What is Alternating Current?

An alternating current can be defined as a current that changes its magnitude and polarity at regular
intervals of time. It can also be defined as an electrical current that repeatedly changes or reverses
its direction opposite to that of Direct Current or DC which always flows in a single direction as
shown below.

 
From the graph, we can see that the charged particles in AC tend to start moving from zero. It
increases to a maximum and then decreases back to zero completing one positive cycle. The
particles then reverse their direction and reach the maximum in the opposite direction after which AC
again returns to the original value completing a negative cycle. The same cycle is repeated again
and again.
Alternating currents are also accompanied usually by alternating voltages. Besides, alternating
current is also easily transformed from a higher voltage level to a lower voltage level.

Alternating Current Production

Alternating current can be produced or generated by using devices that are known as alternators.
However, alternating current can also be produced by different methods where many circuits are
used. One of the most common or simple ways of generating AC is by using a basic single coil AC
generator which consists of two-pole magnets and a single loop of wire having a rectangular shape.
In this setup, the AC generator follows Faraday’s principle of electromagnetic induction where it
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Meanwhile, AC is supplied to pieces of equipment using 3 wires. They are as follows;

 Power is transmitted by the hot wire.

 The neutral wire which is connected to the earth provides a return path for the current in the
hot wire. 
  The third wire that is also connected to the earth is linked to the metallic parts of the
equipment to mainly eliminate electric shock hazards.

Application of Alternating Current

AC is the form of current that are mostly used in different appliances. Some of the examples of
alternating current include audio signal, radio signal, etc. An alternating current has a wide
advantage over DC as AC is able to transmit power over large distances without great loss of
energy.
AC is used mostly in homes and offices mainly because the generating and transporting of AC
across long distances is a lot easier. Meanwhile, AC can be converted to and from high voltages
easily using transformers. AC is also capable of powering electric motors that further convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Due to this AC also finds its use in many large appliances
like refrigerators, dishwashers and many other appliances.

Alternating Current Waveform

Before we learn more about this topic, let us quickly understand a few key terms.

 The time interval between a definite value of two successive cycles is the period.
 The number of cycles or number of periods per second is frequency.
 The maximum value in both directions is the amplitude.
 

The normal waveform of AC in most of the circuits are sinusoidal in nature in which the positive half
period corresponds with the positive direction of the current and vice-versa. In addition, a triangular
or square wave can also be used to represent the alternating current waveform.
Audio amplifiers that deal with analogue voice or music signals produce irregular AC waves. Some
electronic oscillators produce square or sawtooth waves.
Also Read: Differences Between AC and DC
Average Value of AC
The average value is usually defined as the average of the instantaneous values of alternating
current over a complete cycle. The positive half cycle of asymmetrical waves such as a sinusoidal
voltage or current waveform will be equal to the negative half cycle. This implies that the average
value after the completion of a full cycle is equal to zero.
Since, both the cycles do some work the average value is obtained by avoiding the signs. Therefore,
the average value of alternating quantities of sinusoidal waves can be considered by taking the
positive cycle only.

RMS Value of AC Wave

RMS value is defined as the square root of means of squares of instantaneous values. It can also be
described as the amount of AC power that generates the same heating effect as an equivalent DC
power.

Phasor Diagrams
The phasor diagram is used to determine the phase relationships between two or more sine waves
propagating with the same frequency. Here, we use the terms “lead”, “lag” and also “in-phase”, “out-
of-phase” to indicate the relation between one waveform with the other.
Phasor diagrams will be of the form:

AC Circuit Containing Resistance Only

The pure resistive AC circuit contains only pure resistance of R ohms. There will be no effect of
inductance and capacitance in this circuit. The alternate current and voltage move along both
directions as backwards and forwards. Therefore, current and voltage follow a shape of sine.
In a purely resistive circuit, the power is dissipated by the resistors and the phase of both voltage
and current remains the same. This means that the voltage and current reaches a maximum value at
the same time.
 
Let the supply voltage be,
v = Vmsinωt ……(1)
The instantaneous value of current flowing through the given circuit is,
i = v / R = Vm / R sinωt ……(2)
From equation (2), the value of current be maximum at t = 900, so sin t =1
Then, the instantaneous value of current will be,
i = Imsinωt ……(3)
So, by observing the equation (1) and (3), it is clear that there is no phase difference between the
applied voltage and current flowing through the circuit. Meaning, phase angle between voltage and
current is zero.
Hence, in a pure resistive ac circuit, the current is in phase with the voltage.
This can be expressed in a waveform as,

AC Circuit Containing Inductance Only

This type of circuit contains only inductance. There will not be any effect of resistance and
capacitance in this circuit. Here, the current will lag behind the voltage by an angle of 90 0.
The circuit will be,

 
The inductor will reserves electrical energy in the magnetic field when current flows through it. When
this current changes, the time-varying magnetic field causes emf which opposes the flow of current.
This opposition to the flow of current is known as inductive reactance.
Let the voltage applied to the circuit be,
v = Vmsinωt ……(1)
The emf induced in the inductor will be,
E = -L x di / dt
This emf induced in a circuit is equal and opposite to applied voltage.
v = -e ……(2)
Putting the value of e in (2) we get,
v = (-L x di / dt)
Or
Vmsinωt = L x di / dt
Or
di = Vm / L sinω dt ……(3)
Integrating both sides, we get,

Here,
Inductive reactance is XL = ωL
The value of current will be maximum if sin (ωt – π/2) = 1
Therefore,
Im = Vm / XL ……(5)
Apply the value of Im from (5) and put in (4)
We get,
i = Im sin (ωt – π / 2)
This implies that the current in pure inductive ac circuits lags the voltage by 90 0.
This can be expressed in a waveform as,

 
If the voltage and current are at their peak value as a positive value, the power will also be positive.
Similarly, if the voltage and current are at a negative peak then the power will be negative. This is
because of the phase difference between them.

AC Circuit Containing Capacitor Only

This type of circuit includes a pure capacitor only. It will not affect the properties of resistance and
inductance. The capacitor will store electric power in the electric field. This is known as capacitance.
The electric field is developed across the plates of the capacitor when a voltage is applied across the
capacitor. Also, there will not be any current flows between them.
The circuit will be,

 
As we know, a capacitor includes two insulating plates which are separated by a dielectric medium.
Usually, a capacitor works as a storage device and it gets charged if the supply is on and it gets
discharged if the supply is off.
Let the voltage applied to the circuit be,
v = Vmsinωt ……(1)
Charge of the capacitor is,
q = Cv ……(2)
Then, current flow through the circuit will be,
i = dq / dt
Substituting the value of q in the above equation we get,
i = d (Cv) / dt ……(3)
Now substitute the value of v in (3), we get,
Where XC = 1/C which is capacitive inductance.
The value of current will be maximum if sin(ωt + π/2) = 1.
Then, the maximum value of current,
Im = Vm / XC
Substituting the value of Im in (4) we get,
i = Im sin (ωt + π / 2)
This implies that the current flowing through the capacitor leads the voltage by 90 0.
This can be expressed in a waveform as,
Alternating Voltages and Currents
Introduction
An alternating voltage is any voltage that varies in both magnitude and polarity
with respect to time. The voltage may vary in a regular, predictable manner, or
the voltage may vary in an irregular, nonrepetitive manner with respect to
time. In either case, the voltage is considered to be an alternating voltage.
The figure below shows an alternating voltage that varies in a regular manner
with respect to time.

A sawtooth waveform of voltage.

An alternating current is any current that varies in both magnitude and

direction. As with alternating voltages, there are no limitations on rate of
change or waveshape. An alternating current is simply a current that changes
magnitude and direction with time.
Alternating currents and voltages are widely used to distribute electric power.
However, the uses of alternating voltages and currents extend far beyond the
distribution of electric power. All electronic communication systems, electronic
computers, and electronic instrumentation systems require alternating
currents and voltages as well as direct voltages and currents. When
alternating voltages and currents supply electric power to operate other
devices, the AC (the notation "AC" is common usage to denote either an
alternating voltage or current or both) is usually produced by huge alternators
(AC generators) operated by power companies. Electronic devices may also
be used to develop AC voltages and currents. In this case, the source of the
alternating voltages and currents is a circuit called an oscillator. An oscillator
is an electronic circuit that converts DC into AC.

Frequency and Period

DC voltages and currents are easily defined in magnitude. Alternating
voltages and currents, however, can not be exactly defined in terms of
magnitude only. All alternating voltages and currents have three
characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and phase. This section is concerned
with the frequency characteristic of AC voltages and currents.
It was stated that any voltage or current that changes polarity or direction is
considered to be AC. However, the great majority of all AC voltages and
currents change in magnitude and direction at predetermined rates. That is,
an AC voltage rises to a maximum value, decreases from maximum to zero,
then rises to maximum value of the opposite polarity, and again decreases to
zero. It repeats this process continuously.
A cycle of alternating voltage or current consists of one complete transition
from some point on an AC waveform to the same point on the following AC
waveform. For example, one cycle of the AC waveform of the figure above
may be measured between points a and d, b and e, or c and f.
The number of cycles per second is defined as the frequency of an AC
voltage or current. For example, common power-line frequency in the United
States is 60 cycles per second (cps), while the frequency of a radio
broadcasting station may be 106 cps. Television stations operate at
frequencies on the order of 108 cps.
Some fundamental mathematical relationships can now be written relating
frequency to the time of one cycle. Since frequency equals cycles per second,
it follows that
where
T - time of one cycle (period), sec
f - frequency, cps or hertz (Hz)
When the time of one cycle is known, frequency is found by

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

A unique waveform for AC voltage or current is the sine wave. In preceding
sections, it has been stated that an alternating voltage or current may have
any waveshape. This is indeed true, but this very fact could make
mathematical analysis of alternating-current circuits very laborious. However,
it can be shown mathematically and demonstrated graphically that any
waveshape, no matter how irregular, consists of various combinations of
sinusoidal waveshapes. Therefore, the unique feature of the sine wave is that
it is basic to all AC voltages and currents!
In the sine wave, one complete cycle is represented by 360° or 2π radians.
Hence, if the period of a sine wave is 0.2 s, then each degree of the cycle
represents 0.556 ms. At any instant, the instantaneous value of the sine wave
equals the product of the maximum value of the sine wave and the sine of the
angle corresponding to time. The equation for a sine wave of voltage is

where θ is any angle.

The equation for a sine wave of current is written in a similar manner.

The figure below is a sine wave of voltage, showing the substitution of angular
measure in degrees and radians for time.
 Sine wave of voltage.

In addition to the graphic representation of a sine wave, like that in the figure
above, a sine wave may be represented by a radius vector, or phasor.
The phasor has a constant magnitude equal to the maximum value of the sine
wave, and the instantaneous value of the sine wave is the product of the
phasor and the sine of the angle between the phasor and the origin. The
phasor representation is extremely useful in adding and subtracting
alternating voltages and currents. The figure below illustrates phasor
representation for the sine wave of figure above.

Phasor representation of a sine wave of voltage showing instantaneous values at 28°,

70°, and 225°.
Discussion of phasor representation of sine waves leads logically to another
useful concept. Angular velocity is normally associated with rotating
machinery. However, a phasor representing a sine wave may be visualized as
rotating vector, and as such it too has angular velocity. As indicated in the
figure above, the positive direction of rotation is counterclockwise (ccw).
Velocity is the ratio of distance to time. The angular velocity of a sine wave is
the "distance" of one cycle, in radians, divided by the period of the sine wave.
Angular velocity is represented by lowercase omega (ω).

However, T = 1/f. If this value of T is substituted into the above equation, then

Equations for the sine wave of voltage and sine wave of current may be

rewritten in terms of the above equation. The angular velocity of a sine wave
is a constant, and the particular angle of a sine wave at any instant is a direct
function of time. Hence, if the angular velocity is multiplied by time in seconds,
the product is an angle in radians.

Equations for the sine wave of voltage and sine wave of current, when radian

measure is used, are written

Phase Angle and Phase Difference

It was noted that all AC voltages and currents have three characteristics;
frequency, amplitude, and phase. In this section, the phase characteristics of
a sine wave will be discussed.
 Voltage waveform.
In the equation of a sine wave, the independent variable is time. In both
representations of the sine wave, by graph or by phasor, an angular notation
has been substituted for time. It should be apparent from the equation of the
sine wave that all sinusoids have zero value at the time that the angular
equivalent of time is zero. It is conventional to represent a sine wave as
starting at 0°. However, it is equally permissible to consider a sine wave as
starting at any other point on its cycle. The figure above illustrates a sine wave
of voltage that is not zero at the start of its cycle.
When a sine wave is considered to start at some magnitude other than zero,
the fact must be indicated in the equation of the wave. The angular
displacement of a wave from 0° to the point on its cycle where the wave is
considered to begin is its phase angle. For example, in the figure above θ is
the phase angle of the wave.
The equation for the voltage waveform of figure above is written

The figure below illustrates a sine wave of current described by the equation
 Current waveform.
In AC circuits that contain capacitance, inductance, or both, the phase angles
of current and voltage can differ from one another. That is, the current in the
circuit may reach maximum or minimum at different times than the voltage.
This time difference between alternating quantities is called phase
difference and is expressed in degrees. Phase difference may also express
the time displacement between waves of different frequencies that are present
in the same circuit.
It should be apparent that the phase difference between sine waves of
different frequencies is constantly changing. However, it is often convenient to
express the phase difference between signals of different frequencies at some
particular instant in time. When alternating quantities of the same frequency
reach positive maxima (or any other convenient reference point on the cycle)
at the same instant, the quantities are said to be in phase: the phase
difference between them is 0°.
The figure below shows two phasors of the same frequency displaced from
each other by θ°. v1 is said to be leading v2 by θ° (counterclockwise rotation of
phasors, as noted earlier, is the positive direction).
 Two phasor quantities of the same frequency.

The equations for voltages v1 and v2 in the figure above are

Note that the phase difference between v1 and v2 is the sum of

angles β and α. It may be stated that v1 leads the reference axis by β degrees,
and v2 lags this same reference by α degrees. The figure below illustrates two
currents that are in phase with each other. Part A is the phasor representation
of these currents, and Part B shows the currents as sinusoids.

Two in-phase currents.

The Average Value of a Sine Wave
The average value of any current or voltage is the value that would be
indicated by a DC meter. This concept is of particular value in electronics,
since many voltages and currents are combinations of DC and sinusoids. The
concept of average values is of particular importance in rectifier circuits.
The average value of any curve is the area enclosed by the curve divided by
the base of the curve. The figure below shows one cycle of a rectangular
pulse of voltage, and it illustrates the average value of this pulse over one
cycle.

Average value of a pulse.

It is apparent that the average value of a sine wave over a complete cycle is
zero, since the average of one half of the cycle is exactly equal but opposite in
polarity to the average of the other half. The average value of a sine wave is
usually obtained by assuming that it has been rectified. That is, both halves of
the waveform are assumed to be positive. A rectified sine wave is shown in
the figure below.
 Rectified sine wave.

Calculation of the average value of a sine wave is accomplished with the

integral calculus. This process yields the average value of the curve from 0 to
π radians. This average value is also that of the sine wave over a full cycle
and it is frequently referred to as the average rectified value. The average
rectified value of voltage is

The average rectified value of a sine wave of current is

The Effective Value of a Sine Wave

The effective value of a current or voltage waveform is that value that will
dissipate the same power as a numerically equal DC current or voltage. For
example, an AC current of 2-amp effective value dissipates exactly the same
power as 2-amp DC. Note that no consideration is given to the waveshape of
the AC current; we simply state that an effective current of 2-amp AC
develops the same power as 2-amp DC. In short, the effective value is defined
in terms of power dissipation.
The effective value is frequently referred to as the root-mean-square (rms)
value. The effective values of a sine wave are
Note that lowercase letters are used to indicate instantaneous values of
current or voltage whenever the current or voltage is variable with time.
Definite values of current or voltage are indicated with capital letters (Vmax, Imax,
etc.).
Resistance in AC Circuits
Introduction
Generally, the waveforms for the alternating voltages and currents of a
number of electronic devices do not differ appreciably from a sinusoid.
Further, the nonsinusoidal waveforms can be separated into sinusoids for
purposes of analysis. Therefore, in all discussion of voltages and currents in
the next sections, the sinusoid will be used as the basis of mathematical
analysis.
In following sections, the effects of the properties of the electric circuit will be
examined. These circuit properties, or circuit parameters, are resistance,
inductance, and capacitance. It must be pointed out that it is impossible to
construct a purely resistive, purely inductive, or purely capacitive circuit. In
discussing pure resistance, pure inductance, or pure capacitance, we are
considering hypothetical circuits.

The Pure Resistance Circuit

Pure resistive circuit.

A sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistance as shown in the figure above.

The resulting time variations in the current and voltage waveforms are shown
in the figure below. From these waveforms, the following can be concluded:
1. Both waves are sinusoidal and have the same frequency.
2. The waves are in phase.

In-phase current and voltage.

The waveform relations of the figure above can be expressed mathematically.

The voltage applied to the resistance of the pure resistance circuit is

Applying Ohm's law at any instant,

where

The figure below shows two phasor diagrams. In one the current phasor and
voltage phasor are shown as maximum values. In the other, they are shown
as effective values. Since these revolving time phasors represent sinusoids, it
would be more proper to use maximum values. In practice, it is more
convenient to use effective values, and furthermore, the effective values are
those that would be indicated by traditional meter readings.
 Phasor diagram of maximum and effective values.

Ohm's law can thus be applied to the effective magnitudes of the phasor
current and phasor voltage. Conductance G can be used in the Ohm's-law
equations for the phasor current and voltage just as it is in DC circuits.
To demonstrate the Ohm's-law relations of AC current and voltage to a
resistance the following example is given.
Example 1: The voltage applied to the resistance of the pure resistance
circuit is v = 150 sin 377t. The resistance is 800 Ω. Calculate (1) the maximum
value of current, (2) the instantaneous current at t = 0.002 s, and (3) effective
value of current.
Solution:
1.

2. Calculating the instantaneous voltage when t = 0.002 s,

The instantaneous current is

The instantaneous current can also be calculated directly

3.

Also

The average power dissipated in a resistance is given by the equation

In this equation, voltage and current are given as effective values. It should be
noted here that V and I indicate effective values of AC voltage and current,
respectively, unless they are subscripted to indicate maximum or average
values. Cos θ is the power factor, and θ is the phase angle between current
and voltage. Since in a pure resistance circuit the current and voltage are in
phase, the angle θ = 0 and the cos θ = 1. The previous equation therefore
reduces to the equation for a purely resistive circuit
Inductance in AC Circuits
The Pure Inductance Circuit
Inductance was defined as the property of a circuit to oppose change in
current. This opposition results in induced EMF. The induced EMF is
proportional to the rate at which current is changing as well as the magnitude
of the inductance. This relationship can be given by the equation

If a sinusoidal current is flowing in the inductance shown in the figure below,

the induced voltage across the inductance can be plotted versus time.

Pure inductive circuit.

The plot of current in the figure below increases from time t0 to t1. The current
is increasing at a decreasing rate, and at time t1 the instantaneous rate of
change of current is zero. Therefore, vL is zero at time t1. From time t1 to t2 the
current is decreasing; the rate of change of current is negative and vL is
negative. At time t2, the rate of change of current is maximum, and thus vL is
maximum in the negative direction. At time t3, the rate of change of current is
zero, and thus vL is again zero. From t3 to t4, the current is increasing, the rate
of change is positive, and vL is positive, reaching maximum at t4, where the
rate of change is maximum.

The voltage-current relationship in a pure inductive circuit.

The maximum positive value of voltage occurs 90° ahead of the maximum
positive value of current. The current is said to be lagging the voltage by 90
degrees. This phase relationship can be derived mathematically by applying
the calculus.
From the previous equation, which is

where

by differentiation, di/dt is found.

but
Therefore

By the general form of a periodic function (i.e. Vm sin (ωt + θ)),

and

Since the ratio of volts to amperes is defined as opposition to current in ohms,

the quantity ωL is measured in ohms. The quantity ωL is called the inductive
reactance and is symbolized XL

If Vm = 1.414 V and Im = 1.414 I are substituted into the equation ωL = Vm / Im,

it is seen that the ratio of the effective values of voltage and current also
equals the inductive reactance

The reciprocal of inductive reactance is called inductive susceptance and is

given the symbol BL. The unit of inductive susceptance is the mho (or siemens
S) when the frequency is in hertz and the inductance is in henrys.

Example 1: An AC current with a frequency of 2 kHz and a maximum value of

0.15 A flows in a coil having 175 mH inductance. (1) Find the maximum
voltage developed across the inductance. (2) Find the effective value of the
voltage across the inductance. (3) Write the periodic functions representing
the voltage and current.
Solution:
1.

2.

The effective value of the voltage can also be found by first calculating the
effective value of the current

Then

3. If the current is taken as the reference,

The voltage is leading the current in an inductive circuit

Example 2: A voltage across an inductance is 40 V when the current is 120
mA. The frequency of current and voltage is 400 Hz. Find the inductance.
Solution: The magnitude of the inductive reactance can be found

The inductance can now be calculated.

The power relationship in an inductive circuit can be analyzed by writing the

equation for power with instantaneous values

Applying this equation to the figure above, we see that the instantaneous
power is positive from t0 to t1, negative from t1 to t2, positive from t2 to t3, and
negative from t3 to t4. The instantaneous power is plotted in the figure
below. Positive power indicates that energy is taken from the source,
and negative power that energy is returned to the source. Since over one
complete cycle, from t0 to t4, as much energy is returned as is taken from the
source, the net energy taken from the source is zero. Power over a complete
cycle is therefore zero. This supports the definition that inductance is the
property of a circuit to store energy in the form of a magnetic field. Thus, when
current is increasing in magnitude, the magnetic field is building up and
storing energy from the source. When current is decreasing in magnitude, the
magnetic field is collapsing and returning energy to the source.
 Power in a pure inductive circuit.

The net power is also given by the equation P = VI cos θ:

Capacitance in AC Circuits
The Pure Capacitance Circuit
A change in voltage across a capacitor results in a current that is proportional
to both the rate of voltage change and the capacitance. The relations are
given by the equation

Pure capacitive circuit.

A sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor in the circuit of the figure above.

The current is plotted versus time with reference to voltage v in the figure
below.
 Current leading voltage by 90° (π/2) — the current-voltage relationship in a pure
capacitive circuit.

The plot of voltage in the figure above increases from t0 to t1. The voltage is
increasing at a decreasing rate, and at t1 the rate of change of voltage is zero.
At time t1, the current must then be zero. From time t1 to t2, the voltage is
decreasing, and at t2 the voltage is changing at a maximum rate. The current
is negative from t1 to t3 and maximum negative at t2. At t3, the rate of change of
voltage is instantaneously zero, and therefore the current is zero. From t3 to t4,
the voltage is increasing at an increasing rate, and maximum instantaneous
rate of change occurs at t4. Therefore i is maximum at t4.
From the waveforms of figure above, it is seen that the maximum positive
current occurs 90 degrees ahead of the maximum positive voltage. The
current is said to be leading the voltage by 90° in a purely capacitive circuit.
This phase relationship is derived mathematically by applying the calculus.
Using the equation

and
By differentiation, dv/dt is found.

Therefore,

By the general form of a periodic function,

and

Since the ratio of volts to amperes is defined as opposition to current in ohms,

the quantity 1/ωC is in ohms. The quantity 1/ωC is called capacitive
reactance and is symbolized XC.

XC can be shown to be the ratio of effective values of current and voltage in

the same manner as was shown for XL in the previous section.

The reciprocal of capacitive reactance is called capacitive susceptance and is

symbolized BC. The unit of capacitive susceptance is the mho (or siemens S)
when the frequency is in Hz and the capacitance is in farads.
Example 1: A voltage having an effective value of 220 volts and a frequency
of 20 kHz is applied to an 0.08-μF capacitor. (1) Calculate the effective value
of the current. (2) Calculate the maximum value of the current. (3) Write the
periodic functions representing current and voltage.
Solution:
1.

2.

3. If the voltage is taken as a reference,

The current leads the voltage by 90° in a capacitive circuit.

These periodic functions can also be written with reference to the current.

With reference to the current, the voltage lags by 90°.

Example 2: When 250 volts is applied to a 0.05μF-capacitor, a current of 0.6
A is measured. Find the frequency.
Solution: The magnitude of XC can be found.

The frequency can now be calculated from

The power relation in a capacitive circuit can be analyzed with the

equation P=VI on the basis of instantaneous values. The product of v and i of
the figure above is plotted in the figure below. This is the same as was done in
the preceding section for instantaneous power in a pure inductive circuit. The
net power in a purely capacitive circuit is zero, as it was in the purely inductive
circuit.
 Power in a pure capacitive circuit.

This relationship is justified by considering that from t0 to t1 the voltage is

increasing, charge is being stored, and energy is being stored by the
capacitor. From t1 to t2, the voltage is decreasing, charge is returned by the
capacitor, and energy is returned to the source.
The net power is again given by the equation P = VI cos θ
Impedance and Admittance
Impedance is the general expression for opposition to current in alternating
current circuits. Impedance may be pure resistance or pure reactance, but
usually it is a combination of resistance and reactance. The symbol Z is used
for impedance, which is expressed in ohms. Impedance takes the general
phasor form

Impedance is shown on the complex plane in the figure below.

Impedance on the complex plane.

Impedance is the ratio of phasor voltage to phasor current in an AC circuit, as

shown by the equation below:
Equation above is the general Ohm's-law relationship for AC circuits, and the
equation can be handled algebraically in the usual way. It must be
remembered that computations involving phasors must be done as outlined in
the section about complex numbers.

Example 1: The impedance of the circuit of figure below is

Resistance and inductive reactance in series.

Example 2: The impedance of the circuit of figure below is

Resistance and capacitive reactance in series.

Admittance has the symbol Y and is defined as the reciprocal of impedance.

Admittance is expressed in mhos or siemens (symbol S).

Example 3: Calculate the impedance and admittance of the circuit of figure

below at a frequency of 150 Hz.
 Circuit for Example 3.

Solution:
Series RLC Resonant Circuit
It was shown that inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency,
while capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency. Since
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are in opposition to each other,
it can be seen that a circuit containing both inductance and capacitance will
have an impedance that varies with frequency. The circuit containing
inductance and capacitance appears capacitive over one range of frequencies
and inductive at other frequencies. At some frequency, the reactances will
exactly balance one another and the circuit will appear purely resistive. The
frequency at which an RLC circuit appears as a net resistance is referred to
as the resonant frequency. The frequency-dependent properties of the RLC
circuit can be used to select wanted signals or reject unwanted signals on the
basis of frequency. Tuning circuits, filter circuits, and a number of other types
of circuits employ the properties of resonant circuits.
 

Series R, L, and C circuit.

R, L, and C are connected in series as shown in the figure above. The

Kirchhoff voltage-loop equation is

Since current I is the common factor,

In order for the voltage phasor in the above equation to be at 0°, the sum of
the reactive drops must equal zero.

and    

Therefore    

The above equation states that when the inductive and capacitive reactance
of the series-RLC circuit are equal, the circuit appears purely resistive. When
the series-RLC circuit appears purely resistive, the circuit is said to be
in series resonance.
The frequency at which series resonance occurs can be determined from the
previous equation as a function of the reactive components L and C.
The series-resonant frequency fr is derived in the following manner.

The above equation can be used to determine the resonant frequency if the
elements of the series circuit are known. This is demonstrated in Example 1.
Example 1: The elements in the circuit of figure above are: L = 8 mH, C = 0.5
nF, R = 500 Ω, and V = 300∠0° V. Find (1) the resonant frequency, (2) the
current, and (3) the voltage across each component.
Solution:
1. Using the above equation,

2. The sum of the reactive voltages is zero at resonance. Therefore,

3. The voltage across each component can now be calculated using the
common current of Step 2.

It can be seen from Step 3 of Example 1 that the voltage drop across the
inductance and the capacitance is larger than the applied voltage V. The
energy supplied by the source is dissipated by the resistance, while the
capacitance and the inductance simply exchange energy.
At the resonant frequency, the impedance of a series-RLC circuit is purely
resistive and at a minimum. The current is therefore maximum at resonance.
As frequency is reduced below resonance, the capacitive reactance increases
and the inductive reactance decreases. The net reactance at frequencies
below resonant frequency is capacitive, and it increases in magnitude as the
frequency is further reduced below the resonant frequency.
The impedance of a circuit below resonance is the phasor sum of the
resistance and the net capacitive reactance. Since the reactive component of
the circuit is capacitive, the current leads the applied voltage by an increasing
angle as the frequency is decreased. The magnitude of the current decreases
as the frequency is decreased below resonance.
If frequency is increased above the resonant frequency, the inductive
reactance increases and the capacitive reactance decreases. The net
reactance above the resonant frequency is inductive, and it increases in
magnitude as the frequency increases. Impedance increases and current
decreases as the frequency increases above resonance. The current lags the
applied voltage by an increasing angle as the frequency is increased above
the resonant frequency.
Parallel RL Circuit

Parallel RL circuit.

In some respects the circuit of figure above is similar to the purely inductive
parallel circuit.
For instance, applied voltage V is still the quantity which is common to both
components and is therefore plotted in standard position in the phasor
diagram. Also the magnitude of the individual branch currents is determined
by the opposition (reactance) of the individual branches. The figure below
shows a composite diagram of waveforms and phasors. Since the phasor
diagram shows that the two branch currents are not in phase, it will be
necessary to use phasor addition in order to determine the total current.

Waveforms and phasors.

Example 1. Determine the phase angle, Zt, It, IR, IL, P in a parallel RL circuit
containing a 1.4 mH coil, a 25 Ω resistor, and a 10 V source operating at 4
kHz.
Solution: Determine the reactance of coil XL:

Determine current in branch one (IR):

Determine current in branch two (IL):

Total current may now be determined either graphically or mathematically. If a

phasor diagram is constructed to scale, a very close approximation of values
and angles may be obtained. To verify this It will be determined by both
methods.
The figure below illustrates the graphical method. The results show that It is
approximately 490 mA and It is lagging V by an angle (θ) of approximately
36°.
 Phasor analysis of RL circuit.

The phasor diagram approximation may be satisfactory for many applications.

For applications requiring greater accuracy It can be determined by use of the
following equations.
In a parallel circuit, the sum of the phasors of the currents must equal the total
current phasor.
For the parallel RL circuit

This value agrees very closely with the approximation made from the phasors.
Determine total impedance:

Determine the real power dissipated by the circuit:

Since at 4 kHz the inductive reactance (35.17 Ω) is higher than the resistance
(25 Ω), the current through the resistor will be greater than the current through
the inductor. Thus, the total current will be more resistive than reactive. If the
circuit is to be described as possessing a predominant characteristic, it would
be considered as resistive.
The value of reactance in an RL circuit is a variable dependent on frequency.
Therefore, the applied frequency is a factor in determining the magnitude and
phase of total current.
For every RL circuit there is a frequency that will make the value of the
reactance equal to the value of resistance. When the two values are equal,
the phase angle is equal to 45 degrees. If a change in frequency causes the
phase angle to increase, the inductive reactance must have decreased
permitting a greater amount of current to flow in that branch. If the angle is
less than 45 degrees, the greater percentage of the total current flows through
the resistive branch.
Parallel LC Resonant Circuit

Parallel LC circuit.

The ideal parallel resonant circuit is one that contains only inductance and
capacitance. Resistance and its effects are not considered in an ideal parallel
resonant circuit. One condition for parallel resonance is the application of that
frequency which will cause the inductive reactance to equal the capacitive
reactance. The formula used to determine the resonant frequency of a parallel
LC circuit is the same as the one used for a series circuit.

where:
fr - resonant frequency
L - inductance
C - capacitance
 Parallel LC circuit at resonance.

Example: If the circuit values are those shown in the figure above, the
resonant frequency may be computed as follows:

At the resonant frequency:

Determine XL:

Determine XC:

Determine IL:

Determine IC:

The total current is determined by addition of the two currents in rectangular

form:
Therefore, in an ideal resonant parallel circuit the total current (It) is zero. If
total current is zero then:

or: it may be said that the impedance approaches infinity.

At frequencies other than the natural resonant frequency of the circuit, XC will
not be equal to XL and some amount of current will be drawn from the source.
If the applied frequency is lower than the resonant frequency of the
circuit, XL will be smaller than XC and a lagging source current will result.
When the applied frequency is above the resonant frequency, XC is smaller
than XL and the source current leads the source voltage.