Volleyball

Volleyball is a t eam sport in which t wo t eams of six players are separat ed by a net . Each
t eam t ries t o score point s by grounding a ball on t he ot her t eam's court under organized
rules.[1] It has been a part of t he official program of t he Summer Olympic Games since Tokyo
1964. Beach volleyball was int roduced t o t he programme at t he At lant a 1996. The adapt ed
version of volleyball at t he Summer Paralympic Games is sit t ing volleyball.
 Volleyball

Typical volleyball action.

Highest governing body FIVB

First played 1895, Holyoke, Massachusetts, United States

Characteristics

Contact None

Team members 6

Mixed-sex Single

Type Team sport, Net sport

Equipment Volleyball

Glossary Glossary of volleyball

Presence

Country or region Worldwide

Olympic 1964

The complet e set of rules is ext ensive,[2] but play essent ially proceeds as follows: a player
on one of t he t eams begins a 'rally' by serving t he ball (t ossing or releasing it and t hen hit t ing
it wit h a hand or arm), from behind t he back boundary line of t he court , over t he net , and int o
t he receiving t eam's court .[3] The receiving t eam must not let t he ball be grounded wit hin
t heir court . The t eam may t ouch t he ball up t o t hree t imes t o ret urn t he ball t o t he ot her side
of t he court , but individual players may not t ouch t he ball t wice consecut ively.[3] Typically,
t he first t wo t ouches are used t o set up for an at t ack. An at t ack is an at t empt t o direct t he
ball back over t he net in such a way t hat t he t eam receiving t he ball is unable t o pass t he ball
and cont inue t he rally, t hus, losing t he point . The t eam t hat wins t he rally is awarded a point
and serves t he ball t o st art t he next rally. A few of t he most common fault s include:
 causing t he ball t o t ouch t he ground or floor out side t he opponent s' court or wit hout first
passing over t he net ;

cat ching and t hrowing t he ball;

double hit : t wo consecut ive cont act s wit h t he ball made by t he same player;

four consecut ive cont act s wit h t he ball made by t he same t eam;

net foul: t ouching t he net during play;

foot fault : t he foot crosses over t he boundary line when serving or under t he net when a
front row player is t rying t o keep t he ball in play.

The ball is usually played wit h t he hands or arms, but players can legally st rike or push (short
cont act ) t he ball wit h any part of t he body.

A number of consist ent t echniques have evolved in volleyball, including spiking and blocking
(because t hese plays are made above t he t op of t he net , t he vert ical jump is an at hlet ic skill
emphasized in t he sport ) as well as passing, setting, and specialized player posit ions and
offensive and defensive st ruct ures.[4]

History

Origins

William G. Morgan, c. 1915

In December 1895,[5] in Holyoke, Massachuset t s (Unit ed St at es), William G. Morgan, a YMCA
physical educat ion direct or, creat ed a new game called Mintonette, a name derived from t he
game of badmint on,[6] as a past ime t o be played (preferably) indoors and by any number of
players. The game t ook some of it s charact erist ics from ot her sport s such as baseball, t ennis
and handball.[7] Anot her indoor sport , basket ball, was cat ching on in t he area, having been
invent ed just t en miles (sixt een kilomet res) away in t he cit y of Springfield, Massachuset t s,
only four years before. Mint onet t e was designed t o be an indoor sport , less rough t han
basket ball, for older members of t he YMCA, while st ill requiring a bit of at hlet ic effort .

The first rules, writ t en down by William G. Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) high, a
25 ft × 50 ft (7.6 m × 15.2 m) court , and any number of players. A mat ch was composed of
nine innings wit h t hree serves for each t eam in each inning, and no limit t o t he number of ball
cont act s for each t eam before sending t he ball t o t he opponent s' court . In case of a serving
error, a second t ry was allowed. Hit t ing t he ball int o t he net was considered a foul (wit h loss
of t he point or a side-out )—except in t he case of t he first -t ry serve.

Aft er an observer, Alfred Halst ead, not iced t he volleying nat ure of t he game at it s first
exhibit ion mat ch in 1896, played at t he Int ernat ional YMCA Training School (now called
Springfield College), t he game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as
t wo words: "volley ball "). Volleyball rules were slight ly modified by t he Int ernat ional YMCA
Training School and t he game spread around t he count ry t o various YMCAs.[8][9]

In t he early 1900s Spalding, t hrough it s publishing company American Sport s Publishing

Company, produced books wit h complet e inst ruct ion and rules for t he sport .[10]

Refinements and later developments

Japanese American women playing volleyball, Manzanar internment camp, California, c. 1943
The first official ball used in volleyball is disput ed; some sources say Spalding creat ed t he
first official ball in 1896, while ot hers claim it was creat ed in 1900.[11][12][13] The rules evolved
over t ime: in 1916, in t he Philippines, t he skill and power of t he set and spike had been
int roduced, and four years lat er a "t hree hit s" rule and a rule against hit t ing from t he back row
were est ablished. In 1917, t he game was changed from requiring 21 point s t o win t o a smaller
15 point s t o win. In 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were dist ribut ed by t he American
Expedit ionary Forces t o t heir t roops and allies, which sparked t he growt h of volleyball in new
count ries.[11]

The first count ry out side t he Unit ed St at es t o adopt volleyball was Canada in 1900.[11] An
int ernat ional federat ion, t he Fédérat ion Int ernat ionale de Volleyball (FIVB), was founded in
1947, and t he first World Championships were held in 1949 for men and 1952 for women.[14]
The sport is now popular in Brazil, in Europe (where especially It aly, t he Net herlands, and
count ries from East ern Europe have been major forces since t he lat e 1980s), in Russia, and in
ot her count ries including China and t he rest of Asia, as well as in t he Unit ed St at es.[8][9][14]

A nudist/naturist volleyball game at the S unny Trails Club during the 1958 Canadian S unbathing Association (CS A)
convention in British Columbia, Canada

Beach volleyball, a variat ion of t he game played on sand and wit h only t wo players per t eam,
became a FIVB-endorsed variat ion in 1987 and was added t o t he Olympic program at t he
1996 Summer Olympics.[11][14] Volleyball is also a sport at t he Paralympics managed by t he
World Organizat ion Volleyball for Disabled.

Nudist s were early adopt ers of t he game wit h regular organized play in clubs as early as t he
lat e 1920s.[15][16] By t he 1960s, a volleyball court had become st andard in almost all
nudist /nat urist clubs.[17]

Volleyball in the Olympics

Volleyball has been part of t he Summer Olympics program for bot h men and women
consist ent ly since 1964.

Rules of the game

Volleyball court

The court dimensions

A volleyball court is 9 m × 18 m (29.5 ft × 59.1 ft ), divided int o equal square halves by a net
wit h a widt h of one met er (39.4 in).[18] The t op of t he net is 2.43 m (7 ft 1111⁄16 in) above t he
cent er of t he court for men's compet it ion, and 2.24 m (7 ft 43⁄16 in) for women's compet it ion,
varied for vet erans and junior compet it ions.[3]

The minimum height clearance for indoor volleyball court s is 7 m (23.0 ft ), alt hough a
clearance of 8 m (26.2 ft ) is recommended.[18]

A line 3 m (9.8 ft ) from and parallel t o t he net is considered t he "at t ack line". This "3 met er"
(or "10-foot ") line divides t he court int o "back row" and "front row" areas (also back court and
front court ).[18] These are in t urn divided int o 3 areas each: t hese are numbered as follows,
st art ing from area "1", which is t he posit ion of t he serving player:
Rotation pattern

Aft er a t eam gains t he serve (also known as siding out ), it s members must rot at e in a
clockwise direct ion, wit h t he player previously in area "2" moving t o area "1" and so on, wit h
t he player from area "1" moving t o area "6".[3] Each player rot at es only one t ime aft er t he
t eam gains possession of t he service; t he next t ime each player rot at es will be aft er t he
ot her t eam wins possession of t he ball and loses t he point .[18]

The t eam court s are surrounded by an area called t he free zone which is a minimum of 3
met ers wide and which t he players may ent er and play wit hin aft er t he service of t he ball.[19]
All lines denot ing t he boundaries of t he t eam court and t he at t ack zone are drawn or paint ed
wit hin t he dimensions of t he area and are t herefore a part of t he court or zone. If a ball
comes in cont act wit h t he line, t he ball is considered t o be "in". An ant enna is placed on each
side of t he net perpendicular t o t he sideline and is a vert ical ext ension of t he side boundary
of t he court . A ball passing over t he net must pass complet ely bet ween t he ant ennae (or
t heir t heoret ical ext ensions t o t he ceiling) wit hout cont act ing t hem.[3]

The ball

FIVB regulat ions st at e t hat t he ball must be spherical, made of leat her or synt het ic leat her,
have a circumference of 65–67 cm (26–26 in), a weight of 260–280 g (9.2–9.9 oz) and an
int erior air pressure of 0.30–0.325 kg/cm2 (4.26 t o 4.61 psi)(294.3
t o 318.82 mbar or hPa).[20]
Ot her governing bodies have similar regulat ions.

Gameplay

White is on the attack while red attempts to block.

Each t eam consist s of six players.[18] To get play st art ed, a t eam is chosen t o serve by coin
t oss. A player from t he serving t eam t hrows t he ball int o t he air and at t empt s t o hit t he ball
so it passes over t he net on a course such t hat it will land in t he opposing t eam's court (t he
serve).[18] The opposing t eam must use a combinat ion of no more t han t hree cont act s wit h
t he volleyball t o ret urn t he ball t o t he opponent 's side of t he net .[18] These cont act s usually
consist first of t he bump or pass so t hat t he ball's t raject ory is aimed t owards t he player
designat ed as t he setter; second of t he set (usually an over-hand pass using wrist s t o push
finger-t ips at t he ball) by t he set t er so t hat t he ball's t raject ory is aimed t owards a spot
where one of t he players designat ed as an attacker can hit it , and t hird by t he attacker who
spikes (jumping, raising one arm above t he head and hit t ing t he ball so it will move quickly
down t o t he ground on t he opponent 's court ) t o ret urn t he ball over t he net .[3] The t eam wit h
possession of t he ball t hat is t rying t o at t ack t he ball as described is said t o be on offence.

The t eam on defence at t empt s t o prevent t he at t acker from direct ing t he ball int o t heir
court : players at t he net jump and reach above t he t op (and if possible, across t he plane) of
t he net t o block t he at t acked ball.[3] If t he ball is hit around, above, or t hrough t he block, t he
defensive players arranged in t he rest of t he court at t empt t o cont rol t he ball wit h a dig
(usually a fore-arm pass of a hard-driven ball). Aft er a successful dig, t he t eam t ransit ions t o
offence.
Buddhist monks play volleyball in the Himalayan state of S ikkim, India.

The game cont inues in t his manner, rallying back and fort h unt il t he ball t ouches t he court
wit hin t he boundaries or unt il an error is made.[18] The most frequent errors t hat are made are
eit her t o fail t o ret urn t he ball over t he net wit hin t he allowed t hree t ouches, or t o cause t he
ball t o land out side t he court .[18] A ball is "in" if any part of it t ouches t he inside of a t eam's
court or a sideline or end-line, and a st rong spike may compress t he ball enough when it lands
t hat a ball which at first appears t o be going out may act ually be in. Players may t ravel well
out side t he court t o play a ball t hat has gone over a sideline or end-line in t he air.

Ot her common errors include a player t ouching t he ball t wice in succession, a player
"cat ching" t he ball, a player t ouching t he net while at t empt ing t o play t he ball, or a player
penet rat ing under t he net int o t he opponent 's court . There are a large number of ot her errors
specified in t he rules, alt hough most of t hem are infrequent occurrences. These errors
include back-row or libero players spiking t he ball or blocking (back-row players may spike t he
ball if t hey jump from behind t he at t ack line), players not being in t he correct posit ion when
t he ball is served, at t acking t he serve in t he front court and above t he height of t he net , using
anot her player as a source of support t o reach t he ball, st epping over t he back boundary line
when serving, t aking more t han 8 seconds t o serve,[21] or playing t he ball when it is above t he
opponent 's court .

Scoring

S corer's table just before a game

A point is scored when t he ball cont act s t he floor wit hin t he court boundaries or when an error
is made: when t he ball st rikes one t eam's side of t he court , t he ot her t eam gains a point ; and
when an error is made, t he t eam t hat did not make t he error is awarded a point , in eit her case
paying no regard t o whet her t hey served t he ball or not . If any part of t he ball hit s t he line,
t he ball is count ed as in t he court . The t eam t hat won t he point serves for t he next point . If
t he t eam t hat won t he point served in t he previous point , t he same player serves again. If t he
t eam t hat won t he point did not serve t he previous point , t he players of t he t eam acquiring
t he serve rot at e t heir posit ion on t he court in a clockwise manner. The game cont inues, wit h
t he first t eam t o score 25 point s by a t wo-point margin awarded t he set . Mat ches are best -
of-five set s and t he fift h set , if necessary, is usually played t o 15 point s. (Scoring differs
bet ween leagues, t ournament s, and levels; high schools somet imes play best -of-t hree t o 25;
in t he NCAA mat ches are played best -of-five t o 25 as of t he 2008 season.)[22]

Before 1999, point s could be scored only when a t eam had t he serve (side-out scoring) and all
set s went up t o only 15 point s. The FIVB changed t he rules in 1999 (wit h t he changes being
compulsory in 2000) t o use t he current scoring syst em (formerly known as rally point system),
primarily t o make t he lengt h of t he mat ch more predict able and t o make t he game more
spect at or- and t elevision-friendly.

The final year of side-out scoring at t he NCAA Division I Women's Volleyball Championship
was 2000. Rally point scoring debut ed in 2001,[23] and games were played t o 30 point s
t hrough 2007. For t he 2008 season, games were renamed "set s" and reduced t o 25 point s t o
win. Most high schools in t he U.S. changed t o rally scoring in 2003,[24][25][26] and several st at es
implement ed it t he previous year on an experiment al basis.[27]

Libero

The libero player was int roduced int ernat ionally in 1998,[28] and made it s debut for NCAA
compet it ion in 2002.[29] The libero is a player specialized in defensive skills: t he libero must
wear a cont rast ing jersey color from t heir t eammat es and cannot block or at t ack t he ball
when it is ent irely above net height . When t he ball is not in play, t he libero can replace any
back-row player, wit hout prior not ice t o t he officials. This replacement does not count
against t he subst it ut ion limit each t eam is allowed per set , alt hough t he libero may be
replaced only by t he player whom he or she replaced. Most U.S. high schools added t he libero
posit ion from 2003 t o 2005.[25][30]
The modern-day libero oft en t akes on t he role of a second set t er. When t he set t er digs t he
ball, t he libero is t ypically responsible for t he second ball and set s t o t he front row at t acker.
The libero may funct ion as a set t er only under cert ain rest rict ions. To make an overhand set ,
t he libero must be st anding behind (and not st epping on) t he 3-met er line; ot herwise, t he ball
cannot be at t acked above t he net in front of t he 3-met er line. An underhand pass is allowed
from any part of t he court .

The libero is, generally, t he most skilled defensive player on t he t eam. There is also a libero
t racking sheet , where t he referees or officiat ing t eam must keep t rack of whom t he libero
subs in and out for. Under FIVB (Federat ion Int ernat ionale de Volleyball) rules, t wo liberos are
designat ed at t he beginning of t he play, only one of whom can be on t he court at any t ime.

Furt hermore, a libero is not allowed t o serve, according t o int ernat ional rules. NCAA rules for
bot h men and women differ on t his point ; a 2004 rule change allows t he libero t o serve, but
only in a specific rot at ion. That is, t he libero can only serve for one person, not for all of t he
people for whom he or she goes in. That rule change was also applied t o high school and junior
high play soon aft er.

Recent rule changes

Ot her rule changes enact ed in 2000 include allowing serves in which t he ball t ouches t he net ,
as long as it goes over t he net int o t he opponent s' court . Also, t he service area was expanded
t o allow players t o serve from anywhere behind t he end line but st ill wit hin t he t heoret ical
ext ension of t he sidelines. Ot her changes were made t o light en up calls on fault s for carries
and double-t ouches, such as allowing mult iple cont act s by a single player ("double-hit s") on a
t eam's first cont act provided t hat t hey are a part of a single play on t he ball.

In 2008, t he NCAA changed t he minimum number of point s needed t o win any of t he first four
set s from 30 t o 25 for women's volleyball (men's volleyball remained at 30 for anot her t hree
years, swit ching t o 25 in 2011). If a fift h (deciding) set is reached, t he minimum required score
remains at 15. In addit ion, t he word "game" is now referred t o as "set ".[22]

The Official Volleyball Rules are prepared and updat ed every few years by t he FIVB's Rules of
t he Game and Refereeing Commission.[31] The lat est edit ion is usually available on t he FIVB's
websit e.[2]

Skills

Compet it ive t eams mast er six basic skills: serve, pass, set , at t ack, block and dig.[3] Each of
t hese skills comprises a number of specific t echniques t hat have been int roduced over t he
years and are now considered st andard pract ice in high-level volleyball.

Serve

A player making a jump serve

A float serve

A player st ands behind t he inline and serves t he ball, in an at t empt t o drive it int o t he
opponent 's court . The main object ive is t o make it land inside t he court ; it is also desirable t o
set t he ball's direct ion, speed and accelerat ion so t hat it becomes difficult for t he receiver t o
handle it properly.[3] A serve is called an "ace" when t he ball lands direct ly ont o t he court or
t ravels out side t he court aft er being t ouched by an opponent ; when t he only player on t he
server's t eam t o t ouch t he ball is t he server.
In cont emporary volleyball, many t ypes of serves are employed:

Underhand: a serve in which t he player st rikes t he ball below t he waist inst ead of t ossing it
up and st riking it wit h an overhand t hrowing mot ion. Underhand serves are considered very
easy t o receive and are rarely employed in high-level compet it ions.[32]

Sky ball serve: a specific t ype of underhand serve occasionally used in beach volleyball,
where t he ball is hit so high it comes down almost in a st raight line. This serve was invent ed
and employed almost exclusively by t he Brazilian t eam in t he early 1980s and is now
considered out dat ed. During t he 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, however, t he sky
ball serve was ext ensively played by It alian beach volleyball player Adrian Carambula. In
Brazil, t his serve is called Jornada nas Estrelas (Star Trek).[33]

Topspin: an overhand serve where t he player t osses t he ball high and hit s it wit h a wrist
snap, giving it t opspin which causes it t o drop fast er t han it would ot herwise and helps
maint ain a st raight flight pat h. Topspin serves are generally hit hard and aimed at a specific
ret urner or part of t he court . St anding t opspin serves are rarely used above t he high school
level of play.[32]

Float : an overhand serve where t he ball is hit wit h no spin so t hat it s pat h becomes
unpredict able, akin t o a knuckleball in baseball.[32]

Jump serve: an overhand serve where t he ball is first t ossed high in t he air, t hen t he player
makes a t imed approach and jumps t o make cont act wit h t he ball, hit t ing it wit h much pace
and t opspin. This is t he most popular serve among college and professional t eams.[32]

Jump float : an overhand serve where t he ball is t ossed high enough t hat t he player may
jump before hit t ing it similarly t o a st anding float serve. The ball is t ossed lower t han a
t opspin jump serve, but cont act is st ill made while in t he air. This serve is becoming more
popular among college and professional players because it has a cert ain unpredict abilit y in
it s flight pat t ern.[32]

Pass

A player making a forearm pass or bump

Also called recept ion, t he pass is t he at t empt by a t eam t o properly handle t he opponent 's
serve or any form of at t ack. Proper handling includes not only prevent ing t he ball from
t ouching t he court but also making it reach t he posit ion where t he set t er is st anding quickly
and precisely.[3]

The skill of passing involves fundament ally t wo specific t echniques: underarm pass, or bump,
where t he ball t ouches t he inside part of t he joined forearms or plat form, at waist line; and
overhand pass, where it is handled wit h t he fingert ips, like a set , above t he head.[3] Eit her are
accept able in professional and beach volleyball; however, t here are much t ight er regulat ions
on t he overhand pass in beach volleyball. When a player passes a ball t o t heir set t er, it 's ideal
t hat t he ball does not have a lot of spin t o make it easier for t he set t er.

Set

Jump set

The set is usually t he second cont act t hat a t eam makes wit h t he ball.[3] The main goal of
set t ing is t o put t he ball in t he air in such a way t hat it can be driven by an at t ack int o t he
opponent 's court .[3] The set t er coordinat es t he offensive movement s of a t eam, and is t he
player who ult imat ely decides which player will act ually at t ack t he ball.
As wit h passing, one may dist inguish bet ween an overhand and a bump set . Since t he former
allows for more cont rol over t he speed and direct ion of t he ball, t he bump is used only when
t he ball is so low it cannot be properly handled wit h fingert ips, or in beach volleyball where
rules regulat ing overhand set t ing are more st ringent . In t he case of a set , one also speaks of
a front or back set , meaning whet her t he ball is passed in t he direct ion t he set t er is facing or
behind t he set t er. There is also a jump set t hat is used when t he ball is t oo close t o t he net .
In t his case, t he set t er usually jumps off t heir right foot st raight up t o avoid going int o t he
net . The set t er usually st ands about ⅔ of t he way from t he left t o t he right of t he net and
faces t he left (t he larger port ion of net t hat t he set t er can see).

Somet imes a set t er refrains from raising t he ball for a t eammat e t o perform an at t ack and
t ries t o play it direct ly ont o t he opponent 's court . This movement is called a "dump".[34] This
can only be performed when t he set t er is in t he front row, ot herwise it const it ut es an illegal
back court at t ack. The most common dumps are t o 't hrow' t he ball behind t he set t er or in
front of t he set t er t o zones 2 and 4. More experienced set t ers t oss t he ball int o t he deep
corners or spike t he ball on t he second hit .

As wit h a set or an overhand pass, t he set t er/passer must be careful t o t ouch t he ball wit h
bot h hands at t he same t ime.[3] If one hand is not iceably lat e t o t ouch t he ball t his could
result in a less effect ive set , as well as t he referee calling a 'double hit ' and giving t he point
t o t he opposing t eam.

Attack

A S panish player, #18 in red outfit, about to spike towards the Portuguese field, whose players try to block the way

The at t ack, also known as t he spike, is usually t he t hird cont act a t eam makes wit h t he ball.[3]
The object of at t acking is t o handle t he ball so t hat it lands on t he opponent 's court and
cannot be defended.[3] A player makes a series of st eps (t he "approach"), jumps, and swings at
t he ball.

Ideally, t he cont act wit h t he ball is made at t he apex of t he hit t er's jump. At t he moment of
cont act , t he hit t er's arm is fully ext ended above t heir head and slight ly forward, making t he
highest possible cont act while maint aining t he abilit y t o deliver a powerful hit . The hit t er uses
arm swing, wrist snap, and a rapid forward cont ract ion of t he ent ire body t o drive t he ball.[3] A
'bounce' is a slang t erm for a very hard/loud spike t hat follows an almost st raight t raject ory
st eeply downward int o t he opponent 's court and bounces very high int o t he air. A "kill" is t he
slang t erm for an at t ack t hat is not ret urned by t he ot her t eam t hus result ing in a point .

Cont emporary volleyball comprises a number of at t acking t echniques:[35]

Backcourt (or back row): an at t ack performed by a back-row player. The player must jump
from behind t he 3-met er line before making cont act wit h t he ball, but may land in front of
t he 3-met er line. A Pipe At t ack is when t he cent er player in t he back row at t acks t he ball.

Line and Cross-court Shot : refers t o whet her t he ball flies in a st raight t raject ory parallel t o
t he sidelines, or crosses t hrough t he court in an angle. A cross-court shot wit h a very
pronounced angle, result ing in t he ball landing near t he 3-met er line, is called a cut shot .

Dip/Dink/Tip/Cheat /Dump: t he player does not t ry t o make a hit , but t ouches t he ball
light ly, so t hat it lands on an area of t he opponent 's court t hat is not being covered by t he
defence.

Tool/Wipe/Block-abuse: t he player does not t ry t o make a hard spike, but hit s t he ball so
t hat it t ouches t he opponent 's block and t hen bounces off-court .

Off-speed hit : t he player does not hit t he ball hard, reducing it s speed and t hus confusing
t he opponent 's defence.

Quick hit /"One": an at t ack (usually by t he middle blocker) where t he approach and jump
begin before t he set t er cont act s t he ball. The set (called a "quick set ") is placed only
slight ly above t he net and t he ball is st ruck by t he hit t er almost immediat ely aft er leaving
t he set t er's hands. Quick at t acks are oft en effect ive because t hey isolat e t he middle
blocker t o be t he only blocker on t he hit .

Slide: a variat ion of t he quick hit t hat uses a low backset . The middle hit t er st eps around
t he set t er and hit s from behind him or her.

Double quick hit /"St ack"/"Tandem": a variat ion of quick hit where t wo hit t ers, one in front
and one behind t he set t er or bot h in front of t he set t er, jump t o perform a quick hit at t he
same t ime. It can be used t o deceive opposit e blockers and free a fourt h hit t er at t acking
from back-court , maybe wit hout block at all.
Block

Three players performing a block (a.k.a. triple block)

Blocking refers t o t he act ions t aken by players st anding at t he net t o st op or alt er an

opponent 's at t ack.[3]

A block t hat is aimed at complet ely st opping an at t ack, t hus making t he ball remain in t he
opponent 's court , is called offensive. A well-execut ed offensive block is performed by
jumping and reaching t o penet rat e wit h one's arms and hands over t he net and int o t he
opponent 's area.[3] It requires ant icipat ing t he direct ion t he ball will go once t he at t ack t akes
place.[3] It may also require calculat ing t he best foot work t o execut ing t he "perfect " block.

The jump should be t imed so as t o int ercept t he ball's t raject ory prior t o it crossing over t he
plane of t he net . Palms are held deflect ed downward roughly 45–60 degrees t oward t he
int erior of t he opponent s' court . A "roof" is a spect acular offensive block t hat redirect s t he
power and speed of t he at t ack st raight down t o t he at t acker's floor as if t he at t acker hit t he
ball int o t he underside of a peaked house roof.

By cont rast , it is called a defensive, or "soft " block if t he goal is t o cont rol and deflect t he
hard-driven ball up so t hat it slows down and becomes easier t o defend. A well-execut ed
soft -block is performed by jumping and placing one's hands above t he net wit h no penet rat ion
int o t he opponent 's court and wit h t he palms up and fingers point ing backwards.

Blocking is also classified according t o t he number of players involved. Thus, one may speak
of single (or solo), double, or t riple block.[3]

Successful blocking does not always result in a "roof" and many t imes does not even t ouch
t he ball. While it is obvious t hat a block was a success when t he at t acker is roofed, a block
t hat consist ent ly forces t he at t acker away from t heir 'power' or preferred at t ack int o a more
easily cont rolled shot by t he defence is also a highly successful block.
At t he same t ime, t he block posit ion influences t he posit ions where ot her defenders place
t hemselves while opponent hit t ers are spiking.

Dig

Player going for a dig

Digging is t he abilit y t o prevent t he ball from t ouching one's court aft er a spike or at t ack,
part icularly a ball t hat is nearly t ouching t he ground.[3] In many aspect s, t his skill is similar t o
passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used t o dist inguish bet ween defensive
act ions t aken wit h fingert ips or wit h joined arms.[3] It varies from passing however in t hat is it
a much more reflex based skill, especially at t he higher levels. It is especially import ant while
digging for players t o st ay on t heir t oes; several players choose t o employ a split st ep t o
make sure t hey're ready t o move in any direct ion.

Some specific t echniques are more common in digging t han in passing. A player may
somet imes perform a "dive", i.e., t hrow t heir body in t he air wit h a forward movement in an
at t empt t o save t he ball, and land on t heir chest . When t he player also slides t heir hand under
a ball t hat is almost t ouching t he court , t his is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequent ly
used in indoor volleyball, but rarely if ever in beach volleyball because t he uneven and yielding
nat ure of t he sand court limit s t he chances t hat t he ball will make good, clean cont act wit h
t he hand. When used correct ly, it is one of t he more spect acular defensive volleyball plays.

Somet imes a player may also be forced t o drop t heir body quickly t o t he floor t o save t he
ball. In t his sit uat ion, t he player makes use of a specific rolling t echnique t o minimize t he
chances of injuries.

Team play
U.S . women's team doing team planning

Volleyball is essent ially a game of t ransit ion from one of t he above skills t o t he next , wit h
choreographed t eam movement bet ween plays on t he ball. These t eam movement s are
det ermined by t he t eams chosen serve receive syst em, offensive syst em, coverage syst em,
and defensive syst em.

The serve-receive syst em is t he format ion used by t he receiving t eam t o at t empt t o pass
t he ball t o t he designat ed set t er. Syst ems can consist of 5 receivers, 4 receivers, 3
receivers, and in some cases 2 receivers. The most popular format ion at higher levels is a 3
receiver format ion consist ing of t wo left sides and a libero receiving every rot at ion. This
allows middles and right sides t o become more specialized at hit t ing and blocking.

Offensive syst ems are t he format ions used by t he offence t o at t empt t o ground t he ball
int o t he opposing court (or ot herwise score point s). Format ions oft en include designat ed
player posit ions wit h skill specializat ion (see Player specialization, below). Popular format ions
include t he 4–2, 6–2, and 5-1 syst ems (see Formations , below). There are also several
different at t acking schemes t eams can use t o keep t he opposing defence off balance.

Coverage syst ems are t he format ions used by t he offence t o prot ect t heir court in t he case
of a blocked at t ack. Execut ed by t he 5 offensive players not direct ly at t acking t he ball,
players move t o assigned posit ions around t he at t acker t o dig up any ball t hat deflect s off
t he block back int o t heir own court . Popular format ions include t he 2-3 syst em and t he 1-2-2
syst em. In lieu of a syst em, some t eams just use a random coverage wit h t he players nearest
t he hit t er.
Defensive syst ems are t he format ions used by t he defence t o prot ect against t he ball being
grounded int o t heir court by t he opposing t eam. The syst em will out line which players are
responsible for which areas of t he court depending on where t he opposing t eam is at t acking
from. Popular syst ems include t he 6-Up, 6-Back-Deep, and 6-Back-Slide defence. There are
also several different blocking schemes t eams can employ t o disrupt t he opposing t eams'
offence.

When one player is ready t o serve, some t eams will line up t heir ot her five players in a screen
t o obscure t he view of t he receiving t eam. This act ion is only illegal if t he server makes use
of t he screen, so t he call is made at t he referee's discret ion as t o t he impact t he screen
made on t he receiving t eam's abilit y t o pass t he ball. The most common st yle of screening
involves a W format ion designed t o t ake up as much horizont al space as possible.

Strategy

An image from an international match between Italy and Russia in 2005. A Russian player on the left has just served,
with three men of his team next to the net moving to their assigned block positions from the starting ones. Two
others, in the back-row positions, are preparing for defense. Italy, on the right, has three men in a line, each preparing
to pass if the ball reaches him. The setter is waiting for their pass while the middle hitter with no. 10 will jump for a
quick hit if the pass is good enough. Alessandro Fei (no. 14) has no passing duties and is preparing for a back-row hit
on the right side of the field. Note the two liberos with a different colour dress. Middle hitters/blockers are commonly
substituted by liberos in their back-row positions.

Player specialization

There are five posit ions filled on every volleyball t eam at t he elit e level. Set t er, Out side
Hit t er/Left Side Hit t er, Middle Hit t er, Opposit e Hit t er/Right Side Hit t er and Libero/Defensive
Specialist . Each of t hese posit ions plays a specific, key role in winning a volleyball mat ch.
Setters have t he t ask for orchest rat ing t he offence of t he t eam. They aim for t he second
t ouch and t heir main responsibilit y is t o place t he ball in t he air where t he at t ackers can
place t he ball int o t he opponent s' court for a point . They have t o be able t o operat e wit h
t he hit t ers, manage t he t empo of t heir side of t he court and choose t he right at t ackers t o
set . Set t ers need t o have a swift and skilful appraisal and t act ical accuracy and must be
quick at moving around t he court . At elit e level, set t ers used t o usually be t he short est
players of a t eam (before liberos were int roduced), not being t ypically required t o perform
jump hit s, but t hat would imply need for short -t erm replacement e by t aller bench players
when crit ical point s required more effect ive blocks; in t he 1990s t aller set t ers (e.g. Fabio
Vullo, Pet er Blangé) became being deployed, in order t o improve blocks.

Liberos are defensive players who are responsible for receiving t he at t ack or serve. They
are usually t he players on t he court wit h t he quickest react ion t ime and best passing skills.
Libero means 'free' in It alian—t hey receive t his name as t hey have t he abilit y t o subst it ut e
for any ot her player on t he court during each play. They do not necessarily need t o be t all,
as t hey never play at t he net , which allows short er players wit h st rong passing and
defensive skills t o excel in t he posit ion and play an import ant role in t he t eam's success. A
player designat ed as a libero for a mat ch may not play ot her roles during t hat mat ch.
Liberos wear a different colour jersey t han t heir t eammat es.

Middle blockers or Middle hitters are players t hat can perform very fast at t acks t hat
usually t ake place near t he set t er. They are specialized in blocking since t hey must
at t empt t o st op equally fast plays from t heir opponent s and t hen quickly set up a double
block at t he sides of t he court . In non-beginners play, every t eam will have t wo middle
hit t ers. At elit e levels, middle hit t ers are usually t he t allest players, whose limit ed agilit y is
count ered by t heir height enabling more effect ive blocks.

Outside hitters or Left side hitters at t ack from near t he left ant enna. The out side hit t er
is usually t he most consist ent hit t er on t he t eam and get s t he most set s. Inaccurat e first
passes usually result in a set t o t he out side hit t er rat her t han middle or opposit e. Since
most set s t o t he out side are high, t he out side hit t er may t ake a longer approach, always
st art ing from out side t he court sideline. In non-beginners play, t here are again t wo out side
hit t ers on every t eam in every mat ch. At elit e level, out side hit t ers are slight ly short er t han
middle hit t ers and opposit e hit t ers, but have t he best defensive skills, t herefore always re-
placing t o t he middle while in t he back row.

Opposite hitters or Right-side hitters carry t he defensive workload for a volleyball t eam
in t he front row. Their primary responsibilit ies are t o put up a well-formed block against t he
opponent s' Outside Hitters and serve as a backup set t er. Set s t o t he opposit e usually go t o
t he right side of t he ant ennae. Therefore, t hey are usually t he most t echnical hit t ers since
balls lift ed t o t he right side are quicker and more difficult t o handle (t he set t ers having t o
 place t he ball while slight ly off-set t o t he right , and wit h t heir back t o t he at t acker), and
also having t o jump from t he back row when t he set t er is on t he front row. At elit e level,
unt il t he 1990s several opposit e hit t ers used t o be able t o also play as middle hit t ers (e.g.
Andrea Zorzi, Andrea Giani), before high specializat ion curt ailed t his flexibilit y in t he role.

At some levels where subst it ut ions are unlimit ed, t eams will make use of a Defensive
Specialist in place of or in addit ion t o a Libero. This posit ion does not have unique rules like
t he libero posit ion, inst ead, t hese players are used t o subst it ut e out a poor back row
defender using regular subst it ut ion rules. A defensive specialist is oft en used if you have a
part icularly poor back court defender in right side or left side, but your t eam is already using a
libero t o t ake out your middles. Most oft en, t he sit uat ion involves a t eam using a right side
player wit h a big block who must be subbed out in t he back row because t hey aren't able t o
effect ively play backcourt defence. Similarly, t eams might use a Serving Specialist t o sub out
a poor server.

Formations

The t hree st andard volleyball format ions are known as "4–2", "6–2" and "5–1", which refers t o
t he number of hit t ers and set t ers respect ively. 4–2 is a basic format ion used only in
beginners' play, while 5–1 is by far t he most common format ion in high-level play.

4–2

The 4–2 format ion has four hit t ers and t wo set t ers. The set t ers usually set from t he middle
front or right front posit ion. The t eam will, t herefore, have t wo front -row at t ackers at all
t imes. In t he int ernat ional 4–2, t he set t ers set from t he right front posit ion. The int ernat ional
4–2 t ranslat es more easily int o ot her forms of offence.

The set t ers line up opposit e each ot her in t he rot at ion. The t ypical lineup has t wo out side
hit t ers. By aligning like posit ions opposit e t hemselves in t he rot at ion, t here will always be one
of each posit ion in t he front and back rows. Aft er service, t he players in t he front row move
int o t heir assigned posit ions, so t hat t he set t er is always in t he middle front . Alt ernat ively, t he
set t er moves int o t he right front and has bot h a middle and an out side at t acker; t he
disadvant age here lies in t he lack of an offside hit t er, allowing one of t he ot her t eam's
blockers t o "cheat in" on a middle block.

The clear disadvant age t o t his offensive format ion is t hat t here are only t wo at t ackers,
leaving a t eam wit h fewer offensive weapons.

Anot her aspect is t o see t he set t er as an at t acking force, albeit a weakened force, because
when t he set t er is in t he front court t hey are able t o 't ip' or 'dump', so when t he ball is close t o
t he net on t he second t ouch, t he set t er may opt t o hit t he ball over wit h one hand. This
means t hat t he blocker who would ot herwise not have t o block t he set t er is engaged and
may allow one of t he hit t ers t o have an easier at t ack.

6–2

In t he 6–2 format ion, a player always comes forward from t he back row t o set . The t hree
front row players are all in at t acking posit ions. Thus, all six players act as hit t ers at one t ime
or anot her, while t wo can act as set t ers. So t he 6–2 format ion is act ually a 4–2 syst em, but
t he back-row set t er penet rat es t o set .

The 6–2 lineup t hus requires t wo set t ers, who line up opposit e t o each ot her in t he rot at ion.
In addit ion t o t he set t ers, a t ypical lineup will have t wo middle hit t ers and t wo out side hit t ers.
By aligning like posit ions opposit e t hemselves in t he rot at ion, t here will always be one of each
posit ion in t he front and back rows. Aft er service, t he players in t he front row move int o t heir
assigned posit ions.

The advant age of t he 6–2 is t hat t here are always t hree front -row hit t ers available,
maximizing t he offensive possibilit ies. However, not only does t he 6–2 require a t eam t o
possess t wo people capable of performing t he highly specialized role of set t er, it also
requires bot h of t hose players t o be effect ive offensive hit t ers when not in t he set t er
posit ion. At t he int ernat ional level, only t he Cuban Nat ional Women's Team employs t his kind
of format ion. It is also used by NCAA t eams in Division III men's play and women's play in all
divisions, part ially due t o t he variant rules used which allow more subst it ut ions per set t han
t he 6 allowed in t he st andard rules—12 in mat ches involving t wo Division III men's t eams[36]
and 15 for all women's play.[37]

5–1

The 5–1 format ion has only one player who assumes set t ing responsibilit ies regardless of
t heir posit ion in t he rot at ion. The t eam will, t herefore, have t hree front -row at t ackers when
t he set t er is in t he back row and only t wo when t he set t er is in t he front row, for a t ot al of
five possible at t ackers.

The player opposit e t he set t er in a 5–1 rot at ion is called t he opposite hitter. In general,
opposit e hit t ers do not pass; t hey st and behind t heir t eammat es when t he opponent is
serving. The opposit e hit t er may be used as a t hird at t ack opt ion (back-row at t ack) when t he
set t er is in t he front row: t his is t he normal opt ion used t o increase t he at t ack capabilit ies of
modern volleyball t eams. Normally t he opposit e hit t er is t he most t echnically skilled hit t er of
t he t eam. Back-row at t acks generally come from t he back-right posit ion, known as zone 1,
but are increasingly performed from back-cent re in high-level play.
The big advant age of t his syst em is t hat t he set t er always has 3 hit t ers t o vary set s wit h. If
t he set t er does t his well, t he opponent 's middle blocker may not have enough t ime t o block
wit h t he out side blocker, increasing t he chance for t he at t acking t eam t o make a point .

There is anot her advant age, t he same as t hat of a 4–2 format ion: as a front -row player, t he
set t er is allowed t o jump and "dump" t he ball ont o t he opponent 's side. This t oo can confuse
t he opponent 's blocking players: t he set t er can jump and dump or can set t o one of t he
hit t ers. A good set t er knows t his and t hus won't only jump t o dump or t o set for a quick hit ,
but when set t ing out side as well t o confuse t he opponent .

The 5–1 offence is act ually a mix of 6–2 and 4–2: when t he set t er is in t he front row, t he
offense looks like a 4–2; when t he set t er is in t he back row, t he offense looks like a 6–2.

Controversies

In 2017, a new volleyball players' union was formed in response t o dissat isfact ion wit h t he
organizat ion and st ruct ure of professional beach volleyball t ournament s.[38] The union is
named t he Int ernat ional Beach Volleyball Players Associat ion, and it consist s of almost 100
professional players.[38] The IBVPA claims it s goal is t o help at hlet es and provide t hem wit h
t he means t o enjoy playing volleyball by improving t he way t he sport is run.[38]

Anot her cont roversy wit hin t he sport is t he issue of t he inclusion of t ransgender players.[39]
Wit h t ransgender at hlet es such as Tiffany Abreu joining professional volleyball t eams
alongside ot her non-t ransgender t eammat es, many professionals, sport s analyst s, and fans of
volleyball are eit her expressing concerns about t he legit imacy and fairness of having
t ransgender players on a t eam or expressing support for t he t ransgender people's effort s.[39]

Media

Movies
Side Out (1990): A law st udent goes t o California and ends up playing professional
volleyball.[40]

Air Bud: Spikes Back (2003): A sequel in t he Air Bud series t hat shows t he t it ular golden
ret riever playing volleyball.[41]

All You've Got (2006); A TV movie st arring hip hop art ist Ciara.[42]

The Miracle Season (2018): A t eam comes t oget her aft er t he deat h of t heir st ar player in
hopes of winning t he st at e championship.[43]
Television

Attacker You! (1984): A Japanese anime about a junior high schoolgirl playing volleyball aft er
moving t o Tokyo from t he count ryside.

Haikyu!! (2014): A Japanese anime about a high school boys volleyball t eam st riving t o be
t he best in Japan.

Harukana Receive (2018): A Japanese anime about t een girls playing beach volleyball and
having a mat ch wit h ot her girls.

2.43: Seiin High School Boys Volleyball Team (2021): A Japanese anime about a high school
boys volleyball t eam's journey t o vict ory.

Variations and related games

Beach volleyball at the Hietaniemi Beach in Helsinki, Finland

There are many variat ions on t he basic rules of volleyball. By far t he most popular of t hese is
beach volleyball, which is played on sand wit h t wo people per t eam, and rivals t he main sport
in popularit y.

Some games relat ed t o volleyball include:

Beachball volleyball: A game of indoor volleyball played wit h a beach ball inst ead of a
volleyball.

Biribol: an aquat ic variant , played in shallow swimming pools. The name comes from t he
Brazilian cit y where it was invent ed, Birigui. It is similar t o Wat er volleyball.

Ecua-volley: A variant invent ed in Ecuador, wit h some significant variant s, such as number of
players, and a heavier ball.
 Foot volley: A sport from Brazil in which t he hands and arms are not used, but it is ot herwise
similar t o beach volleyball.

Handball: A sport in which t eams have t o t hrow a ball using hands inside a goal.

Hooverball: Popularized by President Herbert Hoover, it is played wit h a volleyball net and a
medicine ball; it is scored like t ennis, but t he ball is caught and t hen t hrown back. The
weight of t he medicine ball can make t he sport physically demanding for players; annual
championship t ournament s are held in West Branch, Iowa.

Newcomb ball (somet imes spelled "Nuke 'Em"): In t his game, t he ball is caught and t hrown
inst ead of hit ; it rivaled volleyball in popularit y unt il t he 1920s.
Prisoner Ball: Also played wit h volleyball court and a volleyball, prisoner ball is a
variat ion of Newcomb ball where players are "t aken prisoner" or released from "prison"
inst ead of scoring point s. This version is usually played by young children.[44]

Sepak Takraw: Played in Sout heast Asia using a rat t an ball and allowing only players' feet ,
knees, chest s, and heads t o t ouch t he ball.

Snow volleyball: a variant of beach volleyball t hat is played on snow. The Fédérat ion
Int ernat ionale de Volleyball has announced it s plans t o make snow volleyball part of t he
fut ure Wint er Olympic Games programme.[45][46][47]

Throwball: became popular wit h female players at t he YMCA College of Physical Educat ion
in Chennai (India) in t he 1940s.

Towel volleyball: t owel volleyball is a popular form of out door ent ert ainment . The game
t akes place in a volleyball court , and players work in pairs, holding t owels in t heir hands and
at t empt ing t o t hrow t he ball int o t he opponent 's field. This version can also be played wit h
blanket s held by four people. There are several variat ions.[48][49][50]

Wallyball: A variat ion of volleyball played in a racquet ball court wit h a rubber ball.

9-man: A variant invent ed by Chinese immigrant s t o t he Unit ed St at es in t he 1930s. 9-man

is st ill played in Asian count ries and Nort h America, being recognized for it s hist oric and
cult ural significance. In 2014, an award-winning document ary was produced for t he sport of
9-man, and a YouTube document ary was made for t he sport in 2017.

See also

Volleyball portal

List of volleyball players

List of volleyball video games

 Volley squash

Volleyball Hall of Fame

Volleyball jargon

Volleyball injuries

Notes

1. "Volleyball" (http://www.olympic.org/uk/sports/programme/index_uk.asp?SportCode=VB) .
International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2007-03-21.

2. "Official Volleyball Rules, 2017–2020" (http://www.fivb.org/EN/Refereeing-Rules/documents/FIVB-V

olleyball_Rules_2017-2020-EN-v06.pdf) (PDF) . 35th FIVB World Congress, Buenos Aires,
Argentina, 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170205014730/http://www.fivb.org/E
N/Refereeing-Rules/documents/FIVB-Volleyball_Rules_2017-2020-EN-v06.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 2017-02-05. Retrieved 2019-01-11.

3. Joel., Dearing (2003). Volleyball fundamentals (https://archive.org/details/volleyballfundam0000

dear) . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 0736045082. OCLC 50643900 (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/50643900) .

4. "History of Volleyball – NCVA" (https://ncva.com/info/general-info/history-of-volleyball/) .

ncva.com. Retrieved 2021-04-29.

5. "The International Association Training School Notes (vol. 4 no. 8), October, 1895" (https://cdm16
122.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p16122coll3/id/389/) .

6. "In 1895, William Morgan Invents Mintonette" (https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/189

5-william-morgan-invents-mintonette/) . New England Historical Society. 2016-01-30. Retrieved
25 October 2021. "Putting his mind to the challenge, Morgan examined the rules of sports such
as baseball, basketball, handball and badminton. Taking pieces from each, he created a game he
called Mintonette. He took the name from badminton"

7. "Bet You Don't Know Where Volleyball Came From" (https://www.thoughtco.com/invention-and-hist

ory-of-volleyball-william-morgan-1992597) . ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2018-08-04.

8. "The Volleyball Story" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070127012658/http://www.fivb.com/EN/Voll

eyball/story.htm) . Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB). Archived from the original (htt
p://www.fivb.com/EN/volleyball/story.htm) on January 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-21.

9. "How Volleyball Began" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070701143054/http://www.ncva.com/pag

e.aspx?id=14) . Northern California Volleyball Association. Archived from the original (http://ww
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