2.

1 Voltage and Current Sources 27

dependent current source and the dependent voltage source may be con-
trolled by either a voltage or a current elsewhere in the circuit, so there
are a total of four variations, as indicated by the symbols in Fig. 2.2.
Dependent sources are sometimes called controlled sources. 
vs  mvx is  avx
To completely specify an ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage 
source, you must identify the controlling voltage, the equation that per-
mits you to compute the supplied voltage from the controlling voltage,
and the reference polarity for the supplied voltage. In Fig. 2.2(a), the con-
trolling voltage is named vx, the equation that determines the supplied (a) (c)
voltage vs is

vs = mvx ,

vs  rix is  bix

and the reference polarity for vs is as indicated. Note that m is a multiply-
ing constant that is dimensionless.
Similar requirements exist for completely specifying the other ideal
dependent sources. In Fig. 2.2(b), the controlling current is ix, the equation (b) (d)
for the supplied voltage vs is
Figure 2.2  The circuit symbols for (a) an ideal
dependent voltage-controlled voltage source, (b) an
ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source, (c) an
vs = rix , ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source, and
(d) an ideal dependent current-controlled current source.

the reference polarity is as shown, and the multiplying constant r has the
dimension volts per ampere. In Fig. 2.2(c), the controlling voltage is vx,
the equation for the supplied current is is

is = avx ,

the reference direction is as shown, and the multiplying constant a has the
dimension amperes per volt. In Fig. 2.2(d), the controlling current is ix, the
equation for the supplied current is is

is = bix ,

the reference direction is as shown, and the multiplying constant b is

dimensionless.
Finally, in our discussion of ideal sources, we note that they are
examples of active circuit elements. An active element is one that models
a device capable of generating electric energy. Passive elements model
physical devices that cannot generate electric energy. Resistors, induc-
tors, and capacitors are examples of passive circuit elements.
Examples 2.1 and 2.2 illustrate how the characteristics of ideal inde-
pendent and dependent sources limit the types of permissible intercon-
nections of the sources.
28 Circuit Elements

Example 2.1 Testing Interconnections of Ideal Sources

Using the definitions of the ideal independent volt-

age and current sources, state which interconnec-
tions in Fig. 2.3 are permissible and which violate
the constraints imposed by the ideal sources.

5A
a a b

 
10 V 10 V 5A
 
Solution
b
Connection (a) is valid. Each source supplies volt- (a) (b)
age across the same pair of terminals, marked a,b.
This requires that each source supply the same volt-
age with the same polarity, which they do.
Connection (b) is valid. Each source supplies 2A
current through the same pair of terminals, marked a a b
a,b. This requires that each source supply the same
current in the same direction, which they do.  
Connection (c) is not permissible. Each source 10 V 5V 5A
 
supplies voltage across the same pair of terminals,
marked a,b. This requires that each source supply
b
the same voltage with the same polarity, which they
(c) (d)
do not.
Connection (d) is not permissible. Each source
supplies current through the same pair of terminals,
marked a,b. This requires that each source supply
the same current in the same direction, which they 5A
do not. a
Connection (e) is valid. The voltage source sup-
plies voltage across the pair of terminals marked 
10 V
a,b. The current source supplies current through the 
same pair of terminals. Because an ideal voltage
source supplies the same voltage regardless of the b
current, and an ideal current source supplies the
(e)
same current regardless of the voltage, this is a per-
missible connection. Figure 2.3  The circuits for Example 2.1.
 2.1 Voltage and Current Sources 29

Example 2.2 Testing Interconnections of Ideal Independent and Dependent Sources

Using the definitions of the ideal independent and

dependent sources, state which interconnections in
Fig. 2.4 are valid and which violate the constraints
a
imposed by the ideal sources.

 vs  3 vx 
 
vx  5 V
Solution
b
(a)
Connection (a) is invalid. Both the independent
source and the dependent source supply voltage
across the same pair of terminals, labeled a,b. This a
requires that each source supply the same voltage
with the same polarity. The independent source sup-  is  3 vx
plies 5 V, but the dependent source supplies 15 V. 
Connection (b) is valid. The independent volt- vx  5 V
age source supplies voltage across the pair of termi-
nals marked a,b. The dependent current source b
supplies current through the same pair of terminals. (b)
Because an ideal voltage source supplies the same
voltage regardless of current, and an ideal current a
source supplies the same current regardless of volt-
age, this is an allowable connection. vs  4 ix 
Connection (c) is valid. The independent cur- 
rent source supplies current through the pair of ter- ix  2 A
minals marked a,b. The dependent voltage source
supplies voltage across the same pair of terminals. b
Because an ideal current source supplies the same (c)
current regardless of voltage, and an ideal voltage
source supplies the same voltage regardless of cur- a
rent, this is an allowable connection.
Connection (d) is invalid. Both the independ- is  3 ix
ent source and the dependent source supply current
through the same pair of terminals, labeled a,b. This ix  2 A
requires that each source supply the same current b
in the same reference direction. The independent (d)
source supplies 2 A, but the dependent source sup-
plies 6 A in the opposite direction. Figure 2.4  The circuits for Example 2.2.
30 Circuit Elements

ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
Objective 1—Understand ideal basic circuit elements

2.1 For the circuit shown, 2.2 For the circuit shown,
a) What value of vg is required in order for the a) What value of a is required in order for the
interconnection to be valid? interconnection to be valid?
b) For this value of vg, find the power associ- b) For the value of a calculated in part (a), find
ated with the 8 A source. the power associated with the 25 V source.

Answer: (a) - 2 V; Answer: (a) 0.6 A>V;

(b) - 16 W (16 W delivered). (b) 375 W (375 W absorbed).
ib avx


ib   
vg 8A 15 A vx 25 V
4   


NOTE: Also try Chapter Problems 2.6 and 2.7.

2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law)

R Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current or,
more specifically, the flow of electric charge. The circuit element used to
Figure 2.5  The circuit symbol for a resistor having a model this behavior is the resistor. Figure 2.5 shows the circuit symbol for
resistance R. the resistor, with R denoting the resistance value of the resistor.
Conceptually, we can understand resistance if we think about the
moving electrons that make up electric current interacting with and being
resisted by the atomic structure of the material through which they are
moving. In the course of these interactions, some amount of electric
energy is converted to thermal energy and dissipated in the form of heat.
This effect may be undesirable. However, many useful electrical devices
take advantage of resistance heating, including stoves, toasters, irons, and
space heaters.
Most materials exhibit measurable resistance to current. The amount
of resistance depends on the material. Metals such as copper and alu-
minum have small values of resistance, making them good choices for
  wiring used to conduct electric current. In fact, when represented in a cir-
cuit diagram, copper or aluminum wiring isn’t usually modeled as a resis-
v R v R
tor; the resistance of the wire is so small compared to the resistance of
i i
other elements in the circuit that we can neglect the wiring resistance to
simplify the diagram.
  For purposes of circuit analysis, we must reference the current in
v  iR v  iR
the resistor to the terminal voltage. We can do so in two ways: either in
Figure 2.6  Two possible reference choices for the the direction of the voltage drop across the resistor or in the direction
current and voltage at the terminals of a resistor, and of the voltage rise across the resistor, as shown in Fig. 2.6. If we choose
the resulting equations. the former, the relationship between the voltage and current is

Ohm’s law  v = iR, (2.1)

 2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law) 31

where

v = the voltage in volts,

i = the current in amperes,

R = the resistance in ohms.

If we choose the second method, we must write

v = - iR, (2.2)

where v, i, and R are, as before, measured in volts, amperes, and ohms,

respectively. The algebraic signs used in Eqs. 2.1 and 2.2 are a direct conse-
quence of the passive sign convention, which we introduced in Chapter 1.
Equations 2.1 and 2.2 are known as Ohm’s law after Georg Simon
Ohm, a German physicist who established its validity early in the nine-
teenth century. Ohm’s law is the algebraic relationship between voltage
and current for a resistor. In SI units, resistance is measured in ohms. The 8
Greek letter omega ( Æ ) is the standard symbol for an ohm. The circuit
diagram symbol for an 8 Æ resistor is shown in Fig. 2.7. Figure 2.7  The circuit symbol for an 8 Æ resistor.
Ohm’s law expresses the voltage as a function of the current. However,
expressing the current as a function of the voltage also is convenient. Thus,
from Eq. 2.1,

v
i = , (2.3)
R

or, from Eq. 2.2,

v
i = - . (2.4)
R

The reciprocal of the resistance is referred to as conductance, is sym-

bolized by the letter G, and is measured in siemens (S). Thus,

1
G = S. (2.5)
R

An 8 Æ resistor has a conductance value of 0.125 S. In much of the profes-

sional literature, the unit used for conductance is the mho (ohm spelled back-
Æ
ward), which is symbolized by an inverted omega ( ). Therefore we may Æ
also describe an 8 Æ resistor as having a conductance of 0.125 mho, ( ).
We use ideal resistors in circuit analysis to model the behavior of
physical devices. Using the qualifier ideal reminds us that the resistor
model makes several simplifying assumptions about the behavior of
actual resistive devices. The most important of these simplifying assump-
tions is that the resistance of the ideal resistor is constant and its value
does not vary over time. Most actual resistive devices do not have constant
resistance, and their resistance does vary over time. The ideal resistor
model can be used to represent a physical device whose resistance doesn’t
vary much from some constant value over the time period of interest in
the circuit analysis. In this book we assume that the simplifying assump-
tions about resistance devices are valid, and we thus use ideal resistors in
circuit analysis.
We may calculate the power at the terminals of a resistor in several
ways. The first approach is to use the defining equation and simply calculate
32 Circuit Elements

the product of the terminal voltage and current. For the reference systems
shown in Fig. 2.6, we write

p = vi (2.6)

when v = i R and

p = - vi (2.7)

when v = - i R.
A second method of expressing the power at the terminals of a resis-
tor expresses power in terms of the current and the resistance.
Substituting Eq. 2.1 into Eq. 2.6, we obtain

p = vi = (i R)i

so

Power in a resistor in terms of current  p = i 2 R. (2.8)

Likewise, substituting Eq. 2.2 into Eq. 2.7, we have

p = - vi = - ( -i R)i = i 2R. (2.9)

Equations 2.8 and 2.9 are identical and demonstrate clearly that, regard-
less of voltage polarity and current direction, the power at the terminals of
a resistor is positive. Therefore, a resistor absorbs power from the circuit.
A third method of expressing the power at the terminals of a resistor
is in terms of the voltage and resistance. The expression is independent of
the polarity references, so

v2
Power in a resistor in terms of voltage  p = . (2.10)
R

Sometimes a resistor’s value will be expressed as a conductance rather

than as a resistance. Using the relationship between resistance and con-
ductance given in Eq. 2.5, we may also write Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10 in terms of
the conductance, or

i2
p = , (2.11)
G
p = v2G. (2.12)

Equations 2.6–2.12 provide a variety of methods for calculating the power

absorbed by a resistor. Each yields the same answer. In analyzing a circuit,
look at the information provided and choose the power equation that uses
that information directly.
Example 2.3 illustrates the application of Ohm’s law in conjunction
with an ideal source and a resistor. Power calculations at the terminals of a
resistor also are illustrated.
 2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm’s Law) 33

Example 2.3 Calculating Voltage, Current, and Power for a Simple Resistive Circuit

In each circuit in Fig. 2.8, either the value of v or i is The current ib in the resistor with a conductance
not known. of 0.2 S in Fig. 2.8(b) is in the direction of the
voltage drop across the resistor. Thus
 ib
 ib = (50)(0.2) = 10 A.
1 A va 8 50 V 0.2 S
 The voltage vc in Fig. 2.8(c) is a rise in the direc-
 tion of the current in the resistor. Hence
(a) (b) vc = - (1)(20) = - 20 V.
The current id in the 25 Æ resistor in Fig. 2.8(d)

is in the direction of the voltage rise across the

1 A vc 20  50 V 25  resistor. Therefore

 id -50
id = = - 2 A.
(c) (d) 25

Figure 2.8  The circuits for Example 2.3. b) The power dissipated in each of the four resistors is

a) Calculate the values of v and i. (8)2

p8Æ = = (1)2(8) = 8 W,
b) Determine the power dissipated in each resistor. 8
p0.2S = (50)2(0.2) = 500 W,
Solution ( -20)2
p20Æ = = (1)2(20) = 20 W,
a) The voltage va in Fig. 2.8(a) is a drop in the direc- 20
tion of the current in the resistor. Therefore, (50)2
p25Æ = = (- 2)2(25) = 100 W.
va = (1)(8) = 8 V. 25

ASSESSMENT PROBLEMS
Objective 2—Be able to state and use Ohm’s Law . . .

2.3 For the circuit shown, 2.4 For the circuit shown,
a) If vg = 1 kV and ig = 5 mA, find the value a) If ig = 0.5 A and G = 50 mS, find vg and
of R and the power absorbed by the resistor. the power delivered by the current source.
b) If ig = 75 mA and the power delivered by b) If vg = 15 V and the power delivered to the
the voltage source is 3 W, find vg, R, and the conductor is 9 W, find the conductance G
power absorbed by the resistor. and the source current ig.
c) If R = 300 Æ and the power absorbed by R c) If G = 200 mS and the power delivered to
is 480 mW, find ig and vg. the conductance is 8 W, find ig and vg.
ig

ig vg G

vg R 


Answer: (a) 10 V, 5 W;
Answer: (a) 200 kÆ , 5 W; (b) 40 mS, 0.6 A;
(b) 40 V, 533.33 Æ , 3 W; (c) 40 mA, 200 V.
(c) 40 mA, 12 V.
NOTE: Also try Chapter Problems 2.11 and 2.12.
34 Circuit Elements

Having introduced the general characteristics of ideal sources and resis-

tors, we next show how to use these elements to build the circuit model of
a practical system.

2.3 Construction of a Circuit Model

We have already stated that one reason for an interest in the basic circuit
elements is that they can be used to construct circuit models of practical
systems. The skill required to develop a circuit model of a device or system
is as complex as the skill required to solve the derived circuit. Although
this text emphasizes the skills required to solve circuits, you also will need
other skills in the practice of electrical engineering, and one of the most
important is modeling.
We develop circuit models in the next two examples. In Example 2.4
we construct a circuit model based on a knowledge of the behavior of the
system’s components and how the components are interconnected. In
Example 2.5 we create a circuit model by measuring the terminal behavior
of a device.

Example 2.4 Constructing a Circuit Model of a Flashlight

Construct a circuit model of a flashlight.

Solution
We chose the flashlight to illustrate a practical system
because its components are so familiar. Figure 2.9
shows a photograph of a widely available flashlight.
When a flashlight is regarded as an electrical
system, the components of primary interest are the
batteries, the lamp, the connector, the case, and the
switch. We now consider the circuit model for each
component.
A dry-cell battery maintains a reasonably con-
stant terminal voltage if the current demand is not
excessive. Thus if the dry-cell battery is operating
within its intended limits, we can model it with an
ideal voltage source. The prescribed voltage then is Thom Lang/Corbis
constant and equal to the sum of two dry-cell values.
The ultimate output of the lamp is light energy,
which is achieved by heating the filament in the
lamp to a temperature high enough to cause radia-
tion in the visible range. We can model the lamp
Figure 2.9  A flashlight can be viewed as an electrical system.
with an ideal resistor. Note in this case that although
the resistor accounts for the amount of electric
energy converted to thermal energy, it does not pre-
dict how much of the thermal energy is converted to
light energy. The resistor used to represent the lamp formed into a springy coil so that it also can apply
does predict the steady current drain on the batter- mechanical pressure to the contact between the
ies, a characteristic of the system that also is of inter- batteries and the lamp. The purpose of this mechan-
est. In this model, Rl symbolizes the lamp resistance. ical pressure is to maintain contact between the two
The connector used in the flashlight serves a dry cells and between the dry cells and the lamp.
dual role. First, it provides an electrical conductive Hence, in choosing the wire for the connector, we
path between the dry cells and the case. Second, it is may find that its mechanical properties are more
 2.3 Construction of a Circuit Model 35

important than its electrical properties for the

flashlight design. Electrically, we can model the (a)
connector with an ideal resistor, labeled R1.
The case also serves both a mechanical and an (b)
electrical purpose. Mechanically, it contains all the
other components and provides a grip for the person OFF
using it. Electrically, it provides a connection between
other elements in the flashlight. If the case is metal, it ON
conducts current between the batteries and the lamp. (c)
If it is plastic, a metal strip inside the case connects
Figure 2.10  Circuit symbols. (a) Short circuit. (b) Open circuit.
the coiled connector to the switch. Either way, an
(c) Switch.
ideal resistor, which we denote Rc, models the electri-
cal connection provided by the case.
Lamp
The final component is the switch. Electrically,
the switch is a two-state device. It is either ON or
OFF. An ideal switch offers no resistance to the cur-
rent when it is in the ON state, but it offers infinite
Filament
resistance to current when it is in the OFF state. terminal
These two states represent the limiting values of a
resistor; that is, the ON state corresponds to a resis-
tor with a numerical value of zero, and the OFF state Sliding switch
corresponds to a resistor with a numerical value of
infinity. The two extreme values have the descrip- Dry cell # 2
tive names short circuit (R = 0) and open circuit
(R = q ). Figure 2.10(a) and (b) show the graphical
representation of a short circuit and an open circuit,
respectively. The symbol shown in Fig. 2.10(c) rep-
resents the fact that a switch can be either a short
circuit or an open circuit, depending on the position Case
of its contacts. Dry cell # 1
We now construct the circuit model of the
flashlight. Starting with the dry-cell batteries, the
positive terminal of the first cell is connected to
the negative terminal of the second cell, as shown in
Fig. 2.11. The positive terminal of the second cell is
connected to one terminal of the lamp. The other
terminal of the lamp makes contact with one side of Figure 2.11  The arrangement of flashlight components.
the switch, and the other side of the switch is con-
nected to the metal case. The metal case is then con-
nected to the negative terminal of the first dry cell
by means of the metal spring. Note that the ele- 
vs Rl
ments form a closed path or circuit. You can see the 
closed path formed by the connected elements in R1 Rc
Fig. 2.11. Figure 2.12 shows a circuit model for the
flashlight. Figure 2.12  A circuit model for a flashlight.

We can make some general observations about modeling from our

flashlight example: First, in developing a circuit model, the electrical behav-
ior of each physical component is of primary interest. In the flashlight
model, three very different physical components—a lamp, a coiled wire,
and a metal case—are all represented by the same circuit element (a resis-
tor), because the electrical phenomenon taking place in each is the same.
Each is presenting resistance to the current flowing through the circuit.
Second, circuit models may need to account for undesired as well as
desired electrical effects. For example, the heat resulting from the resist-
ance in the lamp produces the light, a desired effect. However, the heat
36 Circuit Elements

resulting from the resistance in the case and coil represents an unwanted
or parasitic effect. It drains the dry cells and produces no useful output.
Such parasitic effects must be considered or the resulting model may not
adequately represent the system.
And finally, modeling requires approximation. Even for the basic sys-
tem represented by the flashlight, we made simplifying assumptions in
developing the circuit model. For example, we assumed an ideal switch,
but in practical switches, contact resistance may be high enough to inter-
fere with proper operation of the system. Our model does not predict this
behavior. We also assumed that the coiled connector exerts enough pres-
sure to eliminate any contact resistance between the dry cells. Our model
does not predict the effect of inadequate pressure. Our use of an ideal
voltage source ignores any internal dissipation of energy in the dry cells,
which might be due to the parasitic heating just mentioned. We could
account for this by adding an ideal resistor between the source and the
lamp resistor. Our model assumes the internal loss to be negligible.
In modeling the flashlight as a circuit, we had a basic understanding of
and access to the internal components of the system. However, sometimes
we know only the terminal behavior of a device and must use this infor-
mation in constructing the model. Example 2.5 explores such a modeling
problem.

Example 2.5 Constructing a Circuit Model Based on Terminal Measurements

The voltage and current are measured at the termi- Solution

nals of the device illustrated in Fig. 2.13(a), and the
values of vt and it are tabulated in Fig. 2.13(b). Plotting the voltage as a function of the current
Construct a circuit model of the device inside the box. yields the graph shown in Fig. 2.14(a). The equation
of the line in this figure illustrates that the terminal
vt (V) it (A) voltage is directly proportional to the terminal cur-
it
rent, vt = 4it. In terms of Ohm’s law, the device
40 10
inside the box behaves like a 4 Æ resistor.Therefore,
 20 5 the circuit model for the device inside the box is a
vt Device 0 0 4 Æ resistor, as seen in Fig. 2.14(b).
20 5 We come back to this technique of using termi-
 nal characteristics to construct a circuit model after
40 10
introducing Kirchhoff’s laws and circuit analysis.
(a) (b)

Figure 2.13  The (a) device and (b) data for Example 2.5.

it
vt (V)
40 
20
vt 4
10 5 5 10
20
it (A)
40 
(a) (b)
Figure 2.14  (a) The values of vt versus it for the device in Fig. 2.13. (b) The circuit model
for the device in Fig. 2.13.

NOTE: Assess your understanding of this example by trying Chapter Problems 2.14 and 2.15.