Unit 6

MEMORY
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
This storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of
a component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can
represent a data item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed
as a unit, which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each
4 computer.
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may
be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the
information in the form of computer words.
he following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

1 Kilobyte (KB)
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

Memory Locations and Addresses

Memory locations and addresses determine how the computer’s memory
is organized so that the user can efficiently store or retrieve information
from the computer. The computer’s memory is made of a silicon chip
which has millions of storage cell, where each storage cell is capable to
store a bit of information which value is either 0 or 1.
But the fact is, computer memory holds instructions and data. And a
single bit is very small to hold this information so bits are rarely used
individually. As a solution to this, the bits are grouped in fixed sizes of n
bits. The memory of the computer is organized in such a way that the
group of these n bits can be stored and retrieved easily by the computer
in a single operation.

The group of n bit is termed as word where n is termed as the word

length. The word length of the computer has evolved from 8, 16, 24, 32
to 64 bits. General-purpose computers nowadays have 32 to 64 bits. The
group of 8 bit is called a byte.

Now, whenever you want to store any instruction or data may it be of a byte
or a word you have to access a memory location. To access the memory
location either you must know the memory location by its unique name or it
is required to provide a unique address to each memory location.
The memory locations are addressed from 0 to 2K-1 i.e. a memory has
2K addressable locations. And thus the address space of the computer has
2K addresses. Let us try some suitable values for K.

210 = 1024 = 1K (Kilobyte)

220 = 1,048,576 = 1M (Megabyte)
230 = 1073741824 = 1G (Gigabyte)
240 = 1.0995116e+12 = 1T (Terabyte)

Memory Access Method

Data need to be accessed from the memory for various purposes.

There are several method to access memory as listed below:

• Sequential access
• Direct access
• Random access
• Associative access
Sequential Access Method
In sequential memory access method, the memory is accessed in linear
sequential way.
The time to access data in this type of method depends on the location of
the data.

Example of sequential access: Magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, optical

memory use sequential access method.
Random Access Method
In random access method, data from any location of the memory can be
accessed randomly.
The access to any location is not related with its physical location and is
independent of other locations.
There is a separate access mechanism for each location.

Example of random access: Semiconductor memories like RAM, ROM

use random access method.
Direct Access Method
Direct access method can be seen as combination of sequential access
method and random access method.
Magnetic hard disks contain many rotating storage tracks.
Here each tracks has its own read or write head and the tracks can be
accessed randomly. But access within each track is sequential.

Example of direct access: Memory devices such as magnetic hard disks.

Associative Access Method

Associative access method is a special type of random access method.
It enables comparison of desired bit locations within a word for a
specific match and to do this for all words simultaneously.
Thus based on portion of word's content , word is retrieved rather than
its address.

Example of associative access: Cache memory uses associative access

method.

Classification of Memory
The following figure represents the classification of memory:
Primary or Main Memory
Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that
communicates directly within the CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache
memory. Main memory is used to kept programs or data when the processor
is active to use them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the
processor first loads instructions or programs from secondary memory into
main memory, and then the processor starts execution. Accessing or executing
of data from primary memory is faster because it has a cache or register
memory that provides faster response, and it is located closer to the CPU. The
primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it is
not saved when a power failure occurs. It is costlier than secondary memory,
and the main memory capacity is limited as compared to secondary memory.

The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of main memory
accessed directly by the CPU. It is the hardware in a computer device to
temporarily store data, programs or program results. It is used to read/write
data in memory until the machine is working. It is volatile, which means if a
power failure occurs or the computer is turned off, the information stored
in RAM will be lost. All data stored in computer memory can be read or
accessed randomly at any time.

There are two types of RAM:

o SRAM
o DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for
the dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The
cell is made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and
the transistor is so small, requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a
DRAM chip can hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the
capacitor needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is
volatile. If the power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is

used for the dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-
bit information. The cell is made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor.
The size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small, requiring millions of
them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data than
an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor needs to be
continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile. If the
power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM

1. It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.

2. It is slower than SRAM
3. It holds a large amount of data
4. It is the combination of capacitor and transistor
5. It is less expensive as compared to SRAM
6. Less power consumption

SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to

store static data in the memory. It means to store data in SRAM remains active
as long as the computer system has a power supply. However, data is lost in
SRAM when power failures have occurred.

Characteristics of Static Ram

1. It does not require to refresh.

2. It is faster than DRAM
3. It is expensive.
4. High power consumption
5. Longer life
6. Large size
7. Uses as a cache memory

Advantages of RAM

o It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

 o It requires less power to operate.
o Program loads much faster
o More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.
o Perform read and write operations.
o The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB,
etc.

Disadvantages of RAM

o Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.

o Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.
o It is expensive than ROM
o It is unreliable as compared to ROM
o The Size of RAM is limited.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used
to permanently store information inside a chip. It is a read-only memory that
can only read stored information, data or programs, but we cannot write or
modify anything. A ROM contains some important instructions or program
data that are required to start or boot a computer. It is a non-
volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be lost even
when the power is turned off or the system is shut down.
Types of ROM

There are five types of Read Only Memory:

1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data
is pre-configured by the integrated circuit manufacture at the time of
manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction stored within the
MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.
2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any
type of information or program only once. It means it is the empty
PROM chip in which the user can write the desired content or program
only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM burner device;
after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.
3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased
and re-programmed only once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-
volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no power supply and
 can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we
want to erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to
pass the ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase the data; after that, the
data is re-created in EPROM.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only
memory used to erase stored data using a high voltage electrical charge
and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory whose data
cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the
stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times,
and the data erase one byte at a time.
5. Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written
or programmed in small units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an
EEPROM form of computer memory, and the contents or data cannot be
lost when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer data
between the computer and digital devices.

Advantages of ROM

1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even

power is turned off.
2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.
3. Data can be stored permanently.
4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.
5. These cannot be changed accidently
6. It is cheaper than RAM.
7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.
8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.
Disadvantages of ROM

1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing

data.
2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.
3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high
charge of ultraviolet light.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of
data. Secondary memory is also known as external memory that representing
the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and DVDs) on
which the computer data and program can be saved on a long term basis.
However, it is cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary
memory, secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by the CPU. Instead
of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM (Random Access
Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and update the data.
Secondary memory devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk and
floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.

Features of Secondary Memory

o Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.
o Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.
o It can store large collections of different types, such as audio, video,
pictures, text, software, etc.
o All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be lost because it is a
permanent storage area; even the power is turned off.
o It has various optical and magnetic memories to store data.

Types of Secondary Memory

The following are the types of secondary memory devices:
Hard Disk

A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a non-volatile disk

that permanently stores data, programs, and files, and cannot lose store data
when the computer's power source is switched off. Typically, it is located
internally on computer's motherboard that stores and retrieves data using one
or more rigid fast rotating disk platters inside an air-sealed casing. It is a large
storage device, found on every computer or laptop for permanently storing
installed software, music, text documentation, videos, operating system, and
data until the user did not delete.

Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible

magnetic coating disks for holding electronic data such as computer files. It is
also known as Floppy Diskette that comes in three sizes like 8 inches, 5.5
inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data of a floppy disk can be accessed
through the floppy disk drive. Furthermore, it is the only way through a new
program installed on a computer or backup of the information. However, it is
the oldest type of portable storage device, which can store data up to 1.44
MB. Since most programs were larger, that required multiple floppy diskettes
to store large amounts of data. Therefore, it is not used due to very low
memory storage.
CD (Compact Disc)

A CD is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device
used to store various data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other
information useful to a computer. The CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height,
which can store approximately 783 MB of data size. It uses laser light to read and write
data from the CDs.

DVD Drive/Disc

DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital Video Display or
Digital Versatile Disc. It has the same size as a CD but can store a larger
amount of data than a compact disc. It was developed in 1995 by Sony,
Panasonic, Toshiba and Philips four electronics companies. DVD drives are
divided into three types, such as DVD ROM (Read Only Memory), DVD
R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or Erasable). It can store multiple
data formats like audio, videos, images, software, operating system, etc. The
storing capacity of data in DVD is 4.7 GB to 17 GB.

Pen Drive

A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also
known as a USB flash drive. It is commonly used to store and transfer the data
connected to a computer using a USB port. It does not have any moveable
part to store the data; it uses an integrated circuit chip that stores the data. It
allows the users to store and transfer data like audio, videos, images, etc. from
one computer to any USB pen drive. The storing capacity of pen drives from
64 MB to 128 GB or more.
Cache Memory

It is a small-sized chip-based computer memory that lies between the CPU

and the main memory. It is a faster, high performance and temporary memory
to enhance the performance of the CPU. It stores all the data and instructions
that are often used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the access time of data
from the main memory. It is faster than the main memory, and sometimes, it is
also called CPU memory because it is very close to the CPU chip.
Memory module
In computing, a memory module or RAM (random-access memory)
stick is a printed circuit board on which memory integrated circuits are
mounted.[1] Memory modules permit easy installation and replacement
in electronic systems, especially computers such as personal
computers, workstations, and servers

Types of memory module include:

• SIMM, a single in-line memory module

• DIMM, dual in-line memory module
DIMM and SIMM are two major types of random-access memory
standards for personal computers. DIMM is an acronym for “dual in-
line memory module,” while SIMM stands for “single in-line memory
module." The naming of each type of RAM refers to the specific way in
which the memory is packaged.

Background

SIMM is the older RAM memory module standard. Wang Laboratories

developed it in 1983, and it was used on PCs throughout the 1980s and
1990s. DIMM came along in the 2000s to address SIMM limitations
that arose with advancing technology.

Pins

DIMM and SIMM are manufactured with pins which enable them to
connect to the PC’s motherboard. The typical SIMM module has 72
pins, while the most common pin configuration of the DIMM module is
168 pins. Other DIMM configurations include 100, 144, 172, 184, 204,
214 and 240 pins.

Data

The SIMM pins only support 32-bit data. Although sufficient on early
PCs, the emergence of Synchronous DRAM, or SDRAM, meant that
memory modules now required a 64-bit data connection to the
motherboard. To address the doubled data transfer amount, two SIMM
modules were installed instead of one. However, since DIMM supports
64-bit data transfer, it steadily replaced SIMM; one DIMM can be
installed instead of two SIMM modules.
Size

The typical SIMM module measures 4.25 inches in length and an inch
in width. By comparison, due to the several pin configurations
available, DIMM has a physical measurement range of 1.67 to 5.25
inches in length and 1 to 1.75 inches in width.

Application

SIMM was applied on computers with Intel 486 or early Pentium

processors. As of publication, DIMM has supplanted SIMM as the
memory module standard. DIMM is not just limited to PCs -- it can be
applied on a variety of electronic products that include printers,
netbooks and networking hardware.