1 Introduction The industrial, political and intellectual upheaval in Europe had created tremendous impact to the society.

The peoples way of life had been revolutionized by the emergence of political thoughts and new means of production. These changes brought confusion to people who were used to a simple, predictive and quiet way of living. However, the social phenomenon brought new opportunities and development to those who welcomed and accepted it as social condition that is inevitable. Mass migration of people living in rural areas had started to flock the city in search of greener pasture; thus shuttering a family structure that has been intact for generations. As members of society struggle to cope and adapt to a new type of society, individual problems emerged. Marital conflicts started to threaten or destroy the relationship which was considered solid; labor disputes between the owner and the workers were common, crimes had been a part of every day life. The radical change that challenged the core of society and the ability of the members to understand, cope and identify their individual roles had prompted educators, scholars and social scientists to look in to the source of the problems and explain possible solution. Thus the concept of sociology was developed. 2 Overview of Sociology and Foundations of Sociology Many of us do not care about the society in which we live in. We are not interested to understand its structure, its problems and its future and worse we sometimes treat or considered our society as totally different from our own and not a part of us. Some people view society and its problem as an isolated situation. Every thing we care about is our own problem and how to solve it. We are physically a part of it but socially uncooperative. These illogical views are stemmed from a perspective that we are not affected by a disorganized society. The lack of understanding of our role in the society has created a barrier between us as individual and the society as a whole. The challenges that plagued our society should be understood by all members, not only as an observer but as player. The basic premise underlying sociology is the notion that only by understanding the society in which we live can we gain a fuller insight into ourselves. C. Wright Mills (1959) termed this quality of the discipline sociological imagination- the ability to see our private experiences and personal problems as entwined with structural arrangements of our society.

In this topic, the formation of sociology will be explained as well as the sociologists who were instrumental to the development of sociology as a discipline and who observed, and formulated sociological perspectives to explain the problems. What is Sociology? Sociology is defined as the scientific study of social interaction and organization. Why do we need to study sociology?
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It allows us to understand society To improve human condition To bear on difficult questions associated with social policies and choices

The Development of Sociology The development of sociology as a discipline was prompted by rapid social change that took part in Europe during the 18th and 19th century. The great transformation of European society was attributed to the industrial revolution. The traditional way of life had been challenged and disrupted, thus the tightly knit groups of families and villages and the individual reliance on the group had been changed forever. The self-sufficiency and cooperation displayed by families and villages in producing basic necessities had been turned into assembly line and division of labor. Thus, the people who were used to basic and simple living learned to be competitive and individualist. People abandon their traditional way of life, flock to the cities and became a part of the larger force. The new way of life offered by this change of system of production separated families and weakened the tradition that had governed community for centuries. The new means of production created an unprecedented demand of workers in order to cope with the needs and demand of the growing population. As the demand continues to boom, more workers were needed, cities started to grew to unprecedented size, migrants from rural areas started to face tremendous social problems such as pollution, crimes and homelessness. The trouble and conflict encountered by people in the cities started to change the course of action. The chaos brought political ideas which were viewed as an alternative to the existing system, idea that will fit the prevailing situation. Political and social thinkers introduced alternatives for the people to decide the best system that would safeguard their rights and freedom.

The new system created economic and social arrangements which further complicated the status of urban dwellers. Vander Zanden (1999) said that excesses of the industrial system led some thinkers like Marx to scrutinize the operation of social and economic institutions and to propose alternatives to them. 3 Proponents of Sociology Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (1789-1857) is commonly credited with being the founder of sociology and as having coned the name sociology for the new science. He emphasized that the study of sociology must be scientific, and he urged sociologists to use systematic observation, experimentation, and comparative historical analysis as their methods. Comte divided the study of society into social statics and social dynamics. Social statics involves those aspects of social life that have to do with order and stability and that allow societies to hold together and endure. Social dynamics refers to those aspects of social life that have to do with social change and that pattern institutional development. Although the specifics of his work no longer direct contemporary sociology, Comte exerted enormous influence on the thinking of other sociologists, particularly Herbert Spencer, Harriet Marneau and Emile Durkheim. Harriet Martineau She was an English sociologist who paved the way for the new discipline through her observations of social behavior in the United States and England. Like Comte, she insisted that the study of society represents a separate scientific field. Among her contributions was the first book on the methodology of social research, How to Observe Manners and Morals, published in 1838. She also undertook the comparative study of the stratification systems of Europe and the United States. Throughout her career Martineau was an ardent defender of womens rights. In masterly fashion she showed the similarities between the position of women in the Western world and that of American slaves and called for freedom and justice in an age in which they were granted only to white males. Herbert Spencer

An English sociologist shared Comtes concern with social statics and social dynamics. He viewed society as having important similarities with a biological organism and depicted it as a system, a whole made up of interrelated parts. Society is made up of institutions like the family, religion, education, the state, and the economy. Like biologists who portray an organism in terms of its structures and the functional contributions these three structures make to its survival. Spencer described society in similar terms. Intrigued by the Darwinian view of natural selection, Spencer applied the concept of the survival of the fittest to the social world, an approach termed Social Darwinism. He sought to demonstrate that government should not interfere with the natural processes going on in a society. Only in this manner would people who were fit survive and those who were unfit die out. If this principle were allowed to operate freely, human beings and their institutions, like plants and animals, would progressively adapt themselves to their environment and reach higher levels of historical development. Spencers social Darwinist outlook shows that the ideas we hold about the universe and ourselves are shaped by the social age in which we live. Spencers social Darwinist ideas were used extensively within England and the United States. Karl Marx Although Karl Marx considered himself a political activist and not a sociologist, in truth he was both- a philosopher, historian, economist, and political scientist as well. He viewed science not only as a tool for transforming it. Marx was especially anxious to change the structure of capitalist institutions and establish new institutions in the service of humanity. Although born in Germany, Marx was compelled to spend much of his adult life as a political exile in London. Marx has influenced sociological thinking both by his penetrating insights and by the fact that some sociologists have constructed their work specifically against his theory. He focused his search on the economic environments in which societies develop, particularly the current state of their technology and their method of organizing production. At each stage of history, these factors dictate the group that will dictate society and the groups that will be subjugated. He believed that society is divided into those who own the means of producing wealth, and those who do not, which gives rise to class conflict. All history, he said is composed of struggles between classes.

Class antagonisms revolve about the struggle between the oppressing capitalist class or bourgeoisie and the oppressed working class or proletariat. The former derive their income through their ownership of the means of production, primarily factories, which allows them to exploit the labor of workers. The latter own nothing except their labor power and, because they dependent for a living on the jobs provided by capitalists must sell their labor power in order to exist. Marx adapted the idea of dialectical materialism, the notion that development depends on the clash of contradictions and the creation of new, more advanced structures out of these clashes. In the Marxian view of history, every economic order grows to a state of maximum efficiency; at the same time, it develops internal contradictions or weakness that contributes to its decay. The roots of an opposing order already begin to take hold in an old order. In time, the new order displaces the old order, while simultaneously absorbing its most useful features. Marx depicted slavery as being displaced by feudalism, feudalism by capitalism, capitalism by socialism, and ultimately socialism by communism (the highest stage of society). Marx portrayed political ideologies, religion, family organization, education, and government as making up the superstructure of society. The economic base of society- its mode of producing goods and its class structure- influences the forms that other institutions take. When one class controls the critical means whereby people derive their livelihood, its members gain the leverage necessary to fashion other aspects of institutional life- the superstructure- in ways that favor their class interests. Marx thought that when the working class became armed with a revolutionary ideology that fostered its class-consciousness, it would overturn the existing social order and establish one that would pursue humane goals. Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim focused his sociological eye on the question of how societies hold together and endure. Central to Durkheims sociology is the notion that social integration is necessary for the maintenance of the social order and for the happiness of individuals. In particular, he suggested that happiness depends on individuals finding a sense of meaning outside themselves that occurs within the context of group involvement. In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim examined social solidarity. He distinguished between the types of solidarity found in early societies the social

structure was relatively simple, with little division of labor. They derived a sense of oneness because they were so much alike, what Durkheim termed mechanical solidarity. Complex social structures and a sophisticated division of labor, in contrast, characterize modern societies. People perform specialized tasks in factories, offices, and schools. Since each person performs a relatively narrow range of tasks, no one person can be self- sufficient, and all must depend upon others to survive. Under these circumstances, society is held together by the interdependence fostered by the differences among people. What Durkheim labeled organic solidarity. Durkheim ascribed ultimate social reality to the group, not to the individual. He contended that the distinctive subject matter of sociology should be the study of social facts. Social facts are aspects of social life that cannot be explained in terms of the biological or mental characteristics of the individual. The social fact serves to constrain their behavior. Durkheim insisted that the explanation of social life must be sought in society itself. Durkheim convincingly demonstrated the critical part social facts play in human behavior in his book suicide. Max Weber Among sociologists, he is not only known for his theoretical contributions but for a number of specific ideas that in their own right have generated considerable interest and research. Weber believed that sociologists can derive an understanding of their subject matter in a manner that is unavailable to chemists and physicists. In investigating human behavior, sociologists are not limited to such objective criteria as weight and temperature; they can examine the meanings individual bring to their interactions with one another. Weber contended that a critical aspect of the sociological enterprise is the study of intentions, values, beliefs, and attitudes that underlie peoples behavior. Weber employed the German word Verstehen meaning understanding or insight- in describing this approach for learning about the subjective meanings people attach to their actions. In using this method sociologist mentally attempt to place themselves in the shoes of other people and identify what they think and how they feel. Another notable contribution of Weber is his concept of the ideal type. An ideal type is a concept constructed by a sociologist to portray the principal characteristics of a phenomenon. Weber also stressed the importance of a valuefree sociology.

He insisted that sociologists must not allow their personal biases to affect the conduct of their scientific research. Weber recognized that objectivity is not neutrality. Neutrality implies that a person does not take sides on an issue; objectivity has to do with the pursuit of scientifically verifiable knowledge.

1 Introduction Every society in the world is vulnerable to conflict and change. But how a society changes is something that is impacted or influenced by many factors. The change that is part of every society must be understood by every member, because only in understanding that they gain fuller insight to it. Some people interpret issues and events based on their own perspective, thus, ignoring the reasons of the players involved, the meaning that it corresponds and how such event and issue reflects the condition of society. We usually view personal trouble as entirely personal or within the context of individual. We do not consider personal experiences and difficulties as part or reflection of our society. We do not take it as part of the puzzle, but rather an issue that must be considered separate. Issues and events must not be seen in a different context but must be connected in order to see the whole. The conflict and malady of individuals and institution should be taken in to consideration because it will certainly affect the society. Does the change created by an individual or institution affect the whole society? Does the malady of one institution create confusion and problem to the whole? 2 Sociological Perspectives As an individual, as a family and as a group, we are confronted with many issues that confused, challenged, and forced us to examine the source of the conflict and the possible solution to it. But how do we examine and interpret these problems? As an individual, do you consider yourself as the only source of the problem? Or do you blame the society as part of it? Are we prepared to compromise our rights and responsibilities in order to have a better society? As a family and as a group, are we prepared to take the consensus to admit responsibilities for the dilemma of

society? How do we view conflict in our society? Is it something that we ignore and blame or relish? The sociological perspectives will give you an insight of the different views of depicting the world and how the interrelated concepts affect the society as a whole. There are three major perspectives in sociology: the functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective and the symbolic or interactionist perspective. Sociological perspective defined Sociological perspective is a general approach to phenomena that affords a set of assumption ands interrelated concepts of depicting the world. Each perspective examines different aspect of society and how does it affect the society as a whole. Sociological perspectives scrutinize every detail of society in the context of social interaction, social issues such as conflict and provide different views of social life. Sociological perspectives give us a clue as to why events happen.

3 The Three Major Sociological Perspectives 1. The Functionalist Perspective The functional perspective draws upon the ideas of Auguste Comet, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim (Ritzer, 1983). Their theories are mainly focused on the macro aspect of social life. Functionalists considered broad aspect of society as part of the problem. Functionalist perspective examines the society as a whole but take into consideration the role of every institution and the effect it has to the society. Functionalist Perspective takes into account the ff: The social system Functionalists have taken the idea that society is a system composed of set of elements or components that are related to each other. Each part has a corresponding function in order for the system to operate and that a malfunction of the other will certainly affect the ability of the system to function well. Institutions that form part of the society such as the family, religion, the economy, education and the state are the main focus of the functionalist perspective. The primary functions of these institutions are carefully analyzed and its contribution to the

society so that the impact of each can be evaluated. In addition, functionalist perspective likened society to that of the body. A body is composed of different organs that are connected. A dysfunction of one organ will affect the mobility of the body and will render the body susceptible to complications and other diseases. Thus, functionalists stressed the importance of balance or equilibrium among its parts, because an imbalance will create instability that will affect the whole. Example, the entry of women in the labor force has an impact to the children and to the educational system. New arrangements are required to take care of the children during the day. Functions and Dysfunctions Functionalists pay special attention to the functions performed by a systems parts, especially its institution, roles, cultural patterns, social norms, and groups. Functions are the observed consequences that permit the adaptation or adjustment of a system (Merton, 1968). Functionalists say that if a system is to survive, certain essential tasks must be performed, should these tasks go unperformed, the system fails to maintain itself. However, Robert Merton (1968) points out that just as institutions and the other parts of society can contribute to the maintenance of the social system; they can also have negative effect. Those observed consequences that lessen the adaptation or adjustment of a system he terms dysfunction. Manifest and Latent Functions Robert Merton (1968) also distinguishes manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are those consequences that are intended and recognized by the participants in a system. Latent functions are those consequences that are neither intended nor recognized. Social consensus Functionalists also assume that most members of a society agree on what is desirable, worthwhile, and moral, and what is undesirable, worthless, and evil. They share a consensus regarding their core values and beliefs. Functionalists say that a high degree of consensus provides the foundation for social integration and stability. 2. The Conflict Perspective The major idea of conflict perspective was taken from the ideas of Karl Marx. The main focus of conflict perspective is the conflict that divides society, how it affects

change and how it creates division among members of society. Conflict perspective emphasizes that conflict is always a part of human struggle and that conflict is instrumental in continually transforming social life. They stressed the idea that unity is not possible because of the different interests of the members and that the very arrangements of society make it impossible for the members to be united and instead create disorder and instability. Sources of conflict The scarcity of resources that people desire create disorder and instability. Since man has unlimited needs and wants, the limited supply that man has always sought for such as wealth, prestige and power have put an individual in competition with others. The gains of one individual means the loss for others, thus the conflict ensued. Conflict theorists ask how some group acquires power, dominate other groups and affect their will in human affairs. However, in spite of all these troubles in society, it is the conflict that held society together. 3. The Symbolic/Interactionist Perspective Symbolic/interactionist perspective examines the interplay of individual and the society. It also considers the importance of symbols that group of people use in order to understand each other. Interactionist theorists have their attention to the individuals who make up society and have asked how they go fitting their actions together. Symbols Interactionists emphasize that we are social beings who live a group existence. They believed in the ability of human being to communicate by means of symbols. Because they stress the importance of social interaction and the symbols people use to attune themselves to one another. Meaning: Constructing Reality Symbolic interactionists contend that we act toward people, objects, and events on the basis of the meanings we impart to them. Meaning is not something that inheres in things; it is a property that derives from or arises out of, the interaction that takes place among people in the course of their daily lives. Reality is manufactured by people as they intervene in the world and interpret what is occurring there. Symbolic interactionists say that we experience the world as constructed reality.

Fashioning Behavior Symbolic theorists portray us as creatively constructing our actions in accordance with the meanings we attribute to a situation. In fashioning our behavior, we use symbols to define our perceptual inputs, mentally outline possible responses, imagine the consequences of alternative courses of action, eliminate unlikely possibilities, and finally select the optimal mode of action. We mentally rehearse our actions before we actually act and, upon acting serve as audiences to our own actions. We map, test, devise, suspend, and revise our overt actions in response to the actions of others. Table 1 Functionalist Conflict Symbolic/Interactionist Primary level The large The large The small scale or of Analysis scale or scale or macro aspects of the macro macro social enterprise aspects of the aspects of social the social enterprise enterprise Nature of A social A social A social reality that Society system made order people create and reup of characterized create anew as they interdependent by interact with one parts competing another interest groups each of which pursues its own interests Foundations Social Individuals People who attribute of social consensus and groups meaning to one interaction among the engaged in another and to objects members of conflict and and events with society that the exercise symbols derived from of power and shared beliefs coercion and values

Focus of study

Social order The interests and the that divide maintenance the members of the social of society system and foster through the social performance change of essential functions Advantages Depicts the Is capable of big picture dealing with of social life historical especially as it processes finds and expression in providing patterned insight on recurrent institutional behavior and and societal institutions change Disadvantages Has difficulty Has dealing with difficulty historical dealing with processes and social the consensus, mechanisms the of social integration change of society and institutional stability

The development of the self and the dynamic interplay between the individual and the society

Portrays people as active social beings who have the ability to think and fashion meaningful social arrangements

Has difficulty dealing with the large-scale organizational components of society and with relations among organizations and societies.

1 Introduction He who is unable to live in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be either a beast or a god Abigail Adams

Every society in the world has a unique history of evolution and development and every societys transformation has created social change which affected and influenced the way of life of the members. Some societies have struggled to preserve the status quo which has been practiced for generations, but at the same time wanted to adapt a different social structure that is challenging the very foundation of their society. Every society has a different social structure which defines the social ideology of people and allows the player to play their role. The social structure is instrumental in defining the status or statuses and roles of individuals, and in this we must play our part. Every one of us has a role to play in our society; every one is expected to contribute for the society to function well. 2 Society Man is a political animal according to Aristotle. The need to belong to the company of others is always part of human instinct, and that need of belongingness was the reason why man has formed a society. In addition, no man is selfsufficient, he cannot produce everything he needs, and this limitation has prompted man to be a part of society. As a member, we have a role to play, however, in playing the role; we are subject to the rules, norms and laws of our society. This section of the module will discuss the types of societies we have according to technology, the social structure defined by society such as the statuses and roles and the theories of societies. What constitute a society? A society is composed of a group of individuals characterized by the same common interest and has a distinctive culture and institutions; people who interact in a defined territory and culture. Members of society may be from different ethnic groups. The word society may also attach to an organized association of people who pursue the same interests like religious, political environmental or scientific and other purposes.

3 Types of societies according to their technology Hunting and gathering societies The people who lived in this society were dependent on the whims of nature. This dependency has created a nomadic form of life which prompted these people to move as they deplete the vegetation in an area and follow migratory animals to move to another place where food is abundant. These people have no territorial concept; they do not have control over their environment. The constant movement in search of food has not helped these people to create a society but instead relied on kinship to distribute food and to protect the family. The sharing of responsibilities of men and women are defined through the manner of food gathering; women gather vegetation and men take on the less task of hunting. They use simple tools like spear, bow and arrow and stone knife to gather food or hunt animals. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies This society has limited the dependency of people to nature. The use of tools to raise crops had been the mark of the start of self-sufficiency of these people to grow their own food. They clear the land through slush and burn, plant crops for two to three years and transfer to another place to look for a fertile land. Though the concept of territoriality has not yet developed but horticulturalists had started to settle in a place and considered it their own as they waited to harvest their crops. This idea of settlement has enabled these people to produce food above for human survival. Agrarian societies The use of animals and more reliable tools for planning has been developed in this society. The great discovery of metallurgy has made it possible for people to have a more sophisticated planting resources and technique. The innovations had produced large crops and more food and expanding population. Since people learned to settle in one place, complex problems emerged, to remedy social institutions like religion and political institutions have been developed to cater to the needs of the growing populations. Church and political leaders become a part of social transformation. Monarchy and monarchs emerged, and powers were concentrated in the hands of powerful people. Industrial Societies

The increasing demand of a growing population has enabled European societies to discover new machines that could provide increase in production. The industrial revolution gave birth to industrial societies which paved the way for a social transformation that totally changed Europe and the rest of the world. The economic sufficiency of people and traditional way of life was replaced by assembly line, division of labor and new market system. These changes had created political and economic ideologies which in turn were instrumental in the creation of new institutions. As the new society continues to transform, new demands are needed. Intellectual transformation has been an urgent call for people who want to be a part of the new system. The ability to read and write which is limited to a certain social class has been put into the primary concern and interest, thus educational institutions led to the opening of educational institutions. Postindustrial Societies Not all societies have reached the stage of post-industrialization. Only rich societies like the United States and Japan were able to transform the concentration of their societies into a different level of manufacturing goods and the provision of services. In the postindustrial society, workers find employment in the new provision of services and there is an increase of specialized field of people like in medicine. Specialization is clearly defined which allows people to focus more on the field of expertise. New techniques and machines are also introduced which provide better and higher accuracy. It makes the production and services fast and reliable. 4 Social Structure In the midst of social change that is going on, societys social structure has also managed to transform. The social structure that is part of society is designed to meet the needs and responsibilities of people. Do you think people interact in haphazard or random manner? Our manner of interaction and relationship is characterized by social ordering. Sociologists apply the term social structure to this social ordering. Social structure gives us a system of organization and stability in our day to day activities and interaction with people. However, the sort of stability and focus provided by social structures limits or constraints our behaviors and gives us a way of looking into another direction to do our actions. Statuses In our society, we are not only considered as member but we are identified in accordance with our status. However, most people define ones ranking in the

society according to wealth, prestige, power and influence. But, sociologists employ status to mean ones position in a group or society. Status is important in positioning and locating people in a social structure, like priest, mayor, mother, attorney, doctor and others. However, it is also through statuses that our actions and behaviors are constrained. We need to follow what has been approved by society. And some societies have put limitations to the degree of competition allowed and how it is achieved; further, limitations are sometimes centered on gender, age and social affiliations. The statuses that have defined society are ascribed and achieved statuses. Ascribed Status A position in society that is achieved because of inheritance or lineage. The automatic transmission of a particular position is accorded through characteristics such as sex, ethnicity or physical feature. This type of position is not based on individual talent but primarily determined by the relationship of the person to the one who is presently occupying the status. Determinants of ascribed status:
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Race Religion Family background

Achieved Status This status is achieved through individual abilities, hard work and educational merit. This position in the social structure can only be achieved through competition which society permits and require in recognizing the individuals uniqueness and interest. It is societys reward to those who have accomplished the task and to those who failed. Examples: Lawyers, president, actor, doctor, police Master Status

A status which overshadows our other statuses and carries primary weight in our dealing and relationship with people. For patriarchal societies, sex is a master status, for children age is a master status. Roles People who occupy a status have different set of defined rights and duties that sociologists termed a role. The behavior of individual doing the role should be in conformity with the status he/she occupies. Conflict arises if the person does not know the difference between a status and a role; they seem to merge the two. The difference between a status and a role is that we occupy the status and play a role. Sociologists have taken the notion of role from the theater, an analogy suggested by William Shakespeare in As you like it (Act 11, scene 7). All the worlds a stage, And all the men and women merely players, They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his times plays many parts. Role Performance Role performance is the expected behavior of people who occupy the status. How the role is performed is something that we care about. Some who occupy the status do not do what is expected of them to do and sometimes there is a conflict on how they should do it and how they actually do it. People differ on how they perform and implement their rights and duties. Role Set A single status does not only create single role but there are multiple roles attach to it. Role set is a role filled with duties and activities that are entwined with a single role. For example, the role of a mother, but a mother is also a wife, and a daughter to her parents. Roles impinge on us as sets of norms that define our duties-the actions others can legitimately insist that we perform- and our rights- the actions we can legitimately insist that others perform (Goffman, 1961). Role Conflict

Role conflict arises when individuals are confronted with conflicting expectations arising from their multiple roles which threaten their ability to focus to the interest of their status. Consider for example the role of a president who is pressured to execute the death penalty law but is having conflict because of her religious belief. Role Strain Role strain occurs when individuals find the expectations of a single role incompatible, so that they have difficulty performing the role. Consider the role of a supervisor, supervisors often confront difficulties. They wonder: should I be a good Joe and mix with my staff, or should I maintain my distance from them? (James Vander Zanden, 1993 pp.47-48). Theories of Society Karl Marx: Society and Conflict Why is there a conflict in society?
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Struggle over valued resources Different interest of capitalists and the workers Dominant position of capitalists protecting their wealth Basic necessities are not met Unequal distribution of resources Social change is brought by conflict Conflict is a good source of change

Emile Durkheim How societies hold together and endure?

No person is self-sufficient Interdependence fostered by differences among people A society is an association formed by individuals

Max Weber How does society change?

Human ideas shape society Beliefs and values are key to understanding and shaping the society

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Rationality can change society Present situation must be the basis of action

How does a rational society operate?

Distinctive social institutions Large scale organizations Specialized tasks Personal discipline Awareness of time Technical competence Impersonality

1 Introduction
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When we go to another place, we are amazed by the differences that people practice as part of their way of life. Some practices are unique that we are easily captivated but some are unacceptable for us, judging it from the point of view of our cultural heritage. We tend to compare and judge other peoples culture based on our own and that we fail to consider that culture is relative. That no ones culture is superior to that of the other. A part of every one of us is influenced and molded by culture. So we cannot just blame, dictate or force others to change their outlook, beliefs, rituals or practices because we are at risk of doing cultural damage that might cause cultural clash.

2 Culture Culture is a web that binds people together. It connects the separated lives into a larger whole. It is a mental construct that gives us a clue as we go about our daily lives and how to enter into a relationship with people. Culture also provides us a common understanding that we use in doing our actions. The union that culture provides through a common framework of meaning that we share makes the society possible. Only through similar sharing of meaning that we become one.

This topic will give you an idea of the influence of culture in our lives. From the way we style our hair, the food that we eat, the clothes we wear and even the structure of government can be attributed to culture. This module will discuss the characteristics of culture and its components. What is culture? Culture refers to the social heritage of a people- those learned patterns for thinking, feeling, and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next including the embodiment of these patterns in material items (Vander Zanden, 1995). Culture is expressed in two forms: material culture and nonmaterial culture. Material culture includes things that we can see such as architecture, artifacts, objects, paintings and games and others which reflect the tradition, leisure and daily activities of people. While nonmaterial culture includes beliefs, values, symbols, norms and institutional arrangements; practices that guide people in their daily lives.

3 Characteristics of Culture 1. Culture is learned An individual bases his behavior on his own experience. The action is guided by the absorbed habits, traits, and values through interaction. 2. Culture is transmitted It is transmitted through interaction from one generation to the next. The main agent of transmission is the family. 3. Culture is shared It unites people. It is the guidelines of society. 4. Culture is patterned and integrated It is patterned in a unified whole through its people and incorporated in school, work place, and in our laws. 5. Culture is adaptive and maladaptive No culture is static and each individual must cope to the changing society.

4 Components of Culture Culture is composed of a set of components that guide us in our daily activities and actions. These components are shared and understood by every member of a cultural group that a violation of one of these can put an individual into an outcast. Components of culture are reflection of the ideals of the members of society. It represents the members adherent to their history, political ideology, and religion. Norms: Every society in the world specifies what is appropriate and inappropriate. So we live by norms. Norms are social rules that specify acceptable and unacceptable behavior in a given situation. Norms guide us what we should, ought, and must do as well as the things that we should not, ought not, and must not do. However, in all cultures, rules are specified in such matters as sex, property, and safety. Norms give us a clue on how we present or conduct ourselves to other people. They provide social definitions that give us proper way of presenting ourselves to others so that we can align them with those of other people. Examples: Not talking out loud during a play, wearing black clothes to a funeral Folkways: These are norms that do not carry severe sanction or punishment because members of the society do not consider these a threat to the stability and future of the society. Members do not impose strict adherence to folkways because it is somewhat personal and dependent on the individual preference. Examples: Groom our hair, bathing, brushing our teeth, wear shoes Mores: These are norms that attach strong and severe sanction if violated because of its effect to the society. These create instability and problems to the members and to the society as a whole. Moral issues are usually attached to the violators. They are considered immoral, deviant, evil and wicked, thus, society has created different levels of punishment and built an institution in order to isolate these people away from the center of society. Examples:

The prohibition against having sex in public, the prohibition against destroying other people's property. Laws: A societys mores are important source of laws. Laws are rules that are enforced by a special political organization composed of individuals who enjoy the right to use force. As anthropologist E. A. Hoebel observes the essentials of legal coercion are general acceptance of the application of power, in threat or in fact, by a privileged party, for a legitimate cause, in a legitimate way, and at a legitimate time. The people who administer laws may make use of physical force with a low probability of retaliation by a third party. Laws tend to be the result of conscious thought, deliberate planning, and formal declaration. They can be changed more readily than can folkways and mores. Examples: Speed limits, not having sex with someone against their will (rape) Values: Values are broad ideas regarding what is desirable, correct, and good that most members of a society share. Values are so general and abstract that they do not explicitly specify which behaviors are acceptable and which are not. Instead values provide us with criteria and conceptions by which we evaluate people, objects and events as to their relative worth, merit, beauty, or morality. Examples: Personal freedom, egalitarian Symbols: Symbols are acts or objects that have come to be socially accepted as standing for something else. They come to represent other things through the shared understandings people have. Symbols are a powerful code or shorthand for representing and dealing with aspects of the world about us. Symbols assume many different forms. Take gestures-body postures or movements with social significance. Examples: Flags, paintings, religious icons, badges, and uniforms also function as social symbols. Language: A socially structured system of sound patterns (words and sentences) with specific and arbitrary meanings. Language is the cornerstone of every culture. It is the chief vehicle by which people

communicate ideas, information, attitudes, and emotions to one another. And it is the principal means by which human beings create culture and transmit it from generation to generation. Examples: Filipino, English, French Cultural diversity may also be found within a society. Members of some groups participate in the main culture of the society while simultaneously sharing with one another a number of unique values, norms, traditions, and life styles. These distinctive cultural patterns are termed a subculture. Ethnocentrism: There is a tendency for people who belong to the same cultural group to define reality from their own point of view. It a belief that one's group is at "the center of everything and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. The function of ethnocentrism is to increase one's appreciation and commitment to one's cultural group. Ethnocentrism is found among families, tribes, nations, cliques, colleges, fraternities, businesses, churches, and political parties. The notion that one belongs to the best people provides a kind of social glue cementing people together. Feelings of group pride, belongingness, and collective self-awareness promote solidarity and stability. But at the same time this feelings generate intergroup conflict. Ethnocentrism is a double-edge feeling. It fosters a sense of oneness, overriding divisions within a group and binding together people who otherwise are divided by economic conflicts and social gradations. And it sets people apart by promoting a longing not to belong to any other group. Xenocentrism: The idea that what is foreign is best and that one's lifestyle, products, or ideas are inferior to that of others. Those coming from foreign lands and the exotic are particularly favored. Xenocentrism is centered on a product, an idea, or a lifestyle. Syncretism: The blending or fusing of the trait with a like element in another culture. Our contemporary Christmas and Easter holidays are examples. In pre Christian times, many European peoples carried out midwinter and spring ceremonies. The midwinter festival often included games, dancing, exchange of gifts and general merrymaking. These elements have entered into the celebration of Christmas and summed up in the traditional greeting, Merry Christmas. Culture Shock: When people encounter another culture whose patterns of behavior are diverse from their own, they might get disoriented or disorganized. It is a situation brought about by unfamiliarity, lack of understanding, and inability to communicate with the society they come in contact with. Culture shock may be experienced by migrants.

Cultural Relativism: Views the behavior of a people from the perspective of their own culture. Cultural relativism employs the kind of value-free or neutral approach advocated by Karl Marx. A perspective characterized by cultural relativism does not ask whether or not a particular trait is moral or immoral, but what part it plays in the life of a people. Counterculture: A counterculture rejects many of the behavioral standards and guideposts that hold in the dominant culture.