Last edited: 9/8/2021

1. ADRENAL MEDULLA & CATECHOLAMINES

Endocrinology | Adrenal Medulla | Catecholamines Medical Editor: Ilia-Presiyan Georgiev

OUTLINE (4) In the LGH are located

the bodies of the preganglionic motor neurons of the SNS
I) MAIN HEADING IN o Their axons come out through the ventral ramus
II) CONTENT FORMATTING
o Move through sympathetic chain ganglia
III) APPENDIX
o Go the adrenal medulla
IV) REVIEW QUESTIONS
V) REFRENCES

I) ADRENAL GLAND ANATOMY

(1) In the abdominal cavity

below the diaphragm
The liver is on the right side
The spleen is on the left side
Below them are located the two kidneys
(2) The adrenal glands
sit on top of the kidneys
Also called suprarenal glands
Have a roughly pyramid shape
(3) Parts of the adrenal gland
Cortex
o Has three layers
 Zona glomerulosa Figure 1 Catecholamine synthesis part 1.
• Most superficial
 Zona fasciculata
In most cases
• In the middle o Preganglionic neurons
• The thickest  Short
 Zona reticularis  Go to the chain ganglia
• The deepest o Postganglionic neurons
o All layers are mostly glandular cuboidal epithelial  Long
tissue  Begin from the chain ganglia
Medulla The adrenal medulla is an exception
o Has only one layer o Preganglionic motor neurons
o Made up of neural tissue - chromaffin cells  Long
 Cell bodies of the postganglionic motor neurons of  Reach the postganglionic cell bodies
o Postganglionic cell neurons
the sympathetic nervous system
 Very short
 Cell bodies located inside the actual organ
o This is called an intramural ganglion
II) CATHECHOLAMINE SYNTHESIS
(5) Preganglionic motor neurons are cholinergic
(1) Th1 to L2 of the spinal cord
They release acetylcholine
is the sympathetic component o It binds to nicotinic receptors on the chromaffin cells
o The thoracolumbar outflow  Cations (e.g. Na+) flow in
(2) Short term (acute) stress The cations activate specific action potentials
o Stimulate certain processes within the cell
is the primary stimulus of the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) The depolarization of the cell activates certain enzymes
o “Fight or flight” situations o A specific biochemical pathway is triggered
 e.g. escaping from a vicious orangutan
(6) Tyrosine is the building block of this pathway
(3) The hypothalamus activates Tyrosine is converted to L-DOPA
the SNS o By tyrosine hydroxylase
o Very strong regulator L-DOPA is converted to dopamine
o Has a sympathetic and a parasympathetic component o By DOPA decarboxylase
It sends presynaptic potential down Dopamine is converted to norepinephrine
o Through descending fibers o By dopamine beta hydroxylase
 To the lateral gray horn (LGH) of the spinal cord
 In Th1 to L2 Norepinephrine is converted to epinephrine
o By phenylethanolamine n-methyltransferase (PNMT)

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(7) The synapse (5) Gluconeogenesis
of the axon of the postganglionic motor neurons secretes A process where non-carbohydrate sources are turned
o 80% epinephrine into glucose
o 20% norepinephrine o Amino acids and lactic acid form the muscles
Normally epinephrine and norepinephrine are o Glycerol and odd chain fatty acids from the adipose
presynthesized tissue
o Put into vesicles (6) The overall result
 Located in the terminal bulb of the axon
of both glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis is glucose
(8) Na+ enters the cell
Action potentials are produced down the axon
o When they reach the terminal bulb • Hyperglycemia
 The potential reaches positive 30 mV The glucose can be utilized by the muscles
o Ca++ channels located there, open o For contraction
 Ca++ starts flowing in.
(9) Ca++ acts as a bridge
Causes the vesicles to merge with the cell membrane
o Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released into the
bloodstream

Figure 3 Effects of catecholamines on the liver.

(B) EFFECTS ON THE ADIPOSE TISSUE

(1) Lipolysis
Catecholamines bind to a G protein-coupled receptor
o Activated the enzyme hormone sensitive lipase
(HSL)
 Breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and
glycerol
Figure 2 Catecholamine synthesis part 2.
The glycerol then goes to the liver
o Gets converted to glucose
III) CATECHOLAMINE EFFECTS The fatty acids go to the muscles
o Undergo beta oxidation and produce ATP
(A) EFFECTS ON THE LIVER o Helps with contraction
(1) Epinephrine goes
to the liver
Binds to a G protein-coupled receptor
o Triggers an intracellular cascade
(2) It activates a G stimulatory protein
that goes to an effector enzyme on the cell membrane –
Adenylate cyclase
o The effector enzyme has a specific point of Figure 4 Effects on adipose tissue.
attachment for the Gs protein
o The effector enzyme becomes very active (C) EFFECTS ON THE HEART

(3) Adenylate cyclase (1) Catecholamines exert their effects

has a specific enzyme – GTPase on the cardiomyocytes

o GTPase cuts the GTP and turns it into GDP Stimulates the expression of beta-1-adrenergic
o Energy is produced and used to convert ATP to cAMP receptors
o cAMP activates protein kinase A (pkA) o These receptors bind catecholamines

(4) Glycogenolysis
There is about 300g of glycogen in the liver
o Glycogen is a polymer of glucose
 A storage molecule for glucose (2) Catecholamines also affect
Enzymes (glycogen phosphorylase, debranching
the non-contractile muscle cells
enzymes, etc.) cut up the glycogen into individual
of the SA node and the AV node
monomers – glucose
Stimulates the expression of beta-1-adrenergic
o The process is stimulated by catecholamines
receptors
 Cortisol increases the sensitivity of the adrenergic
o These receptors bind catecholamines
receptors that bind them

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 (3) Catecholamines also bind to IV) REVIEW QUESTIONS
alpha-1-adrenergic receptors on some blood vessels
1) Which is the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
Cause vasoconstriction
a) Zona fasciculata
b) Zona reticularis
c) Zona glomerulosa
d) Zona pellucida
↑ blood pressure gets the nutrients to the vital tissue
o As much of nutrients as possible
o As quickly as possible 2) What tissue is the adrenal medulla made of?
a) Neural
b) Epithelial
c) Muscle
d) Connective
3) Which is the following is true for the adrenal
medulla?
a) Has three layers
b) Is made of glandular cuboidal epithelial tissue
c) Has one layer
d) That’s where aldosterone is synthesized

4) What is the primary stimulus of the SNS?

a) Acute stress
b) Resting
c) Reading
Figure 5 Effects on the heart. d) Eating
(D) EFFECTS ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
(1) Smooth muscle surrounds the bronchi 5) Which of these is the building block of the
epinephrine pathway?
Catecholamines act on those smooth muscle cells a) Dopamine
o By binding to alpha-2-adrenergic receptors b) Serotonin
 Cause the bronchioles to dilate c) Histamine
d) Tyrosine

6) Which enzyme converts dopamine to

norepinephrine?
a) DOPA decarboxylase
b) Dopamine beta hydroxylase
c) Phenylethanolamine n-methyltransferase
d) Dopamine kinase

7) What are the effects of the catecholamines on the

liver?
a) Stimulating glycolysis
b) Inhibiting gluconeogenesis
c) Stimulating gluconeogenesis
d) Inhibiting glycogenolysis

8) What are the effects of the catecholamines on the

heart?
a) ↑ heart rate
b) ↑ cardiac output
c) ↑ stroke volume
Figure 6 Effects on the lungs. d) All of the above
(E) OTHER EFFECTS 9) Which of the following is an effect of the
catecholamines on the lungs?
(1) The vessels going to the GI tract a) Bronchoconstriction
constrict and divert the blood to b) Bronchodilatation
o Skeletal muscles c) ↓ respiration
o Brain d) Bradypnea (slow breathing rate)
o Heart, etc. 10) Which of the following is WRONG for the effects of
↓ GI tract activity the catecholamines?
a) ↑ blood pressure
(2) The blood vessels going to the kidneys b) Stimulating glycogenolysis
constrict and divert the blood c) ↑ GI tract activity
d) Stimulating lypogenesis
(3) The blood vessels in the skin
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
constrict and divert the blood

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