kendriya vidyalaya sidhi(m.p.

year 2022-23
investigatory project of human welfare

topic: sex determination in living oragnism

submitted by: Guided by:

saumya singh mr. jitendra pandey
class-12th(biology) (p.g.t. biology)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere thanks to Mr. Jitendra
Pandey my Biology teacher who guided me
through the project and also gave me valuable
suggestions and directions for completing this
project. He has helped me to understand a
concept SEX DETERMINATION IN LIVING ORGANISM. My
project has been a success only because of his
guidance.

i would like to thank my classmates and my

friends also for their encouragement and help
in designing and making my project creative. I am
in debt of all these. Only because of them I was
able to create my project and make it good and
enjoyable experience.

SAUMYA SINGH
12th BIOLOGY
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that saumya singh of class

12th biology has completed the project with
sincerity.

i hereby declare that she is well behaved to

the best of my knowledge. this project may be
considered as fulfilment for all india senior
secondary certificate examination(2022-23)
conducted by cbse board.

Signature
mr. jitendra pandey
 Declaration

i hereby declare that this submission is my own

work that to best of my knowledge & belief, it
contains no material previously published or
written by any other person nor material which
has been accepted for class 12th biology of the
school or any another school of "senior
secondary". learning expect where due
knowledgement has been made in the text.

signature
saumya singh
SEX DETERMINATION IN LIVING ORGANISM
A sex-determination system is a biological system that determines
the development of sexual characteristics in an organism.[1] Most
organisms that create their offspring using sexual reproduction
have two sexes

In some species there are hermaphrodites.There are also some

species that are only one sex due to parthenogenesis, the act of a
female reproducing without fertilization.

In some species, sex determination is genetic: males and females

have different alleles or even different genes that specify their
sexual morphology. In animals this is often accompanied by
chromosomal differences, generally through combinations of XY, ZW,
XO, ZO chromosomes, or haplodiploidy. The sexual differentiation is
generally triggered by a main gene (a "sex locus"), with a multitude
of other genes following in a domino effect.

Some species such as various plants and fish do not have a fixed
sex, and instead go through life cycles and change sex based on
genetic cues during corresponding life stages of their type. This
could be due to environmental factors such as seasons and
temperature. In some gonochoric species, a few individuals may have
sex characteristics of both sexes, a condition called intersex.

While diversity in sex determination systems is common throughout

the diversity of biology, the systems beyond XY/XX/XO in mammals
are often characterized as less common or abnormal, because of
the social influence of centering certain human cultural norms
when researching sex determination.

 XX/YY SeX determination

The XX/XY sex-determination system is the most familiar, as it is
found in humans. The XX/XY system is found in most other mammals,
as well as some insects. In this system, most females have two of
the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while most males have two
distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The X and Y sex chromosomes are
different in shape and size from each other, unlike the rest of the
chromosomes (autosomes), and are sometimes called allosomes. In
some species, such as humans, organisms remain sex indifferent for
a time after they're created; in others, however, such as fruit
flies, sexual differentiation occurs as soon as the egg is fertilized.

Y-centered sex determination

Some species (including humans) have a gene SRY on the Y

chromosome that determines maleness. Members of SRY-reliant
species can have uncommon XY chromosomal combinations such as
XXY and still live.Human sex is determined by the presence or
absence of a Y chromosome with a functional SRY gene. Once the SRY
gene is activated, cells create testosterone and anti-müllerian
hormone which typically ensures the development of a single, male
reproductive system typical XX embryos, cells secrete estrogen,
which drives the body toward the female pathway.

X-centered sex
determination

Some species, such as fruit flies, use the presence of two X

chromosomes to determine femaleness.[15] Species that use the
number of Xs to determine sex are nonviable with an extra X
chromosome.
 Drosophila sex-chromosomes

Human male XY chromosomes after

G banding
 XX/X0 sex chromosomes

This variant of the XY system, females have two copies of the sex
chromosome (XX) but males have only one (X0). The 0 denotes the
absence of a second sex chromosome. Generally in this method, the
sex is determined by amount of genes expressed across the two
chromosomes. This system is observed in a number of insects,
including the grasshoppers and crickets of order Orthoptera and in
cockroaches (order Blattodea). A small number of mammals also
lack a Y chromosome. These include the Amami spiny rat (Tokudaia
osimensis) and the Tokunoshima spiny rat (Tokudaia tokunoshimensis)
and Sorex araneus, a shrew species. Transcaucasian mole voles
(Ellobius lutescens) also have a form of XO determination, in which
both sexes lack a second sex chromosome.

 ZW/ZZ sex chromosomes

The ZW sex-determination system is found in birds, some reptiles,
and some insects and other organisms. The ZW sex-determination
system is reversed compared to the XY system: females have two
different kinds of chromosomes (ZW), and males have two of the
same kind of chromosomes (ZZ).
In both XY and ZW sex determination systems, the sex chromosome
carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller,
carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the
development of a given sex.

UV sex chromosomes
In some Bryophyte and some algae species, the gametophyte stage
of the life cycle, rather than being hermaphrodite, occurs as
separate male or female individuals that produce male and female
gametes respectively. When meiosis occurs in the sporophyte
generation of the life cycle, the sex chromosomes known as U and V
assort in spores that carry either the U chromosome and give rise
to female gametophytes, or the V chromosome and give rise to male
gametophytes

ZZ/Z0 sex chromosomes

The ZZ/Z0 sex-determination system is found in some moths. In these
insects there is one sex chromosome, Z. Males have two Z
chromosomes, whereas females have one Z. Males are ZZ, while
females are Z0.

 Haplodiploidy
Haplodiploidy is found in insects belonging to Hymenoptera, such
as ants and bees. Sex determination is controlled by
the zygosity of a complementary sex determiner (csd) locus.
Unfertilized eggs develop into haploid individuals which have a
single, hemizygous copy of the csd locus and are therefore males.
Fertilized eggs develop into diploid individuals which, due to high
variability in the csd locus, are generally heterozygous females.
 SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMAN BEINGS:~

Human beings exhibit male heterogamy. In humans, males (XY)

produce two different types of gametes, X and Y. The human female
(XX) produces only one type of gametes containing X chromosomes.
The sex of the baby is determined by the type of male gamete that
fuses with the female gamete. If the fertilizing sperm contains X
chromosome, then the baby produced will be a girl and if the
fertilizing sperm contains Y chromosome, then the baby produced
will be a boy. Hence, it is a matter of chance that determines the
sex of a baby. There is an equal probability of the fertilizing sperm
being an X or Y chromosome. Thus, it is the genetic make up of the
sperm that determines the sex of the baby.