Questions 1-3
In the twentieth century, architects in large cities designed structures in a way that
reduced noise and yet made living as comfortable as possible. '~ used such
' ,'> ,, ,' < ''
techniques as making walls hollow and filling this wall space with materials that absorb
noise. Thick carpets and heavy curtains were used to cover floors and windows. Air
conditioners and furnaces were designed to filter air through soundproofing materials.
However, after much time and effort had been spent in making buildi s less noisy, it
was discovered that people also reacted adversely to the lack of sound. Now architects
are designing structures that reduce undesirable noise but retain the kind of noise that
people seem to need.
1. The word ":lli~~~" in the passage refers to

® cities
® structures
© architects
® techniques
173
2. According to the passage, making walls hollow and filling this wall space with
materials that absorb noise results in
® filtered air
® a lack of sound
© an adverse reaction to noise
® a reduction in undesirable noise
3. The following sentence can be added to the passage:
A silent home can cause feelings of anxiety and isolation.
Look at the four squares [ that indicate where the sentence could be added.
Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square [ that shows
where the sentence should be added.
Questions 4-6
~Wi'li~!ru!IDt.tA!SWWJ:Sfu~ilMNmi8IT(0§t%,<2;%31BI%'24'EWJ%10eisMi.t&'k~@i:,08**-:Wit1WJ%;t!@#m\m%ffi'%!W'@ll?J?l#~1iffi;@l*S,'%!W@fu~'t!tfA'W#'#B\8@§W.mffi(hlt4i!tb'f'Ji'I-\W:1t$%1!M8W®i~~1h'M'00W<hibq8_,
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0:
~ sloped roof joined at a central ridge. The main distinguishing feature is that each roof )1
~ side is broken into two planes, with the lower slope inclined at a steeper pitch than the i
1 up~er. Sometimes the angle of the g~~brel roof becomes shallower ~gain at the ~aves and !I
1 proJects over the wall of the house, g1v1ng a bell-shaped appearance 1n cross sect1on. I!
I* The main advantage of the gambrel roof is that it creates a spacious interior on the upper I""
i floor of the house.
¥l ~ ~ fB "
This makes it a perfect choice for a growing family.
' ~' ' ' iW "w£' • '~ "§8,~ ' o ~· ~-~ wW<J' = " • '1"-'8JT < >Mo,>3J~ ,,~ ~ >' "> > " > " ' '3ffi:ffl , ~ > ' '> '@'8 ' 8 'W,•<4.
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m~- !~,!~i!W3iiti%1&§~11Wi\fui,s ••_w!ru },
w _, " ' .
4. The phrase "~'~i~ij,~~" in the passage refers to

® the gambrel roof design
® the straight sloping roof
© the roof design in Holland
® the roof joined at a central ridge
5. The gambrel roof design of the Dutch colonial architectural style is appealing to
homeowners because
® it has a bell-shaped appearance
® it creates a spacious upper floor
© the shape is traditional
® the angle becomes shallower at the eaves
6. The following sentence can be added to the passage:
This spaciousness also makes the gambrel roof highly suitable for barn
construction, since the upper floor can be used as a hayloft.
Look at the four squares [ that indicate where the sentence could be added.
Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square [ that shows
where the sentence should be added.
174
Questions 10-12
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H1 II
,.,,e~ People who suffer from excessive drowsiness during the daytime may be victims of a *gm
1w condition known as "narcolepsy." Although most people may feel sleepy while watching TV 1
~-
~ or after eating a meal, narcoleptics may fall asleep at unusual or embarrassing times. They m
k ~
1,., may doze while eating, talking, taking a shower, or even driving a car. ~
...
~ Victims can be affected in one of two ways. Most narcoleptics have several sleeping ~
••,. ~••
!!
~~
periods during each day with alert periods in between, but a minority feel drowsy almost ~
I.!
~ all the time and are alert for only brief intervals. Many people with this condition also suffer II
I
~ from cataplexy- a form of muscular paralysis that can range from a mild weakness at the II
il
·w
knees to complete immobility affecting the entire body. This condition lasts from a ~
IM
~~ few seconds to several minutes and is often set off by intense emotions. W
:·•
D • No reliable data exist showing how many people have narcolepsy. Unfortunately, 1
~·
~ there is also little knowledge about the causes of this illness. Researchers suggest 11
·Fs l''
MII·
that the problem may stem from the immune system's reacting abnormally to the brain's I!
~
IJI
. chemical processes. Further studies have shown a link between narcolepsy and a ~··
~
..,
lf
&:.
number of genes, although it is quite possible for an individual to have these genes and not IR
iim develop the disease. There are also cases of twins where one member has narcolepsy ~
@;
~ but the other does not. Thus, an explanation based on genetics alone is not adequate. ~
·' TI'
fi:
:i;
There is currently no cure for narcolepsy, so sufferers of this condition can only have :!hl1:
i their symptoms treated through a combination of counseling and drugs. The available drugs :1
A can help control the worst of the symptoms, but th~lf administration has unwanted side ~
I
i·'·
effects such as increased blood pressure and heart rate and, sometimes, even increased ~
F
j
.. B
sleepiness. It is clear that improved medications need to be developed. l!
li
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10. Unlike most people who may feel drowsy after a meal or while watching TV,
narcoleptics
® doze off at odd times
® sleep most of the time
© suffer in one of two ways
® have no trouble falling asleep
11. The word" theit" in the passage refers to
® sufferers
® symptoms
© drugs
® side effects
12. The following sentence can be added to paragraph 3:
Some estimates put the number as high as 300,000 in the United States alone.
Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow[.]. Look at the four squares ] that
indicate where the sentence could be added. Where would the sentence best fit?
Choose the letter of the square ] that shows where the sentence should be added.
176
PRACTICE WITH UNDERSTANDING DETAILS

AND RECOGNIZING PARAPHRASES
Understanding details
Some of the questions in the Reading section of the TOEFL test will require you
to understand details within a reading passage. Several details may be mentioned
within a passage. To answer these questions successfully, you must be able to
recognize them.
Detail questions are frequently introduced in the following ways:
According to the passage, ...
The author states that ...
The remaining part of the question will tell you what to look for, as shown in the
example below:
According to the astronomers, the blue arcs are
® a visual phenomenon
® actually imaginary
© invisible to the human eye
® bending massive galaxies
The details in the answer choices may use words and phrases that are different
from (but have similar meaning to) those in the reading passage. Here is the part of
the passage that contains the answer to the example:
The discoverers of these arcs think they are actually optical illusions created
by light that has been bent by the immense gravitational pull of a massive
galaxy.
In order to answer the question, you will have to recognize that the discoverers of
the arcs must be astronomers, and the pronoun they refers to these arcs. The word
optical is related to visual and an illusion could be a phenomenon. Therefore, you
should choose A.
Recognizing paraphrases
Improving your ability to recognize details from a passage that are stated in a
different way in the questions and answer choices will help you succeed on the
TOEFL test.
Identifying restated information from a passage

Some test questions will require you to choose a sentence that has the same
meaning as a highlighted sentence in the reading passage. The answer choices use
words similar to those in the highlighted statement, but the incorrect choices do
not have the same meaning. Incorrect choices can also leave out pertinent details
in the highlighted sentence. Read the excerpt below. An example of this type of
multiple-choice question follows.
The discoverers of these arcs think they are actually optical illusions
created by light that has been bent by the immense gravitational pull of a
massive galaxy. The arcs are probably formed when the light from a distant
galaxy is bent by the gravitational pull of another, less distant, intervening
178
Reading
galaxy. •
. .. .. . .. ••••••• It has bee1l theorized that there must be huge

amounts of invisible or "dark" matter within these galaxies.
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important
ways or leave out essential information.
® Billions of stars are contained in the galaxies, which alone could exert
the pull needed to create a blue arc.
® Those galaxies that cause light to bend into a blue arc do not have enough
visible stars to exert such a pull.
© The light-bending galaxies contain billions of visible and invisible stars
that exert enough pull to cause a blue arc.
® Since the light-bending galaxies don't contain enough visible stars to exert
the pull needed to create a blue arc, dark matter is considered a possibility.
In choice A, the information is contrary to that in the highlighted statement. The
visible stars are not enough to exert the pull that creates a blue arc. In choice C,
the information has introduced "invisible stars." Choice D has introduced "dark
matter." The passage may contain information about invisible stars and dark
matter. However, this information is not mentioned in the highlighted sentence
and is therefore incorrect as a restatement. Therefore, you should choose B as the
correct restatement of the highlighted sentence.
Identifying information not stated in a passage

Some questions will ask you to identify information that has not been stated
explicitly in the reading passage. These multiple-choice questions are frequently
introduced in the following ways:
All of the following are mentioned in the passage ... EXCEPT
All of the following are mentioned in paragraph ... EXCEPT
The remaining part of the question will tell you what to look for. To answer
these questions successfully, you will need to read all of the answer choices and
determine whether the details described in each one can be found in the passage.
The details in the answer choices may use words and phrases that are different
from (but have similar meaning to) those in the reading passage. Read the excerpt
about arcs again. An example of this type of question follows on the next page.
The discoverers of these arcs think they are actually optical illusions
created by light that has been bent by the immense gravitational pull of a
massive galaxy. The arcs are probably formed when the light from a distant
galaxy is bent by the gravitational pull of another, less distant, intervening
galaxy. Even though such light-bending galaxies contain billions of stars,
they do not contain enough visible ones that alone could exert the pull
needed to create a blue arc. It has been theorized that there must be huge
amounts of invisible or "dark" matter within these galaxies.
179
All of the following are mentioned in the paragraph as factors in the blue arc
phenomenon EXCEPT
® the light being bent by the gravitational pull of galaxies
® the light coming from a distant galaxy and bent by a closer one
© the amount of gravity needed being explained by dark matter theory
® the light-bending dark matter existing in such distant intervening galaxies
Choice A is found in the passage in the phrase "light that has been bent by the
immense gravitational pull of a massive galaxy." Choice B is found in the words "the
light from a distant galaxy is bent by the gravitational pull of another, less distant,
intervening galaxy." Choice Cis found in the phrase "theorized that there must
be huge amounts of invisible or 'dark' matter within these galaxies," which refers
to the fact that there are not enough visible stars to exert the needed pull. There is
no information in the passage concerning the galaxies where dark matter exists.
Therefore, you should choose D.
Exercises R9-R14 Use Exercises R9-Rl4 to build your skills in understanding

details and recognizing paraphrases in reading passages.
EXERCISE R9 Finding facts

Read each passage and the statements that follow. Write Tin the space if the statement
is true according to the information in the passage. Write F in the space if the
statement is false or if the information is not given in the passage.
Micromygale diblemma is a spider that inhabits the coastal, forested regions of

Panama. It has only two eyes whereas most spiders have six or eight. Unlike most
spiders, it does not have lungs but instead absorbs oxygen through its skin. Just
three one-hundredths of an inch long, the size of the head of a pin, M. diblemma
is one of the world's smallest spiders.
A. T The coastal, forested regions of Panama are where one of the world's
smallest spiders lives.
B. F While most spiders have six or eight eyes and absorb oxygen through the
skin, Micromygale diblemma has only two eyes and lungs.
C. F The world's smallest spider is the size of the head of a pin.
Statement A is true. According to the passage, the spider that inhabits the coastal,
forested regions of Panama is one of the world's smallest spiders. Statement B is
false. Most spiders have six or eight eyes and have lungs. Micromygale diblemma
has two eyes, but does not have lungs. It takes in oxygen through its skin.
Statement C is false because there is no information about the world's smallest
spider. We only know that one of the world's smallest spiders is about the size
of the head of a pin.
180
Reading
1. The plan to join Britain to the European continent by boring a tunnel under
the English Channel between Dover, England, and Calais, France, was originally
proposed in the second half of the nineteenth century. The bill authorizing the work
was rejected in 1883. The plan was again proposed in 1930 by many enthusiastic
supporters. The tunnel was to be the longest ever made and an engineering wonder.
However, the estimated cost, the military risks, and the doubt as to the feasibility of
construction led to the rejection of the proposal in June 1930. Finally, in the 1980s,
the proposal was accepted and tunneling began. The great engineering feat was
completed in 1994, and for the first time passengers could travel underwater
between England and the European mainland.
A. The plan to unite Britain with the European continent was proposed three
times.
B. The plan to unite Britain with the continent was rejected three times.
C. It was believed by some that the tunnel posed a security threat.
D. Some people did not believe that the tunnel was a viable idea in the 1930s.
E. The plan was rejected in 1883 because the people were bored.
F. The construction of the tunnelled to the rejection of the proposal in 1930.
G. The tunnel made in 1930 was the longest ever constructed.
H. The predicted expense of the proposed tunnel was prohibitive in 1930.
2. The 50-million-year-old fossils of an ancient whale found in the Himalayan
foothills of Pakistan give strong evidence that modern whales are descended from a
four-legged, land-dwelling animal. The fossils consist of part of the skull, some
teeth, and the well-preserved middle ear of an animal that was 6 to 8 feet long,
weighed about 350 pounds, had a wolf-like snout, and had two foot-long jaws with
sharp, triangular teeth. It is the middle ear that suggests that the ancient whale lived
on land. Analysis indicated that the animal had eardrums, which would not have
worked in water and which modern whales have only in vestigial form. Furthermore,
the right and left ear bones were not isolated from each other. The separation of
these bones in marine whales enables them to detect the direction of underwater
sounds.
A. The 50-million-year-old fossils found in Pakistan are most likely from a
four-legged, land-dwelling animal.
B. The fossils are 6 to 8 feet long and about 350 pounds in weight.
C. The whale's skull, teeth, and middle ear are evidence that the Himalayan
foothills were once under water.
D. Because eardrums do not function under water, the ancient whale probably
lived on land.
E. Whales with eardrums would not be able to hear well in the water.
F. A marine whale can recognize the source of a sound because the middle
ear is in a vestigial form.
G. When the right and left ear bones are isolated from each other, a whale can
detect the direction of underwater sounds.
H. Whales with isolated right and left ear bones live in the sea.
181
3. The potato, which is nutritious and popular, is an important food source for
millions of people. It is so important that destruction of the potato crop by pests has
resulted in famines. Plant researchers, studying the hundreds of varieties of potatoes,
have uncovered a wild hairy variety of potato from Bolivia that emits a strong glue
from the end of its hairs. This glue traps and kills insects. A new hairy potato was
developed when researchers successfully crossed the common potato with the
hairy potato. This new hybrid potato not only reduces aphid populations by 40 to
60 percent, but also emits a substance that checks the population of the Colorado
potato beetle, one of the most destructive potato pests. Unfortunately, the hairs
also trap beneficial insects. Plant researchers are currently trying to alleviate this
problem by limiting the density of hairs.
A. The potato, an important food for millions of people, is nutritious and
popular.
B. There are hundreds of varieties of potatoes that are hairy.
C. Plant researchers are studying a potato from Bolivia that gives off a scent
from the end of its hairs.
D. Insects get trapped in the sticky hairs and die.
E. The hairy potato was crossed with the common potato to develop a new
hairy potato.
F. All insect populations have been reduced by 40 to 60 percent by the wild
hairy potato.
G. The Colorado potato beetle is one of the pests affected by the substance the
hairy potato emits.
H. The hybrid potato harms insects that help potatoes.
4. A Stradivarius violin is unmatched in tonal quality and responds more quickly
and easily to the touch than any other violin. Unfortunately, the secrets for making
such a superb instrument were lost in 1737 with the death of Antonio Stradivari, the
master craftsman who built them. Many attempts have been made to reproduce an
instrument of such quality, but all have failed. It is believed that the secret lies in
the wood that was used and the distinctive varnish, which ranges from orange to a
deep reddish-brown color. Only around 650 Stradivarius violins are believed to be in
existence today, and the average price for such a rare instrument is well into the
hundreds of thousands of dollars. Even a "cheap" Stradivarius costs around a quarter
of a million dollars. It is not surprising that Stradivarius violins are sought after by
great violinists and musical-instrument collectors alike.
A. A Stradivarius violin cannot match the tonal quality of any other violin.
B. The main qualities of the Stradivarius are tone and response.
C. Antonio Stradivari was the man who crafted the violins.
D. Stradivari's notes on making such a superb instrument were preserved.
E. People believe that the quality comes from the type of wood and the color
of the varnish that was used.
F. The varnish color ranges between an orange and a deep reddish-brown.
G. The 650 Stradivarius violins in existence cost a quarter of a million dollars
in total.
H. Both musicians and instrument collectors would like to own a
Stradivarius.
182
Reading
5. The most traditional American food may well be cornmeal. Cornmeal, as we

know it today, began as a Native American staple. The Native Americans grew com
of six different varieties: black, red, white, yellow, blue, and multicolored. They
ground the com kernels into cornmeal and mixed it with salt and water. Then they
baked it. This recipe was introduced to the early colonists, who experimented with
it and developed their own uses for cornmeal. Succotash (a meat stew with cornmeal
added) and mush (leftover cornmeal porridge cooled, cut, and fried) are two meals
invented by early colonists. Today, visitors can travel to the South and enjoy spoon
bread, a smooth puddinglike dish, or to New England for johnnycakes, a kind of flat
pancake. But probably the most common recipes using cornmeal nationwide are
cornbread, cornmeal muffins, and the "hush puppy" - a round ball of cornmeal
batter that is fried in oil.
A. The multicolored corn was made up of six different colors.
B. Cornmeal was ground into kernels that were baked.
C. The Native Americans shared their recipe of baked cornmeal with the
early settlers.
D. The colonists did not like the meal of the Native Americans and thus
developed their own meals.
E. Succotash and mush are two meals the colonists shared with the Native
Americans.
F. Succotash is a meal that is made from meat and cornmeal.
G. Mush is fried leftovers from a cornmeal dish.
H. Common forms of cornmeal are restricted to certain regions in America.
EXERCISE R10 Understanding exceptions

Read each passage. Choose the letter of the word or phrase that best completes the
Today's readers look for knowledge and information from more than just an
encyclopedia. Knowledge, information, data, and images race around the world
with ever-increasing speed and availability. With a quick press of a key on the
computer keyboard, data from some of the great libraries in the world can be called
onto a screen for immediate perusal.
The author mentions all of the following means of accessing information EXCEPT
® encyclopedias
® television
© computers
® libraries
The author's mention of a screen is in reference to a computer screen and not to a
television screen. The only means of accessing information not mentioned is
television. Therefore, you should choose B.
· 1. Whereas the scene of colonial North America was one of complex cultural
negotiations and explosive interactions among Native Americans, Africans, and
Europeans, history books have portrayed the settlement of North America as a
unilateral push of Europeans into a virgin land. Although primary documentation -
government reports, travel accounts, trade journals, all written from a European
perspective- is filled with observations concerning Native American customs and
beliefs, history books are more interested in outlining important battles.
183
Ethnohistorians, the scholars who blend anthropology's insights with historical

research to produce a cultural understanding of the past, have been making
advances in understanding the Native American perspective on European
colonialization.
The author mentions all of the following as sources of primary documentation
EXCEPT
® government reports
® travel accounts
© trade journals
® history books
2. Although Winslow Homer (1836-1910) is best known for his realistic watercolors
of powerfully dramatic seascapes, he first won acclaim in the art world as an
illustrator for the reportage of the American Civil War. This led to his illustrating
texts of prose and poetry. His more than 160 drawings reached print as lithographs,
wood engravings, and photomechanical cuts. Despite the skill and serious intent he
invested in them, Homer's book illustrations made little impact during his lifetime.
Even today, most of his illustrations are not discussed in the literature covering his
work, and nearly all of them have been excluded from even the most comprehensive
exhibitions of Homer's art.
The author mentions all of the following as types of work Winslow Homer did
EXCEPT
® photography
® lithographs
© watercolors
® illustrations
3. Almost all sports and outdoor leisure activities carry real risks. Swimmers drown,
mountaineers fall, skiers are swept away by avalanches, and boxers are killed by
blows to the head. A person's skill or experience is no guarantee against disaster. In
fact, the better an athlete is, the greater the temptation to break records or succeed in
doing something that has never been done before. Danger, which tests nerves,
courage, and skill, is an essential element that adds thrill and enjoyment to a sport.
Although those who organize sports formulate their rules in a way to minimize the
risk of injury and to ensure that medical assistance is readily available, no amount of
caution can alter basic facts: even the best-trained horse may panic; motorcycles give
little protection in a crash; and a hard-driven golf ball can go astray.
According to the passage, all of the following are risks in sports EXCEPT
® falls
®storms
© accidents
® avalanches
4. Perhaps one of the most hazardous ways of making a living from the sea was
diving for pearls. Only the most daring would risk their lives in this profession.
The technique of pearl diving was simple. Divers attached themselves to ropes that
were used to keep them in contact with an assistant on board the ship. Attached to a
different rope were large weights that helped to speed the divers' descent and, hence,
conserve their breath for searching the seabed. Also needed were nose clips, heavy
gloves that provided protection for their hands against the sharp edges of the oyster
shells, and a net in which they collected the oysters. These nets were slung around
184
Reading
the divers' necks so as not to impede the movement of their hands. When the divers
signaled their intention to surface, the assistant hauled them and their load of
oysters up. The oysters were then opened, and any pearls found were sifted through
sieves and graded according to size and quality. Once a widely practiced profession,
pearl diving has largely disappeared with the development of the cultured pearl.
The author mentions all of the following as the pearl divers' underwater activities
EXCEPT
® the contact with an assistant on board
® the attachment of a heavy weight to make them descend faster
© the collection of oysters
® the opening of the oyster
5. Margaret Mitchell wrote only one novel, Gone with the Wind. It was published
in 1936 and proved to be such a huge success that Mitchell's life was irrevocably
altered. She lost all her privacy and lamented this fact constantly until her death
in 1949. The novel, which has been translated into 28 languages and has sold more
copies than any other book except for the Bible, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937. Two
years later, the movie produced by David 0. Selznick had its premiere in Atlanta.
This movie holds the record of having been viewed more times than any other
movie produced. Throughout her life, Mitchell denied that her main characters,
Scarlett and Rhett, or any of her other characters, were biographical in any way. She
did have access to family correspondence dating from the 1850s to the 1880s, the
time of the American Civil War. It seems natural that a woman with Margaret
Mitchell's vivid imagination and historical awareness, and in possession of a
collection of family correspondence that documents such a volatile era as that
of a civil war, could weave a story that still enthralls.
The author of the passage gives all the relevant dates about Mitchell EXCEPT the
date of
® the family letters
® herbirth
© the first showing of the movie
® the first printing of the novel
EXERCISE R11 Determining whether statements are the same or different

Write S in the space if the two sentences have the same meaning. Write D if they have
different meanings.
D A collection of fascinating tales called The Arabian Nights was introduced to

Europe by the French scholar Antoine Galland.
The French scholar Antoine Galland introduced to Europe a collection of
fascinating tales that he named The Arabian Nights.
• You should write D because the sentences do not mean the same thing. The first
sentence means that the scholar introduced the tales, whereas the second sentence
means that the scholar both introduced and named the tales.
1. _ _ Scree, which abounds in the Rocky Mountains, has its origins in the ice ages.
The Rocky Mountains have a lot of scree, the formation of which dates back
to the ice ages.
185
2. Many reef organisms avoid dead-end caves, which lack the steady currents
necessary for bringing a continuous food supply.
Dead-end caves don't have currents that bring in food supplies, so many reef
organisms don't go there.
3. Two theaters in Stratford-upon-Avon and two in London are the ones regularly
used by the Royal Shakespeare Company.
The Royal Shakespeare Company regularly uses four theaters - two in
Stratford-upon-Avon and two in London.
4. Police reconstruct scenes because people seem to recall things best when they
are in the same physical situation.
When people ar•: in the same physical situation, they seem to remember better
scenes than the ones police have reconstructed.
5. Despite the cold Alaskan temperatures, which freeze perspiration and breath
in men's beards, cabin fever forces inhabitants to challenge the elements.
Alaskan inhabitants suffer from cabin fever, which causes perspiration and
breath to freeze in men's beards.
6. Leather, when improperly handled and exposed to changeable temperatures,
cracks easily.
Leather cracks easily when it is handled incorrectly and is exposed to variable
temperatures.
7. Despite the increasing pollution of their shorelines over the past decade,
oceans have become cleaner in the vast open-sea areas.
During the last ten years, pollution has been increasing along the coasts of the
oceans and spreading to the once clean open-sea areas.
8. The Hitler diaries, the greatest known publishing fraud in history, were
written by a man who copied material from Hitler's speeches and medical
reports.
By copying material from Hitler's speeches and medical reports, a man wrote
the Hitler diaries, known as the greatest publishing fraud in history.
EXERCISE R12 Locating restated information

Read each passage and the restatement that follows it. Underline the words or phrases
in the passage that give the information that is restated.
The damp British climate may be infuriating to humans, but it is ideal for
plants. The Gulf Stream flows across the Atlantic to warm the west coast of these
islands, which occupy the same latitudes as Newfoundland. Moisture-laden
Atlantic winds bring almost constant rain and mist.
The perfect weather conditions for plants to flourish are found in the wet British
Isles.
You should underline British climate (weather conditions in the British Isles), ideal
for plants (perfect for plants), and constant rain and mist (wet) because these are
ideas from the passage that are restated.
186
Reading
1. Europa, one of Jupiter's moons, is the only place in the solar system- outside of
Earth- where enormous quantities of water are known to exist. Although this water
is in ice form, there is a possibility that there is only a crust of ice with a liquid
ocean underneath. Because of powerful thermal pulses caused by the tidal forces of
Jupiter and the other moons, Europa may be the best place in the solar system for
finding life forms.
Europa's vast oceans are unequaled in the solar system, with one exception.
2. Using sophisticated instrumentation, lightning experts have learned that
lightning travels at one-third the speed of light. A lightning bolt is five times hotter
than the surface of the sun and can have ten times more power than the output of a
large power company. A single discharge can actually contain twenty or more
successive strokes, occurring too fast for the eye to separate. Some seem to stretch
for 500 miles when observed from outer space.
It is possible that a lightning bolt, which seems very large, is really a series of bolts.
3. Once porpoises reach speeds of 12 miles per hour, they frequently leap out of the
water to escape the pull of surface drag. At that point, leaping out of the water
actually requires less energy than swimming. These leaps are most efficient at
speeds of 40 miles per hour and greater.
Porpoises conserve energy by traveling through the air, which creates less drag than
water.
4. In the earliest stages of a star's formation- a process that takes some 10,000
years - the star is surrounded by an extremely dense layer of gas and dust. This
matter eventually condenses and heats up to 1 million degrees and hotter, triggering
a thermonuclear explosion. During the flare-up, strong winds blowing off the surface
of the star disperse the surrounding dust and expose the newborn star to observers
on Earth.
People can see the birth of a star because of the strong winds that scatter the dust
particles.
5. Perhaps the greatest navigators in history were the Vikings. Without compasses
or other modern instruments, they explored Iceland, Greenland, and even crossed
the Atlantic Ocean to the shores of North America. To find their way, they stayed
close to shorelines or used the position of the sun to plot the latitude.
The Vikings were expert sailors.
6. Since the first dolphin was trained by the United States Navy in 1965 to help
divers in their underwater home, Sealab II, many other dolphins have been drafted
into the Navy. Originally, dolphins were used as messengers or to answer calls for
help. Today, dolphins do such dangerous and necessary work as locating explosives
hidden in the sea and helping ships navigate safely in war zones.
An important task for a dolphin is to find mines .
187
7. Saint Bernard dogs are large, shaggy animals. They were bred by Augustinian
monks, who trained them to search for travelers lost in snowstorms or avalanches
in the Alps. For hundreds of years, Saint Bernards served this purpose. But nowadays
journeys across the Alps are on well-maintained road and tunnel systems, and the
dogs are no longer needed.
Saint Bernards aided travelers for centuries.
8. Every year in Japan, the competitions for the longest human-powered flights are
held. Out on Lake Biwa, participants attempt to break records by flying their own
inventions over the water without propeller or jet assistance. The would-be human
birds glide until their craft meets its inevitable crash landing. A flotilla of small
boats lines the flight path waiting to rescue the pilot. In the first Japanese event, a
world record of 88.53 meters was established. Since then, new records have been set
almost every year. These days, flights of several kilometers are regularly achieved.
Participants fly in craft they have designed themselves.
EXERCISE R13 Choosing the restatement of highlighted sentences

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or
leave out essential information.
'the•·bJJlk.ol&~fka"~wxi't~$:'Was not publi$\l~un~l•aft;er.hi~early death from

··u·b··"'""U""~l·"'
•t· . . .. .. . . . . . . .
' __" - .¥-L,:J..?_- -~~-""~
® It was not until after Kafka's early death from tuberculosis that the bulk of his
writings was published.
® After the bulk of his writings was published, Kafka died an early death from
tuberculosis.
© After Kafka had written the bulk of his published writings, he met with an early
death from tuberculosis.
® An early death from tuberculosis kept Kafka from publishing the bulk of his
writings.
You should choose A because this is the only sentence that contains the same
information as the first sentence: First Kafka died, and then most of his writings were
published.
1. Fainting is causeq l)y ~ stu:telendi:op.i~ the )l()ririalbloogsqj)ply to the brnitt

® The brain reacts to a drop in the normal blood supply by fainting.
® Fainting occurs when the brain suddenly loses its normal blood supply.
© Fainting happens when the brain drops its normal blood supply.
® The brain faints when the normal blood supply drops.
188
Reading
® Vegetarians have been observed to demonstrate gentle behavior toward gorillas

and small creatures in the wild.
® Only vegetarian gorillas have been observed as demonstrating gentle behavior
toward small creatures in the wild.
© Small creatures in the wild have been observed as behaving gently and
demonstratively when near gorillas.
® It has been observed in the wild that gorillas, by nature vegetarians, treat small
animals gently.
3. Jft•·fi~~~~~m~~~~l~i~~, • the•m~~~i1··~ttr~k.~~md),~·.~.f~;~•.une,\Vhi9h . va.des.•i~•width

.:.J;,~Jii•.t..bi•: ~i·~Kt,;:·.,.;·.:~·:.·: •. ·..t. .. •:::.::j·.:•.•·•·t<· < t ~t; : t!~ · . . . . . .
' ' ' '' ,,->j.-~"4:t~.·~l'l~ t:llil- ure· 01. ,.:t~e. 'l¥e•
.~Y :.: ·.... · ~~+~::> ~~~...;-~.., . .,.~r,.,nll!'
' ' __ , __ ' •"·'·" ,. '''" '' ' '' '" "'"" --· ""0•'-""
® Initial attack crews dig a forest fire to vary the fire line's width.
® Initial attack crews depend on the strength and nature of the fire to vary the
fire line.
© The width of the fire line, which the initial attack crews dig, varies according
to the strength and nature of the fire.
® In digging a fire line, the initial attack crews depend on fighting forest fires.
4. ·~~~n1g~~~:·i:~~9lil.~t;Qmi$~~•P1l~e~t<)*a,t1~~~~t~~~~t1q.e~ea;gf>~~~i~tm~
.Q:i$e~le$ ·wi~~·~welilt1ll:ip···P~~.~~Citt1:(;) 1:H~ ~~u. ~iJlc:.jt~cE
-, ·.- ".- ·- ,.;·:-,:,_:;· _' __ }l-, _,, ·-.---<< ·.- .~,_.tt";'~;:,-,~<\·•.•' ·, __ ;--.:_,,_~,:_: _,_. _-:- _- '>v.-- •.<><·>'-' _,_,_, ,:,. c -'.'>, _,, ·. ,-:_- __., <. "--'-- _: __ ,_,-·<''->>>'·;:, ,., >------::
·· · · · · ·
® Well-educated people in medicine promise to find powerful cures for diseases.
® Even well-educated people are attracted to fake cures for diseases that may or
may not exist.
© Medical quackery promises the well educated a cure for diseases.
® The medical profession has appealed to the well educated for funding to find
cures for diseases.
® The dreaded tsetse fly causes sleeping sickness and kills the parasitic protozoa
used for finding silver compounds.
® It has been found that the silver compound that is carried by the dreaded tsetse
fly and causes sleeping sickness kills the parasitic protozoa.
© Sleeping sickness, which is caused by the dreaded tsetse fly, has been found to
kill the parasitic protozoa in silver compounds.
® Parasitic protozoa that cause sleeping sickness and are carried by the dreaded
tsetse fly can be killed with a silver compound.
® Of the thirty-seven stories that Faulkner submitted while working at the

University of Mississippi as a postmaster, six were published in magazines.
® Faulkner wrote six out of thirty-seven stories after accepting a job as
postmaster at the University of Mississippi.
© Faulkner published thirty-seven stories in magazines, six of which were
accepted by the University of Mississippi.
® The six accepted stories by Faulkner were about his job as a postmaster at the
University of Mississippi.
189
® Theoretically, the Earth's crustal plates behave like giant conveyor belts,
driving the convection currents across the hot magma, which causes the
continents to drift.
® A global system of convection currents in the underlying hot magma acts as
giant conveyor belts to drive the Earth's crustal plates.
© The continental drift theory suggests that global plates cover hot magma,
which acts as a giant conveyor belt for convection currents.
® The continental drift theory is proposed by the Earth's crustal plates, which
drive a global system of convection currents in the hot magma below,
behaving like giant conveyor belts.
® Medical authorities support nutritionists' views about the value of vitamin C

in preventing the common cold.
® Nutritionists have found that medical authorities are not in favor of using
vitamin C to prevent the common cold.
© Some nutritionists have found that large doses of vitamin C can prevent the
common cold, but this has not been completely accepted by medical
authorities.
® According to nutritionists and some medical authorities, the common cold
can be prevented by giving large doses of vitamin C.
® Even though female cowbirds cannot sing, they teach their chicks to do so
by responding to specific chirps and ignoring others.
® Female cowbirds can neither sing nor teach songs to their babies by
responding to certain chirps more than to others.
© Female cowbirds, which cannot sing, have other birds teach their young to
•
smg.
® Female cowbirds, which cannot sing, unsuccessfully attempt to teach their
young to sing by responding to other bird songs.
10.
® The people who desire to conserve a large area of untouched natural land and
those who want to use all land for industrialization are in a conflict that will
not have an immediate resolution.
® The conflict over whether a large area of unaltered and unimproved space
should be given over for industrial development and profit is of interest to
those resolved to abolish the last remnants of wilderness.
© Lawyers are profiting from the unresolved conflict between the people who
wish to save the last remnants of wilderness and those who want to alter and
improve the space for industry.
® There is an unresolved conflict caused by people who wish to abolish
industry and turn the spaces back into a natural wilderness state.
190
Reading
EXERCISE R14 Choosing the restatement of highlighted sentences in paragraphs

Read each passage. Then choose the letter of the sentence that best expresses the
essential information in the highlighted sentence. Incorrect choices change the
meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Between the late 1920s and 1950s, the Osborne Calendar Company produced a
series of calendars featuring trains of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Up to 300,000 of
these, featuring large, colorful scenes of trains at work, were published each year to
hang in and shi offices the lines of the famous railroad cornp; nv.
CD The scenes of trains, for the most part painted by Grif Teller, are collectibles.
® The Osborne Calendar series of train scenes are collector's items.
© Grif Teller has a valuable collection of the Osborne Calendar scenes of trains
at work.
® Grif Teller's paintings of depots and shippers' offices are valued by collectors.
You should choose A because the scenes of trains are the valuable collectibles.
1. Tree rings have long been used to determine the ages of trees and to gauge past
climatic conditions. New evidence adds considerable weight to the theory that tree
rings also record earthquakes. · '· · ··
;:, ,,,. ,., ' ' '< :_ ,--· _ .. :;-,'
. . ' . : Older trees and petrified trees may give information about
earthquakes that took place hundreds and even thousands of years ago.
CD The effects of earthquakes on trees can be seen in tree rings.
® Earthquakes cause a lot of damage to trees in the environment.
© The effects of earthquakes are tilting, disruption of root systems, breakage, and
shifts in environments.
® Tilting, disruption of root systems, breakage, and shifts in environments are
examples of how an earthquake affects trees.
2. Yuzen dyeing is a Japanese art that produces a lavish, multicolored type of
kimono design that dates from the seventeenth century. First, a is sketched
on a kimono of plain, undyed silk. · ·...•..· • \
- ·'
' ,' ,' ,, '' ' ' ' '- ' ',- '
Next, dyes are brushed over the silk, their colors penetrating only the untreated
< '.:
areas. After the paste is rinsed out, the strips of silk are again sewed into the
kimono. Elaborate embroidery often completes the decoration.
CD The paste keeps the unstitched garment together while the fabric is absorbing
the colors.
® The dye is prevented from being absorbed into the fabric pieces by the paste
that covers the design.
© The design is painted onto the pieces of garment with a paste that keeps the
dye from destroying the design.
® The design is painted onto the fabric in places where the paste does not prevent
the paint being absorbed by the garment.
191
3. The beaver's comical-looking flat tail, which is three-quarters of an inch thick,

six or seven inches wide, and perhaps a foot long, is unique in the animal world. In
the water, it serves as a rudder for swimming, and on land it props the beaver
upt·igllt while the animal is cutting trees. 'i ' >' . •. ,.•.•. < .. ·. .•... •· •••. , ...• , . .
·· <· <' ·•• ,. ' ''· : .•• · ... . . .... ... • <·.·. ' '· The beaver uses its
--,-:,: - _- .i''' ''
broad tail for an early warning system by slapping it against the water's surface,
making a resounding whack that can be heard half a mile away.
CD The beaver's tail is like a big fan that disperses heat.
® The beaver gets rid of extra body heat through its tail.
© The beaver's body heat radiates through its heavily insulated body.
® The beaver has a heavy coat and, therefore, needs a radiator to reduce its
body heat.
4. If pearls are protected properly, they can last for centuries. One reason a pearl
loses its luster or cracks is that the mineral constituent of the pearl can be dissolved
by weak acids. There are several kinds of acids that pearls may come in contact
with. Human perspiration contains one such acid. Much of the cotton that pearls are
wrapped in when not in use is treated with an acid. Another kind of acid that
damages pearls is found in many modern cosmetics. · ··.·
. , "
.' ' ' '} The best protection to give pea~ls to ensure their long
" - - -- - --- ,,
life is having them cleaned and restrung at prescribed intervals.
CD The penetration through the pearl of the string canal causes damage to the
layers.
® The deterioration of the pearl is usually caused by string canal seepage and
penetration.
© The infiltration of cosmetics into the pearl may cause it to disintegrate.
® A pearl's deterioration can be prevented through cosmetic usage.
192
Reading
Reading Mini-test 3
Check your progress in understanding details and recognizing restatements (Exercises
R9-Rl4) by completing the following Mini-test. This Mini-test uses question types
used in the Reading section of the TOEFL iBT test.
Questions 1-5
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1:: ~
1I Every year about two million people visit Mount Rushmore, where the faces of four U.S. I
iH
m presidents were carved in granite by the sculptor Gutzon Borglum and his son. The creation ~
t of the Mount Rushmore monument took 14 years- from 1927 to 1941 -and nearly a million :1:
I ~:
1 dollars. These were times when money was difficult to come by, and many people were 1l
~ jobless. To help him with this sculpture, Borglum hired laid-off workers from the closed- i!
~ down mines in the Black Hills area of South Dakota. He taught these men to dynamite, drill, [~
~ carve, and finish the granite as they were hanging in midair in his specially devised chairs, ru
lj which had many safety features. ~
1
•.
Borglum used dynamite to remove 90 percent of the 450,000 tons of rock from the
:i:
~
m mountain quickly and relatively inexpensively. His workmen became so skilled that without ~.i.·.
1 causing damage, they could blast to within four inches of the finished surface and grade the i;
m contours of the facial features. Borglum was proud of the fact that no workers were killed ~
¥ "'
W or seriously injured during the years of blasting and carving the granite. Considering the ji
·~
If,
workers regularly used dynamite and heavy equipment, this was a remarkable feat. '~
;::
,ijz During the carving, many changes in the original design had to be made to keep the ,,1\
1 carved heads free of large fissures that were uncovered. H~We~r;not$1f,tfiecra<:ksooult:! m
·~
I ~"" •·a·"o'.
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,~
:[
•. Every winter, water from melting snow gets into the fissures and expands as it freezes, !l
1:
l making the fissures bigger. Consequently, every autumn maintenance work is done to !f
1
.18
refill the cracks. To preserve this national monument for future generations, the repairers t
;;
II;n swing out in space over a 500-foot drop and fix the monument with the same mixture W
F
I that Borglum used.
I
~
~
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3J.Sl;sc., """""'"'' """-Bl 83. .8:Ciof"'~ 83. '""'''""' ,3-oo9oVWJh--2'Wu;oh;S>o>'l"o<'J8'\fBJ8~"118!8!83:;3@81318'!83 _18!884"-'''- 03;3>_ 00;3;oo,3;83,S,"'c3;wXG="'''f""""'"'"'"""' =s='-ii%-"!j!i{CB;%'l<B1-'B"""'--"'"--""~-3,~, "'""""'~ " '" " " oo ,3,S--,g,gc,,o;""'Sf3183;"0'"""'"'"'-''~ "'" '"" "'"""''"-'~'"'83>>'83 hh,N->SCO' 18: /o, '"'"''''
1. The author of the passage indicates that the men Borglum hired were
CD trained sculptors
® laid-off stone carvers
© Black Hills volunteers
® unemployed miners
2. According to the passage, what achievement did Borglum pride himself on?
CD The four presidential faces in granite that he had sculpted
® The removal of 90 percent of the 450,000 tons of rock quickly and at a
relatively low cost
•
© His safety record of no deaths or serious injuries during the years of work with
heavy equipment and dynamite
® His skillful training of the labor force that enabled blasts of dynamite to be
within inches of the contour lines of the faces
193
3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in
important ways or leave out essential information.
® Since cracks could not be avoided, Borglum tried various materials to cover them.
® In order to fill the unavoidable cracks, Borglum invented a mixture for filling
them.
© A mixture was uncovered by Borglum during the changes in design needed to
avoid cracks.
® Because cracks could not be avoided, Borglum bought a mixture of granite dust,
white lead, and linseed oil.
4. According to the passage, today Mount Rushmore needs to be
® protected from air pollution
® polished for tourists
© restored during the winter
® repaired periodically
5. The passage discusses all of the following aspects of the creation of the Mount
Rushmore carvings EXCEPT
® where the people who worked on Mount Rushmore came from
® why Borglum carved the heads of four U.S. presidents
© how Borglum dealt with fissures that could not be avoided
® when repairs to this national monument are made
Questions 6-10
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Teotihuacan is the largest and most impressive urban archaeological site of ancient ~
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~ America, covering an area of roughly 20 square kilometers. The city was at one time 1
"' %
Yi thought to be the religious center of the Toltecs but is now believed to be a creation of an 111
J earlier civilization about whose origins little is known. The earliest artifacts from Teotihuacan J
II..,
'' h
:] date from over 2,000 years ago, but the period of greatest expansion dates from 200 CE
"'
:~ to 500 CE. At its peak the city is estimated to have had a population of up to 200,000 I
~ inhabitants, with residential areas extending throughout the built-up area. Judging by ~
'"
)i
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!1,
H regionally dispersed finds of the image of the rain god Tlaloc, of "thin orange wear" pottery, m
~ E
ID and of the characteristic architectural forms, the influence of Teotihuacan was widespread. m
~~ It i~ nt ott clear what cat·used tdhe c itt(s defcline and evendtutahl aband.obnl mentk, .but bthe edvidenc~ ~
s po1n s o overpopu 1a ion, a ep 1e ion o resources, an e possi e sac ing y a versanes. 1;
£ The primary axis of the city was the Avenue of the Dead, which extends for 2.5 I
W kilometers through the center of the urban area, starting in the north at the Moon Plaza I
~ and continuing beyond the Great Compound complexes to the south. The avenue divided I
%!
II Teotihuacan into two sections with apartment compounds arranged on either side, often I
'~ symmetrically, suggesting a highly planned layout from the earliest phases of construction. ~
m
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The vast Pyramid of the Sun, located in the middle of the central zone, is the tallest m
"'"
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and most dominant structure of Teotihuacan, with a height of 65 meters and a base 11£
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11 covering approximately 10 acres. At one time the edifice was surmounted by a temple. 1
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A cave located underneath the pyramid and possibly used for ritual activities hints at its
31
m
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religious importance. The Pyramids of the Moon and Feathered Serpent are other notable m
.*
.~ ceremonial sites nearby.
w ~
I Apahicularfeatijre ()f,tne aienJt~!S«ire'~fman~ oftf:la pyrainiaat platforms at this site m
I ···•Is ~~e.· ~fi~~~of~~~~pi~~ ~~~~~·~~~~;,~~~~,~:(~/~~~.iilter~p~r$~.witt(YEJrti~l '·pa~el$ ··~·· M
i tabl~~rfPt~¢ingij~~epfll~.&.~Pfl>eijr~~~
Originally all such structures would have ~
; been covered with a layer of stucco and then painted, often with pictures of animals and 1
U mythological creatures. I
~0J:£'"'1E3foi'll1'83~s;8fMii3BJJ:M0:1'oo1s!3ii§Sq:;;#:~~'fo~st8l(e;em;:;J]!Jr,%1'¢18g,8iiH8!({]11}?W88/i\?fJ'!DfN?',{8113f?J)8\}13!3SlilliO::!B;GleFiNi&ql\ill)f{S!Sffitti1~"!!8t;<1ij?fJ!8JM'1'o?J,J%,i{J&'iB&ffil?W!#is'""JHJ1lii'!4EfSt'liiso''i&f'(}@$'fi:i;[W;i\%J!'%\}ii!k1JS$;e&~'1BN;f~§%,%"!81R'J#"w~>¥YW:Ji'W)'00
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194
Reading
6. According to the passage, the dispersed finds from Teotihuacan indicate that
C£) the city is over 2,000 years old
® the city had an estimated population of as many as 200,000 inhabitants
© the residential areas extended throughout the urbanized area
® the city greatly influenced the surrounding areas
7. According to the passage, which of the following statements about the decline of
Teotihuacan is known to be true?
C£) The people migrated to another city.
® The population of the city starved.
© The city was invaded by neighbors.
® The cause of the decline is uncertain.
8. According to the passage, the symmetrical layout around the Avenue of the Dead
C£) divided the city into two sections, one of which had apartment compounds for
the living
® started at the Moon Plaza, continued past the Great Compound complexes,
and extended as far as the center of the urban area
© included a primary axis of the city
® indicated that the city layout was planned before building began
C£) A feature of the pyramidal architecture is the many platforms that make up
the steps.
® The sloping walls of the pyramid have occasional vertical panels, which gives
the appearance of steps.
© The architectural features known as taluds and tableros are a particular
feature of the many pyramidal platforms.
® A series of sloping walls combined with vertical panels produces the
appearance of steps that form the pyramidal platforms.
10. All of the following are mentioned as having been found in the Teotihuacan area
EXCEPT
C£) market streets
® religious artifacts
© ceremonial structures
® residential districts
195
Questions 11-15
In the eleventh century, people noticed that if a small hole were put in one wall of a
darkened room, then light coming through the aperture would make a picture of the scene
outside on the opposite wall of the room. A room like this was called a camera obscura.
Artists later used a box to create a camera obscura, with a lens in its opening to make the
picture clearer. But it was not possible to preserve the image that was produced in the box.
In 1727, Johann Heinrich Schulze mixed chalk, silver, and nitric acid in a bottle. He found
that when the mixture was subjected to light, it became darker. In 1826, Joseph Nicephore
Niepce put some paper dipped in a light-sensitive chemical into his camera obscura, which
he left exposed in a window. The result was probably the first permanent photographic
image. The image Niepce made was a negative, a picture in which all the white parts are
black and all the black parts are white. Later, Louis Daguerre found a way to reverse the
black and white parts to make positive prints. But when he looked at the pictures in the light,
I
the chemicals continued to react and the pictures went dark. In 1837, he found a way to fix
the image. These images are known as daguerreotypes.
Many developments of photographic equipment were made in the nineteenth century.
Glass plates coated with light-sensitive chemicals were used to produce clear, sharp,
positive prints on paper. In the 1870s, George Eastman proposed using rolls of paper I
&
film, coated with chemicals, to replace glass plates. Then, in 1888, Eastman began
manufacturing the Kodak® camera, the first "modern" lightweight camera that people could
carry and use.
During the twentieth century, many technological improvements were made. One of the
most important was color film. • •
11. The first camera obscura can be described as nothing more than
C£) a darkened room in which an image was projected onto a wall
® a preserved image of a darkened room projected in a box
© a box with a lens, which projected an image onto a wall in a dark room
® a hole in a wall into which a lens could be inserted to project an image
12. According to the passage, what problem did Daguerre encounter?
C£) His pictures were all negative images.
® He could not find a way to make positive images.
© His positive images would darken.
® He could not reverse the fixed image.
13. According to the passage, George Eastman built a camera that
C£) used chemically coated glass plates
® produced light-sensitive prints
© used chemicals to produce clear, sharp, and positive prints
® was portable
196
Reading
® The layers of chemicals that make up color film are sensitive to all colors that
can be made.
® Color film uses chemicals that are sensitive to red, green, and blue light.
© Red, green, and blue light are the essential colors from which all colors can be
chemically made.
® The layers of chemicals on color film are sensitive to red, green, and blue light
that, combined, can make all colors.
15. All of the following people are mentioned as working with photographic images
EXCEPT
® Johann Heinrich Schulze
® Joseph Nicephore Niepce
© Louis Daguerre
® George Eastman
Questions 16-20
Generations of American schoolchildren have been taught the story of how the Great
Fire of Chicago in October 1871 was started by Daisy, a cow belonging to one Mrs.
0' Leary. The cow, stabled in a barn behind Mrs. O'Leary's house, supposedly kicked over
a kerosene lamp, which set fire to hay and other combustible materials stored there. The
blaze quickly spread, and fanned by a strong southwest wind and aided by intensely dry
conditions, the conflagration engulfed and entirely destroyed more than three square miles
of built-up area. Almost 100,000 people were left homeless, and about 300 lost their lives.
Property damage was estimated at 200 million dollars, an immense sum in those days.
Soon after the fire, the O'Leary-cow story became an almost unchallenged truth and,
over the years, took on the status of a modern-day myth- a staple ingredient in the fabric
of American folklore. However, there are good reasons to believe that neither Mrs. O'Leary
nor Daisy was culpable. First, a police reporter later claimed to have invented the whole
story. Of course, this is not a conclusive refutation, but his reasoning was valid and his
alternative suggestions credible. Furthermore, the testimony of one of the main witnesses,
a neighbor called "Peg Leg" Sullivan, is now thought to be questionable. Some claim he
invented the story to avoid censure, since he himself was not above suspicion and there
were inconsistencies in his account. Other accusers have focused the blame on a variety
of targets- some local boys smoking in the barn, a different neighbor, an unnamed terrorist
organization, spontaneous combustion, and, most recently, an asteroid. Tile asteroid theory
,~Irli~l;l.~n~•.rr~m•tlieff:t~t~hfl~,qn,#)e··.~.~~~·o~ght•as•.tn~•ohi~a.,tu·~•.•oeigfl.bonng•·states
~~~dm~F'~'ltlao.a'doz$ri~~tinrfZi~.One fire destroyed the entire town of Peshtigo,
Wisconsin, with the loss of more than 1,200 lives.
Whatever the real origin of the fire, the truth is that it was inevitable, given the near- ., __
drought conditions of the time and the fact that much of the city consisted of densely packed il
Jf:
wooden shacks served by an undermanned fire department. It seems that Mrs. O'Leary !1i"'
and her cow were perhaps no more than convenient and vulnerable scapegoats on which !""'
a devastated populace could center its frustrations. .;:
197
16. What myth has been told to generations of American schoolchildren?

® That many people lost their lives and many were left homeless
® That the Great Fire of Chicago was started by a cow kicking over a lamp
© How much the property damage caused by the Great Fire of Chicago cost
® How fast the Great Fire of Chicago spread and how much of the Chicago area
was destroyed
17. What did "Peg Leg" Sullivan do?
® He set the barn on fire while smoking.
® He accused some local boys.
© He gave a suspicious account.
® He came up with some believable alternatives.
® The number of fires in the surrounding states on the same night as the
Chicago fire supports the asteroid theory.
® There were a number of fires throughout the city of Chicago, and this
supports the asteroid theory.
© The numerous fires on the same night as the Chicago fire means that
asteroids were to blame.
® Asteroids may have caused the unusually high number of fires in Chicago
on the same night.
19. All of the following are mentioned as possible reasons that the fire was so
devastating EXCEPT
® the lack of rain
® fire-prone building materials
© too few firefighters
® a riotous populace
20. According to the passage, Mrs. O'Leary's cow
® isamyth
® is folklore
© was a scapegoat
® did not exist
198
Reading
PRACTICE WITH MAKING INFERENCES

AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Some details in a passage are not stated explicitly, but they can be inferred
from other details that are stated. On the TOEFL test, you will be required to
make inferences from the passages that you read. Sometimes you must use the
information given to you in a passage to draw conclusions about the topic.
This section will build your skills in making inferences and drawing conclusions
from details that are stated or implied in a reading passage. Read the following
statement:
Dr. Smitten and two other psychologists chose 25 children for their study:
5 from Campbell, 10 from other multiracial schools in Miami, and the rest
from multiracial schools in other cities in Florida.
The details stated explicitly are:
• Dr. Smitten and two other psychologists chose 25 children for a study.
• Five children were from Campbell.
• Ten children were from other schools in Miami.
• The rest were from schools in other Florida cities.
The answers to the following questions were not stated in the sentence but can be
understood or inferred.
1. What kind of doctor is Dr. Smitten?
You understand that Dr. Smitten is a psychologist because it can be inferred from
the phrase "and two other psychologists."
2. How many psychologists were doing the study?
You understand that three psychologists were doing the study because it can be
inferred from the phrase "Dr. Smitten and two other psychologists."
3. What and where is Campbell?
You understand that Campbell is a multiracial school in Miami because it can be
inferred from the phrase "other multiracial schools in Miami."
4. What and where is Miami?
You understand that Miami is a city in Florida because it can be inferred from
the phrase "other cities in Florida."
5. How many children from other cities in Florida were chosen for the study?
You understand that 10 children came from other cities because it can be
inferred from the phrase "chose 25 children: 5 from ... , 10 from ... , and the
rest from ... other cities in Florida."
Some details are neither stated nor implied. Therefore, you cannot answer the
following questions:
• When did the study take place?
• Why was the study done?
• What were the results of the study?
You can answer the question below by drawing a logical conclusion from details
implied in the passage.
What was the study probably about?
199
Part 2 Building Skiffs
You should draw the conclusion or understand that the study was probably
about some aspect of children in multiracial school environments because
/ it can be inferred from the phrases "multiracial schools in Miami" and
"multiracial schools in other cities" that a multiracial environment was an
important factor in choosing children from those particular schools.
Exercises R15-R21 Use Exercises Rl5-R21 to build your skills in making

inferences and drawing conclusions in reading passages.
EXERCISE R15 Identifying inferences

Choose the letter of those inferences that can be made from the information given in
the statement. More than one inference may be possible.
The lesser North American poets are more popular with children than major poets
because they are direct and clear.
CD Children may have difficulty understanding major poets.
® Minor poets write poetry for children.
© There are fewer poets writing for children than writing for adults.
® Indirect and hidden meanings are used in the poetry of major poets.
You should choose A because it can be inferred that the poetry of major poets is
difficult for children because, unlike that of lesser poets, it is not direct and clear.
You should not choose B because it cannot be inferred that either minor or major
poets write for children or C because lesser means minor poets, not fewer poets.
You should also choose D because it can be inferred that if children like the lesser
poets because they write more directly and clearly, the major poets use indirect
ways of expressing ideas.
1. Three of the published reports came from official investigations, but the other two
came from private individuals.
CD Private individuals cannot submit reports for publication.
® Only the three official reports were considered for publication.
© Five reports were published.
® Official investigations were made on private individuals.
2. The Institute of Anthropology plans to computerize archaeological data to help
restore the Native American villages in Chaco Canyon.
CD The Chaco Canyon Native American villages were destroyed by European
people.
® The Institute of Anthropology collects information about Native American
villages that are in ruins.
© The Native Americans in Chaco Canyon have computers to help them store
data.
® Computers can be helpful in restoring archaeological plans.
200
Reading
3. Some scientists believe that the African bees that have devastated the Latin
American beekeeping industry will become gentler as they interbreed with the
previously introduced European varieties.
® European bees will not be advantageous to the Latin American beekeeping
industry.
® African bees are ferocious and destructive.
© The Latin American beekeeping industry will become gentler as African bees
and European bees interbreed.
® African bees, as well as European bees, live in Latin America.
4. No partner helps the male pheasant-tailed jacana protect and nurture his chicks in
their floating nest.
® The female pheasant-tailed jacana does not take care of her babies.
® The pheasant-tailed jacana is an aquatic bird.
© The male pheasant-tailed jacana doesn't help to protect and nurture its partner.
® The male pheasant-tailed jacana does not mate.
5. Elephants are slowly becoming trapped in isolated forest enclaves completely
surrounded by land cleared for agriculture.
® Hunters are trapping elephants in isolated forest enclaves to get their ivory
tusks.
® People are destroying the elephants' habitat to make farms.
© Elephants would have to cross over farmland to migrate to different forest
areas.
® People are trapping elephants to use them for clearing land for agriculture.
6. To safeguard sunken ships from adventurers or thieves, ship salvagers keep the
wrecks under constant surveillance by electronic and other means.
® Thieves sink ships to steal the cargo.
® Sunken ships contain things that are valuable.
© Ship salvagers are usually caught before they steal anything because of
safeguards.
® There are various ways to guard sunken ships from pilferers.
7. A species of weed known as the gopher plant has earned a new name - the gasoline
plant- because it yields a milky latex containing hydrocarbons that can be refined
into substitutes for crude oil and gasoline.
® Some weeds have been renamed "gasoline plants" because their latex can be
made into a gasoline substitute.
® Gasoline refined from the gasoline plant will soon replace the need for gasoline
from other sources.
© Substitutes for crude oil and gasoline can come from hydrocarbons.
® Milk contains hydrocarbons necessary for crude oil and gasoline substitutes .
. 8. Not yet profitably synthesized, morphine, a drug unsurpassed for controlling pain, is
still being scraped from opium poppy heads as it was at least 5,000 years ago.
® Morphine, a drug from the poppy plant, is no longer profitable to cultivate.
® Cocaine is not as effective as morphine for stopping pain.
© Morphine has been used for pain control for at least 5,000 years.
® It is possible to make artificial morphine economically.
201
EXERCISE R16 Locating sources for inferred information

Read the passage and the statement about inferences that follows it. Underline the part
or parts of the passage from which the inference can be made.
Is it true that crime doesn't pay? Although it is impossible to report every dollar
that was generated in the U.S. economy by Watergate, figures pointed at what could
be termed a first-class growth industry. Fees, royalties, fines, bills, and other
miscellaneous payments added up into the millions of dollars moving around in
the U.S. economy.
It can be inferred from this passage that Watergate is the name for a crime that
took place in the United States.
You should underline crime and dollar that was generated in the U.S. economy by
Watergate because it can be inferred that Watergate was a crime or else it wouldn't
have been cited in the discussion of whether or not crime pays. The passage goes on
to discuss how crime has paid by generating money in the U.S. economy.
1. Unlike other toads, the male golden toad is nearly voiceless. It attracts its mate
through its unmistakable orange color. When the clouds are thick in the rain forest,
usually in April and May, the male toads appear like flashing neon signals, which is
as effective as croaking in luring females during the mating season.
It can be inferred from this passage that most toads attract their mates by making
sounds.
2. The great temple of Borobudur is a stepped pyramid of unmortared andesite and
basalt volcanic stone, with a perimeter of 403 feet and standing 105 feet high. This
holy place lay abandoned and forgotten for more than 800 years after a devastating
earthquake and an eruption of one of the four surrounding volcanoes caused its
population to flee in 1006. Besides earthquakes and volcanoes, torrential rains,
encroaching tropical vegetation, and time have all taken their toll.
It can be inferred from this passage that the temple of Borobudur is in ruins.
3. Some multiple sclerosis victims are experimenting with deadly snake venom to
ease the pain and tiredness caused by their disease. First, the poison is milked from
cobra, krait, and viper snakes. One part of it is then mixed to 4,000 parts of a saline
solution. Although medical authorities are skeptical of the treatment, those using it
claim that the venom has startling healing qualities.
It can be inferred from this passage that snake venom for the treatment of multiple
sclerosis has not yet been approved by doctors.
4. The cassowary, one of the world's largest and least known birds, grows to a height
of 6 feet and a weight of 120 pounds. Its powerful legs, which it uses for defense, are
fearful weapons because the inner toe of each foot is equipped with a sharp claw,
four inches long. The cassowary has glossy black plumage, which hangs coarse and
brushlike because it lacks the barbules that are needed to lock feathers into a flat
vane. The naked neck is of iridescent blue on the sides and pink on the back. Its
head is crowned by a leathery helmet that protects it when it is charging through
the jungle.
It can be inferred from this passage that the cassowary probably doesn't fly.
202
Reading
5. Prior to 1870, little stone decoration was done on New York buildings, except for
churches and public buildings. With the arrival of artisans among the groups of
European immigrants, architectural carving began to flourish. Architects would
buy sculptures already done or show sketches of what they wanted carved. Away
from the master carver, who had dictated what was to be carved, the artisans
created eclectic and uninhibited sculptures, which became integrated into a purely
American style.
It can be inferred from this passage that in Europe, artisans did not carve what they
wanted to carve.
6. The Society for Creative Anachronism is a nonprofit club that joins together
people who enjoy reenacting life as it was lived before the 1700s. Members of both
sexes not only learn the ;1 rt of sword fighting in mock combat but learn a wide
range of authentic medieval skills as well. These include such skills as armor
making, equestrian arts, games, jewelry making, astrology, and magic. Since the
first tournament held in 1966, in which a dozen fighters took part, the society has
increased by thousands of members.
It can be inferred from this passage that female members of the Society for Creative
Anachronism fight in battles.
7. Computer-driven cameras, lights, and servomotors, as well as lasers and tiny
lens assemblies, are just a few of the complex instruments that have brought to
today's television viewers effective scientific informational films. Two crucial
problems in such films are finding arresting visuals and creating special effects to
illustrate complex scientific concepts. Computer-generated motion pictures allow
the viewer to see the meaning of data and complex relationships instantly and are a
new aid to human understanding of almost limitless power.
It can be inferred from this passage that computers used in the film industry have
enabled people to understand science better.
8. Fish rubbings and nature printing have been developing as art forms in North
America over the past several decades, although the techniques may date as far
back as the time of early cave dwellers. To make a fish print, one should choose a
very fresh fish with large rough scales and a flat body. Other needed materials are
several brushes, including a fine brush for painting the eyes on the print, a thick
waterbased ink, newspaper, modeling clay for supporting the fins, straight pins, and
cloth or absorbent paper such as newsprint. Handmade paper is best, but it is more
expensive and not recommended for beginners. The fish should be washed, dried,
and laid out on the newspaper. A thin layer of ink should be brushed on in both
directions. The paper is then placed over the fish and pressed carefully with the
fingers, avoiding wrinkles or movement of the paper.
It can be inferred from this passage that it takes practice to become proficient in
using this technique.
9. Characteristics of tropical rain forests are high and steady levels of heat and
moisture, as well as a wide variety of organisms. It is believed that two-thirds
of all species live in the tropics, and half of those live in the tropical rain forests.
Nowhere else, except perhaps in tropical coral reefs, is nature so great in its
diversity of organisms and complex in its biological interaction.
It can be inferred from this passage that tropical coral reefs contain a wide
variety of organisms.
203
10. Even though historians think that ice-skating has been a sport for the last 2,000
years, it is within the last five decades that skating has gained recognition as a form
of art. Champion athletes combine new heights of athleticism with the elegance of
dance in what is now called figure skating. Ice-skaters performing daring jumps in
flamboyant costumes have brought ballet to the ice rink. Ice-skating is now seen as
an exciting and innovative sport that has won millions of new admirers.
It can be inferred from this passage that ice-skaters are both athletes and artists.
EXERCISE R17 Checking if an inference is correct

Read each sentence and answer Yes or No to the question that follows.
Volunteers for organizations such as Save the Children make an extremely

important personal contribution toward improving the daily lives of millions of
children throughout the world.
Can it be inferred that Save the Children volunteers contribute a lot of money to
aid children?
No
You should write No in the space because a "personal contribution" does not
necessarily mean a monetary contribution. Volunteers may contribute time or a
special personal skill that they have in order to aid children.
1. Each day, more and more communities discover that they have been living near
dumps or on top of ground that has been contaminated by toxic chemicals.
Can it be inferred that communities aren't always told when and where toxic
wastes are being disposed?
2. E. B. White's death, at 86, was cause for sadness in millions of homes.

Can it be inferred that E. B. White was famous?
3. There is evidence that a global firestorm raged about the time the dinosaurs
disappeared.
Can it be inferred that dinosaurs became extinct because of a global fire storm?
4. Of the twelve sulfite-associated deaths, one was caused by wine, one by beer, and
one by hashed brown potatoes; the rest were linked to fresh fruits or vegetables.
Can it be inferred that nine people died from sulfite-contaminated fresh foods?
5. Quinolone, a recently discovered antibiotic, inhibits an enzyme that controls the

way bacterial DNA unravels and rewinds when microbes reproduce.
Can it be inferred that quinolone will eventually replace all other antibiotics?
6. For people whose nerves have been damaged by illness or injuries, actions such as
walking or grasping an object may be impossible.
Can it be inferred that the nervous system is important for muscle control?
204
Reading
EXERCISE R18 Identifying inferences in paragraphs

Read the passage and the statements that follow it. Write I in the space if the statement
is an inference. Write R if the statement is a restatement. Leave the space blank if the
statement is neither an inference nor a restatement.
Francis Gary Powers survived when his high-flying reconnaissance aircraft was
shot down over the Soviet Union in 1960. He was convicted of espionage after a
trial in Moscow. Later, Powers was returned to the United States in exchange for
Soviet spy Rudolf Abel. Powers was killed in a helicopter crash in California in
1977.
A. R Powers was found guilty of spying in the Soviet Union.
B. ___,__!_ Rudolf Abel was tmprisoned by the United States for spying.
C. _ _ Powers was killed during a reconnaissance mission.
You should writeR for A because to be "convicted of espionage" means the same as
to be "found guilty of spying." You should write I forB because Rudolf Abel must
have been imprisoned by the United States if the Americans exchanged him for
Powers. You should leave C blank because no information is given on why Powers
was flying in the helicopter. It might have been for work or for pleasure.
1. The MacArthur Prizes, or "genius awards," are large grants of money given to
individuals who show outstanding talents in their fields. According to a foundation
spokesperson, this money frees these people from financial worries and allows them
the time to devote themselves to creative thinking. The recipients of MacArthur
Prizes are people who have already achieved considerable success. It may be asked
whether they attained success despite the fact that they had to worry about money
or because of it.
A. Someone who is not already known in his or her field will probably not be
a recipient of a MacArthur Prize.
B. Some people may become successful because they are worried about
money.
C. Some individuals receive large sums of money to think
2. The CDC (Centers for Disease Control) is responsible for the research done in
solving or attempting to solve medical mysteries. Teams of epidemiologists
crisscross the country investigating outbreaks of disease. They ask questions, look
for clues, and track down pieces of puzzles in a relentless pursuit to find answers
that will bring about breakthroughs in the prevention or cure of serious diseases.
The CDC rushes in to study epidemics because it is possible to quickly determine
patterns and common links among the victims.
A. The CDC is not always successful in its research of diseases.
B. _ _ Epidemiologists travel across the nation to do their research.
C. _ _ Because there are more victims when an epidemic strikes, more
•
data can be collected to find answers to medical questions .
205
3. Astronomers have long believed that frozen gases and water account for up to 80
percent of a comet's mass. While observing Comet Bowell, astronomers were able to
measure the amount of light this comet absorbed and reflected. On the basis of these
observations, they determined that comets do indeed contain frozen water.
A. Astronomers have proved the theory that comets contain frozen water.
B. The ice content of other comets can be ascertained by measuring how
much light they absorb and reflect.
C. The name of the observed comet is Bowell.
4. Although most honeybees die in the field while gathering pollen, some bees die
in the hives and must be removed in order to prevent the spread of disease and to
keep the nest from filling up with corpses. These corpses emit a chemical that
signals death. While some bees ignore the corpses, others poke at them, lick them,
or inspect them. Usually within an hour, the bees that are in charge of removing
dead bees grasp the corpses in their mandibles, pull them through the hive toward
the entrance, then fly away and drop them as far as 400 feet from the hive.
A. Dead bees cannot be left in the hive because they may make the other bees
sick.
B. The honeybees know there is a dead bee in the hive because of the death
chemical that is emitted.
C. In less than one hour, the dead bees have usually been removed from the
hive.
5. The northern elephant seal, a 2,000-pound mammal, is making a dramatic
comeback after being hunted to near extinction in the late nineteenth century. The
seals that once thrived off the coast of California now receive protection from both
the Mexican and United States governments. A contributing factor to their survival
is the reduced demand for seal oil due to the ready availability of petroleum
products.
A. Products that were once made from seal oil are now made from petroleum.
B. Petroleum is easier to obtain now than seal oil is.
C. Northern elephant seals are now numerous.
6. Diverse in culture and language, the tenacious men and women who inhabit the
world's harshest environment, the land above the Arctic Circle, probably descended
from hunting societies pushed north from Central Asia by population pressure about
10,000 years ago. "Scarcity" is the word that best describes the Arctic ecosystem,
where life-giving solar energy is in short supply. In the winter, the sun disappears for
weeks or months depending on the latitude. Even during the months of prolonged
sunlight, the slanted rays cannot thaw the frozen subsurface soil. But more than the
severe cold, the lack of resources for food, clothing, and shelter defines the lifestyles
that the Arctic peoples lead.
A. Scarcity of food, clothing, and shelter influences Arctic living conditions
more than the harsh climate does.
•
B. _ _ Anthropologists are not completely certain about the ancestry of the
Arctic peoples.
C. _ _ The further north one is, the less sunshine there is.
206
Reading
7. Half of all the astronauts on space flights are afflicted with debilitating space
sickness, an ailment akin to car sickness and marked by nausea and vomiting. It is
believed that zero gravity and its effect on the inner ear and the flow of body fluids
are the cause. Scientists are attempting to find a way to predict who is susceptible
to the illness because it interferes with the important work that must be done
efficiently during space missions.
A. Scientists cannot tell whether an astronaut who suffers from car sickness
will suffer from space sickness.
B. Space sickness makes it difficult for afflicted astronauts to do
their work.
C. Space sickness and car sickness are related illnesses.
8. The white shark, which has acquired a reputation for mindless ferocity
unequaled among terrestrial or aquatic predators, belongs to the family known as
the mackerel shark. Nothing about this terrifying fish is predictable: not its
behavior, range, or diet. Despite this fearsome reputation, evidence from the
remains of victims of shark attacks suggests that the white shark does not eat
people.
A. A white shark is a kind of mackerel shark.
B. The white shark has gained a terrifying reputation because it
attacks people.
C. The white shark attacks its victims for reasons other than hunger.
9. Because they seem to be taking a measure with each looping stride, some
caterpillars are called geometrids, or earth measurers. From this comes their
common name, inchworms. This caterpillar grasps a twig with its back legs,
extends itself forward, then draws its back end up to its front legs and repeats
the sequence.
A. The geometrid moves by stretching forward, then moving its back
to its front, then repeating this process.
B. Not all caterpillars are inchworms.
C. All inchworms are earth measurers.
10. The Merlin is propelled by six compact engines, each encased in a separate duct.
With no exposed blades, the craft is much safer to maneuver on the ground than
either a helicopter or small plane. The Merlin takes off and hovers by blasting a
column of air straight down and moves forward by directing some of that air
backward with movable vanes behind each engine.
A. The Merlin is a kind of aircraft.
B. Exposed blades make some aircraft unsafe.
C. Production of the Merlin has not yet begun.
207
EXERCISE R19 Making inferences

Read the passage and the question that follows it. Then choose the letter of the best
answer based on the information given.
In the third and fourth centuries, the Germanic tribes of central Europe joined
forces and plundered the crumbling Roman Empire. But they1ntum became the
victims of the Norse invasions of the eighth century. The Norsemen raided villages
in every region. They killed the men, abducted the women and children, and then
departed in their fast-sailing ships, leaving nothing but a few smoldering ruins.
What does the author mean by the statement "tqeylri turn be~::ame the victims//?
® The Germanic tribes turned on the Norse invaders in the eighth century.
® The Germanic tribes and the Norse invaders took turns in attacking the
Roman Empire.
© The Germanic tribes received the same treatment from the Norsemen that
they had given the Roman Empire.
® The Roman Empire was first plundered by the Germanic tribes in the third
and fourth centuries and then by the Norsemen in the eighth century.
You should choose C because the author is pointing out how the invaders later
became the victims of another group of invaders.
1. Erosion of America's farmland by wind and water has been a problem since
settlers first put the prairies and grasslands under the plow in the nineteenth
century. By the 1930s, more than 282 million acres of farmland were damaged by
erosion. After decades of conservation efforts, soil erosion has accelerated due to new
demands placed on the land by heavy crop production. In the years ahead, soil
erosion and the pollution problems it causes are likely to replace petroleum S<;arcity
as the nation's most critical natural resource problem.
Why does the author mention "petroleum scarcity"?
® To show that petroleum scarcity will become the most critical natural resource
problem
® To prove that petroleum is causing heavy soil erosion and pollution problems
© To indicate that soil erosion has caused humans to place new demands on
heavy crop production
® To emphasize the fact that soil erosion will become the most critical problem
the nation faces
2. Contamination of the sea caused by oil spills is a critical problem as wind and
wave action can carry oil spills a great distance across the sea. However, there are
ways in which oil spills in the sea can be dealt with. For example, straw, which can
Absorb up to .four. ti!llesits w~•ghtiri oU, can be thrown on the spill and then be
burned. Oil can be broken up and sunk by sand, talcum powder, or chalk. Under
experimentation, some chemicals have been shown to disperse the spill into
droplets, which microbes can then destroy.
Why does the author mention that straw " c;aJ1 Absorb up to four ti~es its weight
in oil"?
® To emphasize the versatility of straw
® To show why straw is useful in cleaning oil spills
© To compare the weight of straw to that of oil spills
® To give background on the properties of straw
208
Reading
3. The quality of the graphics output on a computer printer is measured in dpi

(dots per inch). Simply by changing the density of dots that make up each part of
an image, the printer can produce graphics that look almost photographic. To
understand how this works, consider how a l)l~cl<~a]ld.-wh±t(): phqtog:raph shows
the shades that, in real life, are colors. Each color is a different shade of gray.
For graphics to be produced on the computer printer, a piece of software called
a printer driver decides upon a dot pattern that will represent each color shade.
These different patterns or textures each create an individual effect that your eye
translates into gray shades. The closer you look at the image, however, the less
lifelike it looks.
Why does the author mention "ablack~aJ:!d.~whit~~hbtog:nilph "?
® To explain how a printer makes graphics
® To compare the clarity of computer graphics to photographs
© To emphasize the difference between colored graphics and black-and-white
graphics
® To convince the reader that dpi is preferable to photography
4. tin4esha.lda.}\1.a,:¢ ~olla.nd t>~~a. pl~ywright.t,y . a,••X)l~e·.twist.of·fa,te . While
studying at the University of Minnesota, Ms. Holland was consumed by activities
other than academics. She helped start student groups dedicated to racial progress
and black unity. Off campus, she formed an organization to get former prisoners
back on their feet. So diverted, it took her nearly 15 years to earn her bachelor's
degree. When she found herself four credit hours short of a degree, she enrolled in
an acting course, which she thought would be easy because of her experience on
speaking tours. But by transposing two numbers, Ms. Holland accidentally signed
up for an advanced playwriting seminar. An author was born.
What does the author mean by stating "Endesha.lclaMaetilallandbecatn.e a.
playwright by a tri~?ie t'W~$t of fate "? .. . .. . . ..
® It took nearly 15 years to complete her bachelor's degree.
® An author was born.
© She didn't intend to take the playwriting seminar.
® She had experience because of her speaking tours.
EXERCISE R20 Drawing conclusions

Read the statement and the question that follows it. Then choose the letter of the best
answer based on the information given.
Few school curriculums include a unit on how to deal with bereavement and
grief, and yet all people at some point in their lives suffer from loss through death
and parting.
What topic would probably NOT be included in a unit on bereavement?
® How to write a letter of condolence
® What emotional stages are passed through in the healing process
© How to give support to a grieving friend
® What the leading causes of death are
Bereavement is the state of experiencing the death of a relative or friend. Since the
leading causes of death are not relevant to the particular death that a person may
have to deal with, you should choose D.
209
Part 2 Building SkiJJs
1. Studies show that bike races in Mexico City, where the air is 20 percent less dense
than at sea level, tend to be 3 to 5 percent faster than at lower altitudes.
In which area would a bike race probably be the slowest?
® Along the coast
® On an indoor track
© On a high plateau
® Near the snow line of a volcano
2. Owners of famous and valuable paintings have recently been commissioning
talented artists to paint copies of these art treasures to exhibit in their homes.
What is the most likely reason an owner of a valuable painting might want to
exhibit a copy instead of the original?
® Because they need to trick the experts
® Because they hope to foil would-be thieves
© Because they want to encourage talented artists
® Because they enjoy buying fake paintings
3. The Academy of Dog Training supplies law enforcement agencies with German
shepherds that are trained to recognize the smell of marijuana and other drugs.
In which of the following places would these German shepherds most likely be
used?
® At scenes of violent crimes
® Where burglaries have taken place
© At public swimming pools
® At customs checks between borders
4. Schools based upon the philosophy of Rudolph Steiner are all coeducational, practice
mixed-ability teaching, and discourage competition among children.
Which of the following activities would probably NOT be seen in a Steiner school?
® A class period devoted to the teaching of mathematics
® A game involving both boys and girls
© A poetry-writing contest
® A classroom of children reading at different levels
5. The microbiologist exposed bacteria to increasingly higher levels of cyanide until
he had a type of bacteria that could destroy the cyanide that had been dumped into
rivers by chemical plants.
In what way could these bacteria be useful?
® For saving the water life from toxic wastes
® For poisoning undesirable fish
© For cleaning swimming pools
® For increasing the cyanide in the chemical plants
210
Reading
EXERCISE R21 Reviewing inferences

Read each passage and the items that follow it. Then choose the letter of the best
answer for each.
Questions 1-4
1. The Malabar Pied-Hornblll is probably a

® chicken
®seal
©bird
®bear
2. What can be said about the Malabar Pied-Hornbill's nest?
® It is padded with feathers.
® It is so warm that the female Malabar Pied-Hornbillloses its plumage.
© The female Malabar Pied-Hornbill breaks it up after losing her plumage.
® Its cracks are covered by the feathers which the female Malabar Pied-Hornbill
plucks off herself.
3. Which of the following statements can be inferred?
® The male is afraid of other males and, therefore, forces his mate into the nest
and seals it.
® The female is so involved in building her nest that she doesn't realize she's
locked herself inside it.
© The female purposely imprisons herself to lay her eggs.
® The female has to keep the male from hurting the babies, so she encloses
herself in the nest.
4. The male Malabar Pied-Hornbill probably
® feeds the eggs through a crack in the nest
® doesn't help the female until she has enclosed herself in the nest
© uses his plumage to guard the recently hatched chicks
® doesn't hatch the eggs by keeping them warm with his own body
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211
5. It can be inferred from the passage that

® Canada has only two drainage areas in its provinces
® there are 31 states in the United States
© the 31 states mentioned have no other river systems to carry silt, sand, and clay
® some of the silt deposited in the Louisiana delta is from Canada
6. It is probably true that
® the delta system formed by the Mississippi River is very important for marine
life
® nurseries have been set up in the delta so that children can take part in aquatic
sports in the bays, lakes, and sounds
© the delta marshland is an excellent area for medical people to study diseases
caused by mosquitoes and other insects
® the United States government has established nurseries to provide shelter and
food for migrating birds
7. It can be inferred from the passage that
® the delta is being destroyed by the Mississippi River depositing sand, silt, and
clay
® the geographic features of the delta are always changing
© the sea movement is building a delta on the continental shelf at the mouth of
the Mississippi
® the river, delta, and sea all play an important role in building Louisiana's
continental shelf
Questions 8-10
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i An ultralight airplane is very different from a conventional airplane. It looks like a lawn ~
t chair with wings, weighs no more than 254 pounds, flies up to 60 miles an hour, and 1
1 carries about 5 gallons of fuel. Most ultralights are sold as kits and take about 40 hours 1
~1 to assemble. Flying an ultralight is so easy that a pilot with no experience can fly one. !I
hi I
Si Accidents are rarely fatal or even serious because the ultralight lands so slowly and gently fi
1
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and carries so little fuel. Some models now have parachutes attached, while others have I
1
II parachute packs which pilots can wear.
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8. Ultralights are powered by

® anengine
® human energy
© remote control
® solar energy
9. It is probably true that
® an ultralight can be purchased at the airport
® people can put their own ultralights together
© people who fly ultralights have no experience
® ultralight builders need to have training in aviation
212
4. What does the author mean by the statement "Ml!l.l}yother of Epstein's l.llQnurnental
carvings received eQ~illllY ad\terse,~r~~i~ril II? . . . . .. ..
® Many of Epstein's monuments were defaced.
® People have taken equal offense to other critical works of art.
© Epstein's monuments were usually denounced for their nudity.
® Other sculptures of Epstein's elicited negative comments.
Questions 5-9
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History books record that the first moving picture with sound was The Jazz Singer l
¥
~~ in 1927. But sound films, or "talkies," did not suddenly appear after years of silent ~
i~ screenings. From the earliest public performances in 1896, films were accompanied by ~
,K 3
il music and sound effects. These were produced by a single pianist, small band, or a a 11
'! full-scale orchestra; larger movie theaters could buy sound-effects machines. . . i
!! Research into sound that was reproduced at exactly the same time as the pictures- ~~
!I
Mi
called "synchronized sound"- began soon after the very first movies were shown. With m
01
nl
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synchronized sound, characters on the movie screen could sing and speak. As early as ii
.r:
!8l
iii 1896, the newly invented gramophone, which played a large disc carrying music and li
~.., dialogue, was used as a sound system. The biggest disadvantage was that the sound and l
~
'11
,,-
pictures could become unsynchronized if, for example, the gramophone needle jumped or !J:;;
1~ if the speed of the projector changed. This system was only effective for a single song or ~
I! dialogue sequence. 1
il
!i!
:1:
A later development was the "sound-on-film" system. Here, sounds were recorded i!·C•
i!i as a series of marks on celluloid read by optical sensors. These signals would be placed ~;
W:
J'
on the film alongside the images, guaranteeing synchronization. Short feature films were i
·~
':: produced in this way as early as 1922. This system eventually brought us "talking pictures." i5
i1 ~
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5. Why does the author mention 11

;1 sii1gle pianist, a S'lll.all band, or a full.scale
orchestra 11
?
® To show how badly paid musicians were
® To explain how sound that accompanied early films was made
© To emphasize the role sound effects played in The Jazz Singer
® To refute history books that claim the first movie with sound was made
in 1927
6. It can be inferred that
® most movie theaters had a pianist
® sound-effects machines were common
© orchestras couldn't synchronize sound with the pictures
® gramophones were developed about the same time as moving pictures
7. Why could gramophones be considered ineffective?
® They were subject to variations in speed.
® They were too large for most movie theaters.
© They couldn't always match the speed of the projector.
® They were newly invented.
214
12. Which of the following statements would the author most likely agree with
concerning the actions of an interviewer looking for the best applicant for a job?
C£) The interviewer should spend time trying to confirm a first impression.
® The interviewer should be confident and well-dressed.
© The interviewer should be aware that this process is a hindrance to finding
the right person.
® The interviewer should look for other ways to choose the best applicant.
13. The paragraphs following the passage most likely discuss which of the following?
C£) Other reasons for misjudgments about applicants
® More information on the kinds of judgmental effects
© More information on tests measuring cognitive ability
® Other selection procedures included in interviewing
PRACTICE WITH SUMMARIES AND CHARTS

Your ability to understand how a reading passage is organized and to grasp the
relationships between details and main ideas will be tested in the Reading section
of the TOEFL test. In the last item for each reading passage, you will be required to
extract information from the entire passage and arrange the given text options into
a summary or a category chart. Your ability to recognize and understand compare-
and-contrast, cause-and-effect, and agree-and-disagree relationships, as well as steps
in a process, will help you to succeed on these questions.
Summary questions
These questions require you to understand the main ideas that together form a
summary of the passage. You will be given the first sentence in a summary
and a list of other sentences. You will then be asked to choose which of the other
sentences complete the summary by clicking on your choices and dragging them
into a box. It is not necessary for you to put them in the correct order. The number
of choices will be apparent by the number of spaces in the box.
Incorrect answer choices can be sentences that are details from the passage but are
not critical to the understanding of the passage or to the formation of a summary.
Incorrect choices can also be sentences that contain ideas that were not explicitly
stated or information that is not mentioned within the passage.
Category chart questions

These questions require you to organize important material from the passage into
a chart. You will be given a two-column chart with answer choices on the left and
category headings on the right. You will then be asked to sort the answer choices
under the appropriate headings by clicking on the choices and dragging them from
the left column to the right. You will not always use all of the answer choices.
Incorrect answer choices may include information that is not mentioned in the
text. Incorrect choices can also be incorrect generalizations or conclusions.
216

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Reading

Directions: Select the appropriate features from the answer choices

Answer Choices Aircraft Safety Features

PRACTICE WITH UNDERSTANDING MEANING

Determining meaning from context

Identifying meaning from a given definition

Mercury - the silver-colored metal used in thermometers - is usually in a

Exercises R1-R3 Use Reading Exercises Rl-R3 to practice understanding meaning

EXERCISE R1 Understanding words in context

Using be to understand meanings

Using appositives to understand meanings

10. Seventeenth-century attempts to preserve anatomical specimens brought about

Using punctuation to understand meanings

Using or to understand meanings

21. In seagoing vessels, bulkheads, or internal walls, form watertight compartments

22. According to many psychologists, phobias, or irrational fears, represent or are

Using examples to understand meanings

Using adjective clauses to understand meanings

Using referents to understand meanings

37. An agricultural concern is the growing number of boll weevils. An infestation of

Using contrasts to understand meanings

Using other words in the sentence to understand meanings

EXERCISE R2 Choosing the best synonym

L~~~~'*~::::~~~:::~~.~:ii~=:~~~l~::~:~~~W~W!~£U' .!~w~:_-mwu , ~., ·.m-r¥•0ii'"-'•j

3. The word "mci~l" is closest in meaning to

7. The word r~:tiawn~~" is closest in meaning to

8. The word 11 irtteg:J;a). 11 is closest in meaning to

130 The word "l~~~~"" is closest in meaning to

EXERCISE R3 Understanding the author's meaning

Although originally formed to prevent illegal trade in whiskey, the Royal

CD the Milky Way is going to crash into our own galaxy

currents. These variously repeating conditions have resulted in higher water

' '' '

maintenance than more conventional roads. :•. ;· · . .... . .... .. . .... ·. · ·

11 ~ffliQ~Qfl. · •.·• . . ... · . · ...• as a result of developing ~

9. The word "afl~d'QJ;["

that the sea turtles have

11. The word i:Q~i~~~~:" is closest in meaning to

13. The word ";t:"¢8:~1.\it~ij~" is closest in meaning to

interviewed the homeowners was

PRACTICE WITH UNDERSTANDING THE CONNECTION

Understanding transitional expressions

contrast unlike, in contrast, whereas, on the other hand, instead

concede although, yet, nevertheless, of course, after all

compare similarly, like, in the same way, both, equally important

explain now, in addition, furthermore, in fact, in this case, at this

state a consequence therefore, as a result, consequently, accordingly, otherwise

Understanding the organization of ideas

EXERCISE R4 Locating referents within sentences

the first European variety -----------------------------------------------

EXERCISE R5 Locating referents within a passage

1. One of the most potentially explosive international problems is that of mass

® people in the world

EXERCISE R6 Locating multiple referents within a passage

3. Satellites routinely relay pictures of desert areas. From ~~~np~~ttli~~' it can be

EXERCISE R7 Understanding transition words

EXERCISE RS Inserting sentences

1. Pragmatism is essentially an American school of thought that has had few

1. The word ":lli~~~" in the passage refers to

4. The phrase "~'~i~ij,~~" in the passage refers to

L~~~~'*~::::~:::.~:ii~=:~~~l~::~:~~~W~W!~£U' .!~w~:_-mwu , ~., ·.m-r¥•0ii'"-'•j

3. Satellites routinely relay pictures of desert areas. From ~npttli~~' it can be

3. Jft•·fi~ml~i, • the•m~i1··~ttr~k.~~md),~·.~.f~;~•.une,\Vhi9h . va.des.•i~•width