MODULE 4

Computer Integrated Manufacturing

4.1 MEANING OF CIM
“Computer-integrated manufacturing is contagious.” -Joseph Harrington

"CIM is an amorphous beast. It will be different in every company.” -Leo Roth Klein,
Manufacturing Control Systems, Inc.

"It has been called a strategy, a product, a direction, and a vision. It has been the subject of
thousands of books, articles, speeches and conferences. Manufacturers have invested billions of
dollars in it. Yet nobody can agree on what 'it' is. " - In Search of CIM, ASKhorizons, fall 1989

"The term computer-integrated manufacturing does not mean an automated factory." -Joseph
Harrington

"CIM is not applying computers to the design of the products of the company. That is computer-
aided design (CAD)! It is not using them as tools for part and assembly analysis. That is
computer-aided engineering (CAE)! It is not using computers to aid in the development of part
programs to drive machine tools. That is computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)! It is not
materials requirement planning (MRP) or just-in-time (JIT) or any other method for developing
the production schedule. It is not automated identification, data collection, or data acquisition. It
is not simulation or modeling of any materials handling or robots or anything else like that.
Taken by themselves, they are the application of computer technology to the process of
manufacturing. But taken by themselves they only create the islands of automation. " -Leo Roth
Klein, Manufacturing Control Systems, Inc.

5.2 INTRODUCTION TO CIM

The term CIM comprises three words-computers, integrated, and manufacturing. Though all
three words are equally significant, the first two are secondary-merely adjectives modifying the
last one (manufacturing). CIM is thus the application of computers in manufacturing in an
integrated way. All types of computers, from personal computers (PCs) to mainframes, may be
used in CIM.
The middle term, integrated, in CIM is very appropriate. It brings home the point that integration
of all the resources-capital, human, technology, and equipment-is vital to success in
manufacturing. Implicitly, CIM discourages any haphazard application of computers, and other
technologies, that results in isolated islands of automation. Integration is achieved through timely
and effective communication, which CIM relies on heavily. Since the computer is the basis of
integration, commu-nication within the context of CIM is strongly computer-oriented.
Although computers and computer communications have been with us since the 1950s;
CIM is relatively new. It began to draw attention only in the 1980s. Why this late? For two
reasons. First, until recently computers had been too expensive to be cost-effective in
manufacturing. Only business functions, such as accounting and payroll, and to some extent
inventory management, could justify the high costs. The low cost and improved capabilities of
today's computer systems have changed that. The second reason for the delayed "birth" of CIM
and its slow progress is the sheer complexity of integration, arising from the large number of
tasks that interact in discrete manufacturing in today's sophisticated market.
Integrated manufacturing by itself is not a new concept. But CIM-which orchestrates the
factors of production and its management-is. CIM is an umbrella term under which all functions
of manufacturing and associated acronyms, such as computer-aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing (CAD/CAM), flexible manufacturing system (FMS), and computer-aided process
planning (CAPP) find a place.
Discrete manufacturing has always presented a challenge because of the large number of
factors involved and their interaction. CIM is being projected as a panacea for this type of
industry, which produces 40% of all goods. Process industries, where volume is high enough to
justify hard or dedicated automation, may also benefit from CIM.

4.2.1 Definition of CIM

CIM means exactly what it says: computer-integrated manufacturing. It describes integrated
applications of computers in manufacturing. A number of observers have attempted to refine its
meaning:
One needs to think of CIM as a computer system in which the peripherals, instead of being
printers, plotters, terminals, and memory disks, are robots, machine tools, and other processing
equipment. It is a little noisier and a little messier, but it's basically a computer system. -Joel
Goldhar, dean, Illinois Institute of Technology

CIM is a management philosophy, not a turnkey computer product. It is a philosophy crucial to

the survival of most manufacturers because it provides the levels of product design and
production control and shop flexibility to compete in future domestic and international markets.
-Dan Appleton, president, DACOM, Inc

CIM is an opportunity for realigning your two most fundamental resources: people and
technology. CIM is a lot more than the integration of mechanical, electrical, and even
informational systems. It's an understanding of the new way to manage. -Charles Savage,
president, Savage Associates

CIM is nothing but a data management and networking problem.

-Jack Conaway, CIM marketing manager, Dee

4.3 BENEFITS OF CIM

In general, CIM benefits can be grouped into tangible and intangible categories, as listed in
Table
Tangible Benefits Intangible Benefits
Higher profits Higher employee morale
Less direct labor Safer working environment
Increased machine use Improved customer image
Reduced scrap and rework Greater scheduling flexibility
Increased factory capacity Greater ease in recruiting new employees
Reduced inventory Increased job security
Shortened new product development time More opportunities for upgrading skills
Fewer missed delivery dates
Decreased warranty costs
4.4 CIM WHEEL
CASA/SME has suggested a framework, the CIM wheel, to elucidate the meaning of CIM.
Formed by SME in 1975, CASA is an interest group of manufacturing professionals. The CIM
wheel, developed by CASA/SME's Technical Council, is shown in Figure 1.1. It depicts a central
core (integrated systems architecture) that handles the common manufacturing data and is
concerned with information resource management and communications. The radial sectors
surrounding the core (wheel hub) represent the various activities of manufacturing, such as
design, material processing, and inspection. These activities have been grouped under three
categories-manufacturing planning and control, product/process, and factory automation-as
depicted in the wheel's inner rim. The outer rim represents the upper management functions,
grouped into four categories: strategic planning, marketing, manufacturing and human resource
management, and finance.
The CIM wheel depicted in figure is the expanded version of an earlier model. The outer rim was
added in 1985 to emphasize the need of including both management and technology functions
within the scope of CIM. As the wheel illustrates, CIM is broad enough to encompass all aspects
of the manufacturing enterprise and its management, including those of personnel and finance.
4.5 EVOLUTION OF CIM
CIM has been evolving since the mid-1970s; however, until 1980 it was merely a concept. The
1980s, especially the second half, saw CIM expand into a technology. By now, industry has
realized that CIM is a necessity rather than a luxury.
Computer-integrated manufacturing continues to evolve so that any claim that a "true" CIM plant
exists is debatable. Progress in this direction has been phenomenal, however, and several full-
blown CIM plants will probably be operating by the turn of the century. Today, numerous
companies market an array of products that, when put together intelligently, can convert an
average manufacturing facility into a CIM operation.
Primary factors that have led to the development of the CIM concept and associated technologies
include the following:
1. Development of numerical control (NC)

2. The advent and cost-effectiveness of computers

3. Manufacturing challenges, such as global competition, high labor cost, regulations, product
liability, and demand for quality products
4. The capability-to-cost attractiveness of microcomputers.
4.6 TYPE OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Manufacturing entails so many processes and operations that comprehending them requires some
type of categorization.
Manufacturing operations can be categorized in several ways depending on the purpose of
grouping, for example, national versus international or product types. For most purposes,
classifications reflect the following six criteria:
1. Continuous or discrete

2. Variety and volume

3. Raw material to final product

4. To order or to stock

5. Size

6. Machinery used

4.6.1 Continuous or Discrete Manufacturing

Manufacturing operations fall into two very broad groups: (a) continuous-flow or process type
and (b) discrete-parts manufacturing (also known as discrete manufacturing). Continuous-flow
operations typify the chemical and mining industries and oil refineries, which produce large
amounts of bulk material. Products in these groups are usually measured in units of volume or
weight, batch size is large, and product variety is low. Since batches are large, designing and
building special machines for their production make sense. Such machines are usually expensive,
but their cost is distributed over a large volume, contributing only marginally to the unit cost.
Since processes are specialized, they are difficult to modify or salvage, if for some reason the
customer no longer requires the product.
Continuous-flow operations, used to manufacture "mature" products in large volumes, are
relatively easier to control and operate, since production uses dedicated machines. These
operations are usually fully automated, with operators minding the machines. From an
integration point of view, the production task is simpler, since processing requirements (one
sequentially following the other) are such that integration is built in at the equipment design
stage itself. The need for flexibility is just not there. As technology improves, newer machines
with built-in automation replace the old ones. Thus, while the term CIM may be new to process
industries, integrated manufacturing based on the CIM concept certainly is not.
The term discrete-parts manufacturing denotes operations involving products that can be
counted. The output of process-type industries is also counted eventually: for example, sugar in
terms of number of sacks or tons. What distinguishes discrete manufacturing from process
industries is the potential flexibility of its output. When demand falls in process industries,
operations are simply phased out. Discrete-type operations, on the other hand, are cost-effective
to modify for other products needed by the market.

4.6.2 Variety and Volume

Another way to look at manufacturing facilities is according to variety and volume. A low-
variety, high-volume operation is easier to manage, since dedicated automation is possible. A
high-variety, low-volume operation, on the other hand, is more difficult to operate and manage.
Based on volume and variety, discrete manufacturing is of three types: Mass production , Batch
production and Job shop
Mass Production. In mass production of discrete parts or assemblies-for example, bolts
or ballpoint pens-the production volume is high. Therefore, special purpose, dedicated equipment
can be employed. Machines are considered dedicated when they are tailored to specific products.
Examples of mass-produced goods include bicycles, washing machines, and video games. A
mass-production facility is termed a transfer line when products are assembled while conveyor
systems transfer them from one end of the plant to the other. A good example of a transfer line is
an automobile-production facility.
Batch Production. In batch production of parts or assemblies, the volume is lower, and
the variety higher, than in mass production. When the end item is an assembled product, the
producer may make some parts in house and buy others from vendors. Batch production is
sometimes referred to as a midvolume, midvariety operation. The limited volume does not justify
very specialized production machines; general-purpose machines are used instead. This does not,
however, alter the shop-floor goal of keeping the machines running and the operators busy. An
enormous amount of coordination among various production functions is essential to optimize
use of the resources. In this type of application, CIM technologies such as cellular manufacturing
or robotics hold promise to deliver the economies of mass production while still coping with
variety. Batch production, and to some extent mass production, of discrete products provides all
the challenges under CIM. In batch production, goods are manufactured in batches that may be
repeated as required. As Figure 1.2 shows, manufacturing directly contributes 30% to the GNP in
industrialized economies. Batch production accounts for 40% of this or 12% to the GNP. Also
note that three-quarters of batch production involves batch sizes of 50 or less. Thus, a typical
manufacturing facility produces small batches.
Job Shop Production. The job shop represents the most versatile production facility.
Within the limitations of the machines and the operators, it can manufacture almost any product.
With a low production volume, sometimes as low as 1 to 10 units, the cost of product design and
set up is relatively high. Production facilities for aircraft, ships, or special machine tools are
examples of job shops. NC and CNC technologies can significantly improve the productivity of
job shops.
Which of the three discrete-manufacturing facilities is suitable for a product depends on two
factors: variety and volume. How many different products (including their models, if
significantly different) are to be produced? How many of each product (i.e., of each variety) is to
be produced during a given period of time? Note that the term volume actually means quantity-
the number of units. On the basis of volume and variety, the three types of manufacturing
facilities just discussed can be represented graphically as shown in Figure 1.3. The overlaps
emphasize the fact that their boundaries are not rigid. The actual values on the volume and
variety axes depend on the complexity of the product.
4.6.3 Raw Material to Final Product
On the basis of the relationship between raw material and the end product, manufacturing
follows one of four different patterns: disjunctive, sequential locational, or combinative.
Disjunctive. In the disjunctive pattern, a single raw material is progressively processed
into its various components as end products. Examples of disjunctive facilities are
slaughterhouses, lumber mills, and oil refineries.
Sequential. In sequential facilities, too, there is only one raw material as input. But,
unlike disjunctive operations, which separate the raw material into components, it is
progressively modified to become the end product. An example is a supplier's production facility
that machines castings for the automobile manufacturer.
Locational. Locational patterns involve buying, storing, and eventually distributing
manufactured goods without any substantial physical modification in the product. An example is
the company that buys a product in large quantities and distributes it in small packets under its
own brand name. This pattern suits bulk materials, such as sugar or rice.
Combinative. The combinative type is basically discrete manufacturing in which
components-some produced in-house and some bought from suppliers-are assembled, inspected,
packaged, and shipped as end products. A good example is an automobile factory.
From a production viewpoint, the combinative pattern is the most, complex. CIM is targeted
primarily at this pattern, although CIM concepts apply to the other three as well.

4.6.4 To Order or to Stock

Based on the immediate destination of the end products, manufacturing may be of two types. In
the first, products are shipped directly to consumers, wholesalers, or retailers. Such companies
are said to produce "to order." Since they do not store the end products, for finished-goods
inventory is unnecessary. Capital is therefore released and profit realized immediately following
production. Job shops usually operate in this mode. In the second type, products are stocked in
finished-goods inventory; marketing distributes them to retailers or consumers as needed. This
type of operation is said to produce "to stock." Such facilities usually produce in batch sizes that
minimize the unit cost. In this type, capital is tied up until the end products can be sold.
CIM can offer significant benefits for both types of operations. To-order companies can respond
rapidly to meet the needs of consumers, while to-stock companies can produce economically in
smaller batch sizes, thus lowering thc capital investment in finished-goods inventory.

4.6.5 Size
It is sometimes convenient to classify manufacturing companies on the basis of size, with criteria
such as number of employees, annual sales turnover, net worth, and so forth.
Whether a company is small or large is often determined by the number of employees. While
there is no standard cut-off number, the following categorization is usually practiced: small,
below 100; medium, 100 to 499; large, 500 or more.

4.6.6 Machinery Used

A variety of machine tools, equipment, and processes are used in an average plant. They fall into
the following functional groupings:
Metal forming
Metal cutting
Assembly
Material handling
Inspection, testing, gauging
Others, such as casting, welding, riveting, brazing, heat treatment, washing stations, plastic
molding, etc.

4.7 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT IN CIM

CIM is not just a technology, it is a philosophy, a concept. Its reverberations spread throughout
the entire organization. It may require dismantling some of the usual procedures and practices.
CIM may bring departmental or group politics out into the open, since it may require
demolishing the turfs that have developed over the years (logically, not physically). Responses
such as "we never did it this way before" must be questioned.
The effects of this potential upheaval require full involvement by senior management; approving
funds for CIM projects is not enough. CIM implementation, especially in the beginning, cannot
be left to the middle and lower management.
The most important contribution senior managers can make to CIM is their wholehearted
commitment. The chief executive officer must be involved directly or through immediate
subordinates. A strong commitment ultimately creates a ripple effect that permeates throughout
the entire organization. Such an atmosphere promotes rapid transition toward CIM by
simplifying the tasks of middle and lower management

4.8 CIM HARDWARE AND CIM SOFTWARE:

CIM Hardware comprises the following: I. Manufacturing equipment such as CNC machines or
computerized work centers, robotic work cells, DNC/FMS systems, work handling and tool
handling devices, storage devices, sensors, shop floor data collection devices, inspection
machines etc. II. Computers, controllers, CAD/CAM systems, workstations / terminals, data
entry terminals, bar code readers, RFID tags, printers, plotters and other peripheral devices,
modems, cables, connectors etc., CIM software comprises computer programs to carry out the
following functions:
• Management Information System
 • Job Tracking
• Sales
• Inventory Control
• Marketing
• Shop Floor Data Collection
• Finance
• Order Entry
• Database Management
• Materials Handling
• Modeling and Design
• Device Drivers
• Analysis
• Process Planning
• Simulation
• Manufacturing Facilities Planning
• Communications

4.9 The Benefits Of CIM

The sole objective of computer-integrated manufacturing is to streamline production processes,
delivering the following benefits:

 Reduced costs – i.e. the cost of direct and indirect labour

 Improved scheduling flexibility

 Reduced downtime

 Maintaining correct inventory levels

Ultimately, the goal is to achieve maximum efficiency, closing those gaps that obstruct
productivity and result in the bottom-line taking a hit. Additionally, CIM plays a key role in
gathering relevant, real-time data from the production floor. For instance, to optimize
efficiency, CIM can monitor the operational performance of vital equipment.
Arguably the biggest benefit of CIM is the increase in output capacity it brings. Manufacturing
enterprises can go from concept to completion in rapid time, meaning they can produce more in
shorter timeframes, which has a positive impact on profitability, customer retention and
attracting new customers.

4.10 ROLE OF THE ELEMENTS OF CIM SYSTEM:

Nine major elements of a CIM system are in Figur they are,

• Marketing • Product Design • Planning • Purchase • Manufacturing Engineering • Factory
Automation Hardware • Warehousing • Logistics and Supply Chain Management • Finance •
Information Management

i. Marketing: The need for a product is identified by the marketing division. The
specifications of the product, the projection of manufacturing quantities and the
strategy for marketing the product are also decided by the marketing department.
 Marketing also works out the manufacturing costs to assess the economic viability of
the product.
ii. Product Design: The design department of the company establishes the initial
database for production of a proposed product. In a CIM system this is accomplished
through activities such as geometric modeling and computer aided design while
considering the product requirements and concepts generated by the creativity of the
design engineer. Configuration management is an important activity in many designs.
Complex designs are usually carried out by several teams working simultaneously,
located often in different parts of the world. The design process is constrained by the
costs that will be incurred in actual production and by the capabilities of the available
production equipment and processes. The design process creates the database
required to manufacture the part.
iii. Planning: The planning department takes the database established by the design
department and enriches it with production data and information to produce a plan for
the production of the product. Planning involves several subsystems dealing with
materials, facility, process, tools, manpower, capacity, scheduling, outsourcing,
assembly, inspection, logistics etc. In a CIM system, this planning process should be
constrained by the production costs and by the production equipment and process
capability, in order to generate an optimized plan.
iv. Purchase: The purchase departments is responsible for placing the purchase orders
and follow up, ensure quality in the production process of the vendor, receive the
items, arrange for inspection and supply the items to the stores or arrange timely
delivery depending on the production schedule for eventual supply to manufacture
andassembly.
v. Manufacturing Engineering: Manufacturing Engineering is the activity of carrying
out the production of the product, involving further enrichment of the database with
performance data and information about the production equipment and processes. In
CIM, this requires activities like CNC programming, simulation and computer aided
scheduling of the production activity. This should include online dynamic scheduling
and control based on the real time performance of the equipment and processes to
 assure continuous production activity. Often, the need to meet fluctuating market
demand requires the manufacturing system flexible and agile.
vi. Factory Automation Hardware: Factory automation equipment further enriches the
database with equipment and process data, resident either in the operator or the
equipment to carry out the production process. In CIM system this consists of
computer controlled process machinery such as CNC machine tools, flexible
manufacturing systems (FMS), Computer controlled robots, material handling
systems, computer controlled assembly systems, flexibly automated inspection
systems and so on.
vii. Warehousing: Warehousing is the function involving storage and retrieval of raw
materials, components, finished goods as well as shipment of items. In today's
complex outsourcing scenario and the need for just-in-time supply of components and
subsystems, logistics and supply chain management assume great importance.
viii. Finance: Finance deals with the resources pertaining to money. Planning of
investment, working capital, and cash flow control, realization of receipts, accounting
and allocation of funds are the major tasks of the finance departments.
ix. Information Management: Information Management is perhaps one of the crucial
tasks in CIM. This involves master production scheduling, database management,
communication, manufacturing systems integration and management information
systems.

4.11 Database requirements of CIM

A major challenge facing the implementation of CIM is to establish the type of data
needed to bridge the mechanical design and manufacturing function. Following is the list of
varied tasks one might expect to accomplish in a CIM environment.
1.Designing assemblies and performing tolerance analysis on those assemblies.
2. Preparing production drawings of assemblies, invidual parts, tooling, fixtures and other
manufacturing facilities.
3. Creating analytical models of parts for structural, kinematics and thermal analysis (FEM,
MeM etc., )
4. Calculating weights, volumes, centres of gravity (mass properties) and costs of
manufacturing (cost estimation). Classifying existing parts according to shape, function and the
process by which they are manufactured and retrieving these pans from the parts library on
demand (Group technology and coding).
1. Preparing parts lists and bill of materials (BOM).
2. Preparing process plans for individual part manufacture and assembly (Variant or
Generative).
3. Programming CNC machines for processing complete parts (CAM).
4. Designing work cells and programming the movement of components in those cells
using work handling devices like robots, conveyors, AGVS/ RGVs, etc., (Cellular
manufacture).
5. Controlling engineering changes and maintaining associativity between design and
manufacturing (concurrent associativity).
6. Preparing programs to handle components or manipulate production equipment (like
welding torches or robots).
7. Preparing inspection programs including programs for CNC co-ordinate measuring
machines {CNC- CMMS}.
The exchange of graphic information has been advanced with increasing acceptance of Initial
Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) and STEP.

5.12 Obstacles to Computer Integrated Manufacturing

There are three major challenges to the development of a smoothly operating CIM system:

 Integration of machines from different suppliers:

The greatest challenge is to get all the different machines within the factory to work on
the same system. In a typical factory there are a variety of machines that perform
different tasks, which are made by a variety of suppliers. The issue is to get every one of
these machines to accept the programming and tasks from one mainframe computer.

 Data integrity:

The higher the degree of automation, the more critical is the integrity of the data used to
control the machines. While the CIM system saves labour of operating the machines, it
 requires extra human labour in ensuring that there are proper safe guards for data signals
that are used to control the machines.

 Process control:

Process control assures that the whole process runs smoothly. This particular challenge
ties the data entry people, the programmers, and the production operators together. The
factory will need to assure that the individuals working with the system throughout the
factory are competent and knowledgeable. These individuals will need to be well trained,
and probably need to update their training periodically.

5.13 Concept of the future CIM systems

As a manufacturing paradigm, CIM concepts and practice have developed for more than 20
years. CIM is still in active development and has received much attention from researchers and
companies. Some of the development trends for CIM are as follows.

Agile Manufacturing

In today’s continuously, rapidly, and unforeseeably changing market environment, an effective

way to keep the company competitive is to use the agile manufacturing strategy. Agile
manufacturing has been called the 21st-century manufacturing enterprise strategy (Goldman and
Preiss 1991; Goldman et al. 1995). By agile, we mean that the company can quickly respond to
market change by quickly reengineering its business processes, reconfiguring its manufacturing
systems, and innovating its products.

A number of papers discuss the characteristics of an agile manufacturing company, such as:

• Greater product customization

• Rapid introduction of new or modified products

• Increased emphasis on knowledgeable, highly trained, empowered workers

• Interactive customer relationships

• Dynamic reconfiguration of production processes

• Greater use of flexible production technologies

• Rapid prototyping

• An agile and open system information environment

Innovative and flexible management structures

• Rapid collaboration with other companies to form a virtual company.

Green Manufacturing

The increasingly rapid deterioration of environment has caused many problems for society.
During the production of products, manufacturing companies also produce pollution to the
environment. Pollution produced during the manufacturing processes includes noise, waste gas,
wastewater, and waste materials. Another kind of pollution is caused by waste parts at the end of
the product’s life, such as batteries, printed circuit boards, and plastic covers. Green
manufacturing aims at developing a manufacturing paradigm and methods for reducing pollution
by a manufacturing company of the environment. The green manufacturing paradigm covers the
whole life cycle of a product, from requirements specification, design, manufacturing, and
maintenance to final discarding. Research topics in green manufacturing include:

• Green design (also called design for environment) considers the product’s impact on the envi-
ronment during the design process, designing a product that causes minimal pollution. Multi-life-
cycle design, which considers multiple use of most parts and recycling one-time-use parts, has
received much attention.

• Green materials involves development of materials that can be easily recycled.

• Green production involves developing methods to reduce pollution during the production pro-
cess.

• Green disposal: developing new methods to recycle the discarded products.

Virtual Manufacturing and Other Trends

By using virtual reality and high-performance simulation, virtual manufacturing focuses on

building a digital model of the product and studies the dynamic and kinetic performance of the
product to reduce product development cost and time.

Many development trends are affecting CIM and its related technologies. Technologies that may
have a great influence on CIM include network (Web) technology, distributed object technology,
intelligent agent technology, knowledge integration technology, and CSCW technology. CIM
systems, using these advanced paradigms and technologies, will have a brilliant future. In the
future, a man- ufacturing company supported by an advanced CIM system may be operated in an
Internet environ- ment (Web user interface), running on a virtual dynamic organization structure,
using CSCW tools,

to design and produce products in a cooperated and integrated way. The company will fully
satisfy user requirements and produce products quickly and cheaply. Materials and products will
be delivered on time.
4.14 SOCIO -TECHNO- ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF CIM

The computer integrated manufacturing has brought the significant technological change in the
field of manufacturing. However this technological change is accompanied by some social and
economic impacts. Some of the positive socio-techno-economic aspects of CIM are discussed
below:

a) Technological aspect: The CIM has brought in technological revolution in the field of
manufacturing. Some of the positive changes brought by technological revolution of CIM
are as follows:

• Increase in productivity
• Increase in plant efficiency
• Improvement in product quality
• Reduction in cost of product
• Increase in demand for the product
• High customer satisfaction.
b) Social aspect: Along with some positive changes, CIM has brought some challenging
social aspects.

Increase in unemployment: Implementation of CIM has reduced the requirement of workforce

drastically, and hence, led to the downsizing of workforce. The downsizing of workforce has
created the problem of worker unrest and unemployment.

• Lower demand for traditional skill sets: With implementation of CIM, the demand for
traditional labour skills in the area of turning, drilling, milling, grinding etc. has reduced.
• Increase in demand for new skill sets: CIM has created increase in demand for new skill sets in
the area of modeling, finite analysis, simulation, CNC programming computer operation, etc.
• Trade union resistance: The trade unions have apprehension that implementation of CIM would
reduce the influence of workforce, hence, reduces the influence of trade union, on industry.
Therefore, trade unions have a strong resistance for the implementation of CIM.
• Changes in educational system: The implementation of CIM has created the increased demand
for workforce with higher professional qualifications and new skill sets. The traditional
education system is not changing at required pace to provide right kind of education.
• Government policy: Because of opposition from trade unions and existing workforce to the
implementation of CIM, the government policies trade a balance between social aspects and
support to technological developments.
c) Economic aspect:- Implementation of CIM has led to the increase in profit to the
companies, more revenue through taxes to the government and high salary for skilled and
downsized workforce. However, the implementation of CIM affects the works who lost
their jobs.
 MODULE 5

FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS)

The use of CNC machine tools provides flexibility in terms of the low job changing time.
However the full benefits of automation cannot be achieved simply by the use of the CNC
machine tool alone. The complete job making process involves the use of machine tool along
with all the associated equipment being made available at the right time. The associated
equipment involves the cutting tool, work piece blank, part program, tool offsets and the like. As
a result the effective CNC machine utilization can be achieved if all these are integrated. Some
typical figures for machine utilization based on the general trend in the industries are given in
table:

Thus it can be seen that the full utilization (90% with the rest allocated for maintenance) can be
achieved in FMS by properly integrating all the required functions. A large number of definitions
have been provided for FMS as follows:
"A series of automatic tools or items of fabrication equipment linked together with an automatic
material handling system, a common hierarchical digital preprogrammed computer control, and
provision for random fabrication of parts or assemblies that fall within predetermined families."
"A FMS group of NC machine tools that can randomly process a group of parts, having
automated material handling and central computer control to dynamically balance resource
utilization so that the system can adopt automatically to changes in part production, mixes and
levels of output."
"FMS is a randomly loaded automated system based on group technology manufacturing linking
integrated computer control and a group of machines to automatically produce and handle parts
for continuous serial processing."
"FMS combines microelectronics and mechanical engineering to bring the economies of scale to
batch work. A central online computer controls the machine tools, other workstations, and the
transfer of components and tooling. The computer also provides monitoring and information
control. This combination of flexibility and overall control makes possible the production of a
wide range of products in small numbers."
"A process under control to produce varieties of components or products within its stated
capability and to predetermined schedule."

"A technology which will help achieve leaner factories with better response times, lower unit
costs, and higher quality under an improved level of management and capital control."

Thus it can be seen that a true FMS can handle a wide variety of dissimilar parts, producing them
in small numbers even one at a time, in any order, as needed by making use of all the computer
controlled equipment (workstations and material handling) with the help of a central computer
control of all the equipment within. Typical costs associated with various types of manufacturing
systems are shown in table:
5.2 COMPONENTS OF FMS
The components of a FMS are:
5.2.1 Workstations
The workstations vary according to the type of part being produced. In metal cutting systems, the
machines are usually computer numerically controlled (CNC) horizontal spindle machining
centres, if prismatic work pieces are to be produced, or turning centres if rotational work pieces.
Some systems consist of both types of machines, when work pieces involving both types of
operation are required. Other systems include single-purpose machines, as opposed to machining
centres which are designed to perform a range of processes. In addition to metal working
machines, there may also be gauging machines or other types of inspection machines. There are
systems for sheet-metal operations, P.C.B manufacture and assembly operations.

5.2.2 Load and unload stations

Parts have to be introduced into the system at some point and there are usually load-unload
stations, where parts are placed on pallets, usually by human operators. In some cases, parts may
be supplied by an orienting device and loaded by robot. Unloading is usually done at the same
stations, but there may be separated unload stations.

5.2.3 Work pieces transport equipment

Work pieces must be transported from the load positions to the production equipment and back
for unloading. Three types of equipment are in common use, namely conveyors, vehicles and
robots. There are loop-lines in conveyor systems for each workstation. Conveyor systems are
less popular. There are several types of vehicles: Railcars and AGVs. There are several types of
mobile floor-mounted robots, which can be used for work piece transport. Overhead gantry-
robots are popular for both work pieces and tool handling.

5.2.4 Pallets
Work pieces are normally held in pallets of some sort for transport and locating on machine
tables. Two types are common: one type of pallet serves just as a carrier for a batch of small
parts, to facilitate and reduce the frequency of movements, perhaps by a robot. This type is
common in systems which use conveyors and gantry robots, but are also used in AGV systems.
The other type of pallet is one on which one or more parts are accurately located and which is
itself moved onto the machine table and held in position while machining operations are
performed on the parts.

5.2.5 Fixtures
Fixtures are used to locate parts precisely on pallets. They are usually specific to one type of part
so that each part requires a different fixture. In some cases, however, several types of part may
be sufficiently similar to make use of the same fixture. The fixtures may be permanently bolted
on the pallets, or they may be removed from the pallet when a part requiring a deferent fixture is
to be produced into the system and placed on the pallet.

5.2.6 Tools
Most operations require some form of tooling specific to the particular operation being
performed typically cutting tools in machining centers. Machining centers have tool magazines
in which a set of tools can be held so that any operation on a range of work pieces can be
performed. Tools have to be changed, because of their tool life or because the part to be worked
requires tools which are not currently in the tool magazine.

5.3 NEED OF FMS

The key objective in manufacturing is to get the right raw materials or parts to the right machines
at the right time. Too much or too soon creates backed up excess in-process inventory. Too little
or too late causes delayed work schedules and idle machines. The result in many cases is a poor
use of capital, in the form of excess in-process inventory and/or underutilization of equipment.
In any single calendar year, there are 8760 hours available to the manufacturing operation, as can
be seen in Figure 5.1. Statistics have shown that about 55 percent of the total time available is
lost due to incomplete use of second and third shifts. The skilled, experienced people required to
operate and set up machines are either not available or disinterested in working "unsocial" hours,
and the problem is going to get worse. The long-term trend is firmly established that a declining
percentage of people entering the work force will choose careers in manufacturing.
Thirty-four percent of the total time is lost due to vacations and holidays. Twelve percent is lost
while machines are being set up for the next operation or parts are being loaded or unloaded.
About 5 percent of the time is lost due to process difficulties or unforeseen material, tooling, or
quality-control problems.
This leaves only 6 percent of the total time for actual production. The batch manufacturer's
capital investment for equipment and facilities is working, trying to pay for itself, less than one
hour in seventeen. Similar studies indicate that in a typical manufacturing operation a part
moving through a metal-cutting operation would be on an individual machine tool only 5 percent
of its total time in manufacturing, as depicted in Figure 5.2. And, when a part is on a particular
metal-cutting machine tool, only 1.5 to 2 percent of the part's total manufacturing time is a cutter
in the work, actually performing work and adding value. The other 95 percent of the time the
part is either moving through the shop or waiting in queue for the next operation.
These examples indicate the underutilization of equipment and gross inefficiencies existing in a
vast majority of manufacturing industries.
5.4 GENERAL FMS CONSIDERATIONS
Many manufacturing industries are currently dedicated to manual and conventional production
methods or high-speed fixed automation—by their very nature not very flexible or responsive.
And many are ill suited to accommodate faster product and process changes in an increasingly
globalized and competitive marketplace.
Flexible manufacturing affords users the opportunity to react quickly to changing product types,
mixes, and volumes while providing increased utilization and predictable control over hard
assets. Although FMS provides users with many benefits, they are not easy to justify. Limitations
and alternatives must be weighed and compared to determine if FMS is the best or even the right
approach to productivity and profitability improvements. The once traditional accounting and
cost justification practices have become outdated and have lost their applicability to many
factory automation programs and projects. The rules for staying competitive have changed. The
measurements must also change.
5.5 OBJECTIVES OF FMS
The principal objectives of FMS are:
1. Improve operational control through:

a. Reduction in the number of uncontrollable variables

b. Providing tools to recognize and react quickly to deviations in the manufacturing plan

c. Reducing dependence on human communication

2. Reduce direct labor through:

a. Removing operators from the machining site (their responsibilities and activities can be
broadened)

b. Eliminating dependence on highly skilled machinists (their manufacturing skills can be

better utilized in manufacturing engineering functions)

c. Providing a catalyst to introduce and support unattended or lightly attended machine

operation

3. Improve short-run responsiveness consisting of:

a. Engineering changes

b. Processing changes

c. Machine downtime or unavailability

d. Cutting tool failure

e. Late material delivery

4. Improve long-run accommodations through quicker and easier assimilation of:

a. Changing product volumes

b. New product additions and introductions

c. Different part mixes

5. Increase machine utilization by:

a. Eliminating machine setup

b. Utilizing automated features to replace manual intervention

c. Providing quick transfer devices to keep machines in the cutting cycles

6. Reduce inventory by:

a. Reducing lot sizes

b. Improving inventory turnovers

c. Providing the planning tools for just-in-time manufacturing

5.6 CELLULAR VERSUS FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING

5.7 TYPES OF FMS SYSTEMS
There are various ways to classify flexible manufacturing systems. One classification that is
sometimes made in FMS terminology is the difference between a flexible manufacturing system
and a manufacturing cell.
The term cell can be used to refer to a machine grouping that consists of either manually
operated or automated machines or combinations of the two. The cell may or may not include
automated material handling and it may or may not be computer controlled.
The term flexible manufacturing system generally means a fully automated system consisting of
automated workstations, automated materials handling and computer control.
The term manufacturing cell is used largely in connection with group technology but both cells
and FMS rely on a GT approach in their design. A distinction between a FMC and FMS is in the
number of machines in the grouping. A grouping of four or more machines in a system and three
or fewer machines constitute a cell. For example, a grouping of several machines served by a
robot and capable of processing a family of parts is commonly called a flexible manufacturing
cell.

A flexible manufacturing system can be described as being either a dedicated FMS or a random
order FMS. A dedicated FMS is used to produce a much more limited variety of part
configurations. The geometry differences are minor and the product design is considered stable.
Therefore, the machine sequence is identical or identical for all parts processed on the system.
This means that a flow line configuration is generally most appropriate and that the system can
be designed with a certain amount of process specialization to make the operations more
efficient. Instead of using general-purpose machines, the machines can be designed for the
specific processes required to make the limited part family.
The random-order FMS is the more appropriate type under the following conditions: (a) The part
family is large. (b) There are substantial variations in the part configurations. (c) There will be
new part designs produced on the system and engineering changes in parts currently made on the
system and the production schedule is subject to change from day to day. To accommodate these
variations the random-order FMS must be more flexible than the dedicated FMS.
It is equipped with general-purpose machines to deal with the variations in product and is
capable of processing parts in various sequences (random order).
A classification in flexible machining systems is based on the part geometry being processed.
Machined parts can usually be divided into either two categories: prismatic parts are cube like
and require milling and related machining operations to shape them. Round parts are cylindrical
or disk shaped and require turning and related rotational operations.
Flexible manufacturing cells (FMC)
Flexible manufacturing cells consist of one or more CNC machine tools, general purpose or of
special design interfaced with automated material handling and tool changers. FMCs are capable
of automatically machine a wide range of different work pieces.
A turning centre fitted with a gantry loading and unloading system and pallets for storing work
pieces and finished parts is a typical flexible turning cell. Automatic tool changers, tool
magazines, block tooling, automatic tool offset measurement, and automatic chuck change and
chuck jaw change make the cell more productive. One or two horizontal machining centers with
modular fixturing, multiple pallets, advanced tool management system, robots or other material
handling systems to facilitate access of the jobs to the machine is a flexible machining cell.

Flexible transfer lines (FTL)

Flexible transfer lines are designed for high volume production wherein a part undergoes
different types of operations. As each operation is assigned to and performed on only one
machine, there is a fixed route for each part through the system. The material handling system is
usually a pallet or conveyor. It also consists of SPMs and robots. In FTL, a number of different
work pieces manufactured as the scheduling is easier and the resetting procedure is automatic.

Flexible machining systems

Flexible machining system consists of several flexible automated machine tools of universal or
special type which are flexible interlinked by an automatic work piece flow system so that the
different work pieces can be machined at the same time. Different machining times at the
individual stations are compensated for by central or decentralized work piece buffer stores.
Flexibility is applied by usage of CNC control, flexible transport system and by adapting to
changes in the volumes in the product mix, machining process and sequences.
5.8 ADVANTAGES OF FMS
1. Flexible Manufacturing Systems are regarded as one of the most efficient methods to employ
in reducing or eliminating problems in manufacturing industries.

2. FMS brings flexibility and responsiveness to the manufacturing floor.

3. FMS enables manufacturers to machine a wide variety of workpieces on few machines with
low staffing levels, productively, reliably and predictably.

4. A true FMS can handle a wide variety of parts, producing them one at a time in random order.

5. Machine tools in many manufacturing industries are woefully underutilized due to equipment
not being used in the second and third shifts, a decreasing availability of skilled personnel, and
day-to-day disturbances.

6. FMS shortens the manufacturing process through improved operational control, round-the-
clock availability of automated equipment, increased machine utilization and responsiveness, and
reduction of human intervention.

7. Better competitive advantage.

8. Lower work in process inventories

9. Reduced throughput time and its variability.

10. Improved manufacturing control.

11. Improved quality and reduced scrap rate.

12. Reduction of floor space used.

13. Better status monitor of machines, tools and material handling devices.
14. Improves the short run response time to the problems on the shop floor such as:

nging the CNC part

program, which is generally developed by a CAD/CAM system as part of the design
change,

automatically transfer the part to another machine that is available, and

 catastrophic failures. Then the control system can initiate steps to repair and replace the
failed cutting tool.
15. Improve the long term cost effectiveness of the system by supporting:

5.9 FMS LAYOUTS

The broad categories of layouts that have been used are

5.9.1 In-line Layout:

All the machine tools are kept along a straight line as shown in Figure 5.3. This is the simplest
form and is generally used for smaller number of machines in a system. The parts move in well-
defined sequences and the workflow is generally in both the directions. The part handling at the
individual workstations is performed by the transport vehicle, which will have the necessary
pallet changer. Often the machine tools used in such a system are identical, so that the part
routing will not be a problem.
5.9.2 Loop Layout
In this system the workstations are arranged in a loop as shown in Fig. Parts generally move in a
single direction in the loop similar to a conveyor, with the ability to stop at defined positions for
transferring the parts to the workstation. For the purpose of moving parts from the conveyor to
the workstation may have to be carried by means of a secondary part exchange system such as a
pallet changer as shown in Figure.5.5. An alternative form of the loop could be rectangular.

5.9.3 Ladder Layout

In this system the workstations are arranged in a loop with rungs as shown in Figure. The rungs
help in reducing the congestion and allow for smooth part flow between machines.
5.9.4 Open Field Layout

Ladder Layout Open Field Layout

In this system there are multiple loops for appropriate arrangement of all the facilities as shown
in Figure. This type of system is generally suitable for a large group of parts to be machined. The
facilities may consist of a number of workstations with different varieties. The material handling
is provided with AGVs along the guide path.
 MODULE 6

RECENT TRENDS IN INDUSTRY

1.1 Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, rapid prototyping or freeform

fabrication, is ‘the process of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually
layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies’ such as
machining. The use of Additive Manufacturing (AM) with metal powders is a new and growing
industry sector with many of its leading companies based in Europe. It became a suitable
process to produce complex metal net shape parts, and not only prototypes, as before. Additive
manufacturing now enables both a design and industrial revolution, in various industrial sectors
such as aerospace, energy, automotive, medical, tooling and consumer goods.
The competition in the world market for manufactured products has intensified tremendously in
recent years. It has become important, if not vital, for new products to reach the market as early
as possible, before the competitors. To bring products to the market swiftly, many of the
processes involved in the design, test, manufacture and market of the products have been
squeezed, both in terms of time and material resources. The efficient use of such valuable
resources calls for new tools and approaches in dealing with them, and many of these tools and
approaches have evolved. They are mainly technology-driven, usually involving the computer.
This is mainly a result of the rapid development and advancement in such technologies over the
last few decades.
In product development, time pressure has been a major factor in determining the direction of
the development and success of new methodologies and technologies for enhancing its
performance. These also have a direct impact on the age-old practice of prototyping in the
product development process. This book will introduce and examine, in a clear and detailed way,
one such development, namely, that of Rapid Prototyping (RP).
1.2 Need of Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing (AM) has the potential to completely redefine manufacturing in certain
areas. So of course manufacturers of every size are now looking seriously at 3-D printing as a
complement to existing and traditional manufacturing methods.
But before you start any serious capital expenditure on the technology, it is critical that you
create a top-down corporate strategy that reflects areas where your manufacturing operation and
end-use parts and products can truly benefit.
Manufacturers of every size need to seriously evaluate Additive Manufacturing (AM) as a
complement to existing and traditional manufacturing methods, but for many, the technology
and its benefits, are still quite mysterious. Before you invest in the technology, it is critical that
you create a top-down corporate strategy that reflects areas where your manufacturing
operations can truly benefit.
Forming a combined corporate strategy for both additive and traditional manufacturing is
critical to your future success. Hear how these three pillars of affordability form the backbone
of your additive manufacturing strategy:
1. Value stream mapping to reduce lead times
2. Design for performance to ensure the latest product designs without compromising time
or cost
3. Reducing the excess by decreasing part counts and suppliers
3D printing can bring great benefits to your manufacturing environment, but only if everyone -
from the CEO down to the design engineers - understands how it works and how it will be
applied.

1.3 Fundamentals of Additive and Digital Manufacturing

The term “additive manufacturing” references technologies that grow three-dimensional objects
one superfine layer at a time. Each successive layer bonds to the preceding layer of melted or
partially melted material. Objects are digitally defined by computer-aided-design (CAD)
software that is used to create .stl files that essentially "slice" the object into ultra-thin layers.
This information guides the path of a nozzle or print head as it precisely deposits material upon
the preceding layer. Or, a laser or electron beam selectively melts or partially melts in a bed of
powdered material. As materials cool or are cured, they fuse together to form a three-
dimensional object.
It is yet, another technological advancement made possible by the transition from analog to
digital processes. In recent decades, communications, imaging, architecture and engineering
have all undergone their own digital revolutions. Now, AM can bring digital flexibility and
efficiency to manufacturing operations.
Additive manufacturing uses data computer-aided-design (CAD) software or 3D object
scanners to direct hardware to deposit material, layer upon layer, in precise geometric shapes.
As its name implies, additive manufacturing adds material to create an object. By contrast,
when you create an object by traditional means, it is often necessary to remove material
through milling, machining, carving, shaping or other means.
Although the terms "3D printing" and "rapid prototyping" are casually used to discuss additive
manufacturing, each process is actually a subset of additive manufacturing.
While additive manufacturing seems new to many, it has actually been around for several
decades. In the right applications, additive manufacturing delivers a perfect trifecta of improved
performance, complex geometries and simplified fabrication. As a result, opportunities abound
for those who actively embrace additive manufacturing.

There are three fundamental fabrication processes [1, 2] as shown in Figure 2.1. They are
Subtractive, Additive and Formative processes. In the subtractive process, one starts with a
single block of solid material larger than the final size of the desired object and material is
removed until the desired shape is reached.
In contrast, an additive process is the exact reverse in that the end product is much larger
than the material when it started. A material is manipulated so that successive portions of it
combine to form the desired object.
Lastly, the formative process is one where mechanical forces or restricting forms are applied
on a material so as to form it into the desired shape.
There are many examples for each of these fundamental fabrication processes. Subtractive
fabrication processes include most forms of machining processes — CNC or otherwise. These
include milling, turning, drilling, planning, sawing, grinding, EDM, laser cutting, water jet
cutting and the likes. Most forms of rapid prototyping processes such as Stereolithography and
Selective Laser Sintering fall into the additive fabrication processes category. Examples of
formative fabrication processes are: Bending, forging, electromagnetic forming and plastic
injection molding. These include both bending of sheet materials and molding of molten or
curable liquids. The examples given are not exhaustive but indicative of the range of processes.
Hybrid machines combining two or more fabrication processes are also possible. For
example, in progressive pressworking, it is common to see a hybrid of subtractive (as in
blanking or punching) and formative (as in bending and forming) processes.

Fundamentally, the development of RP can be seen in four primary areas. The Rapid
Prototyping Wheel in Figure 1.3 depicts these four key aspects of Rapid Prototyping. They are:
Input, Method, Material and Applications.
1.3.1 Input
Input refers to the electronic information required to describe the physical object with 3D data.
There are two possible starting points — a computer model or a physical model. The computer
model created by a CAD system can be either a surface model or a solid model. On the other
hand, 3D data from the physical model is not at all straightforward. It requires data acquisition
through a method known as reverse engineering. In reverse engineering, a wide range of
equipment can be used, such as CMM (coordinate measuring machine) or a laser digitizer, to
capture data points of the physical model and “reconstruct” it in a CAD system.
1.3.2 Method
While they are currently more than 20 vendors for RP systems, the method employed by each
vendor can be generally classified into the following categories: photo-curing, cutting and
glueing/joining, melting and solidifying/fusing and joining/binding. Photo-curing can be further
divided into categories of single laser beam, double laser beams and masked lamp.
1.3.3 Material
The initial state of material can come in either solid, liquid or powder state. In solid state, it can
come in various forms such as pellets, wire or laminates. The current range materials include
paper, nylon, wax, resins, metals and ceramics.
1.3.4 Applications
Most of the RP parts are finished or touched up before they are used for their intended
applications. Applications can be grouped into (1) Design (2) Engineering, Analysis, and
Planning and (3) Tooling and Manufacturing. A wide range of industries can benefit from RP
and these include, but are not limited to, aerospace, automotive, biomedical, consumer,
electrical and electronics products.

1.4.1 Advantages of Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing allows the creation of lighter, more complex designs that are too
difficult or too expensive to build using traditional dies, molds, milling and machining.
AM also excels at rapid prototyping. Since the digital-to-digital process eliminates traditional
intermediate steps, it is possible to make alterations on the run. When compared to the relative
tedium of traditional prototyping, AM offers a more dynamic, design-driven process.
Whether additive manufacturing is used for prototyping or production, lead times are frequently
reduced. Lead times for certain jet engine parts have been reduced by a year or more. Also,
parts once created from multiple assembled pieces are now fabricated as a single, assembly-free
object.
In designing everything from bridges to skyscrapers, engineers have long sought to minimize
weight while maximizing strength. With additive manufacturing, designers realize the dream of
utilizing organic structures to greatly reduce the weight of objects. For example, in
GE's GrabCAD® Bracket Challenge, the winning design was just as strong as the original
bracket, even though it weighed almost 84 percent less.
1. Complex geometries
The technology enables engineers to design parts that incorporate complexity that is not
possible using other methods. Intricate features, such as conformal cooling passages, can be
incorporated directly into a design. Parts that previously required assembly and welding or
brazing of multiple pieces can now be grown as a single part, which makes for greater strength
and durability. Designers are no longer restricted to the limitations of traditional machines and
can create parts with greater design freedom.
2. Time savings
Additive manufacturing is ideal for getting prototypes made quickly. Parts are manufactured
directly from a 3D CAD file, which eliminates the cost and lengthy process of having fixtures
or dies created. Plus, changes can be made mid-stream with virtually no interruption in the
process.
3. Weight savings
By incorporating organic structures into designs, designers can eliminate substantial weight
while maintaining the part’s strength and integrity. An illustration of this advantage can be seen
in a GrabCAD® Bracket Challenge conducted by GE. An existing bracket was redesigned for
additive manufacturing, with the winning entry maintaining strength of the original while
reducing the weight by 84%.
1.4.2 Applications of Additive Manufacturing
1. Aerospace
AM excels at producing parts with weight-saving, complex geometric designs. Therefore, it is
often the perfect solution for creating ight, strong aerospace parts.
In August 2013, NASA successfully tested an SLM-printed rocket injector during a hot fire test
that generated 20,000 pounds of thrust. In 2015, the FAA cleared the first 3D-printed part for
use in a commercial jet engine. CFM's LEAP engine features 19 3D-printed fuel nozzles. At the
2017 Paris Air Show, FAA-certified, Boeing 787 structural parts fabricated from titanium wire
were displayed, according to Aviation Week.
2. Automotive
CNN reported that the McLaren racing team is using 3D-printed parts in its Formula 1 race
cars. A rear wing replacement took about 10 days to produce instead of five weeks. The team
has already produced more than 50 different parts using additive manufacturing. In the auto
industry, AM's rapid prototyping potential garners serious interest as production parts are
appearing. For example, aluminum alloys are used to produce exhaust pipes and pump parts,
and polymers are used to produce bumpers.
3. Healthcare
At the New York University School of Medicine, a clinical study of 300 patients will evaluate
the efficacy of patient-specific, multi-colored kidney cancer models using additive
manufacturing. The study will examine whether such models effectively assist surgeons with
pre-operative assessments and guidance during operations.
Global medical device manufacturing company Stryker are funding a research project in
Australia that will use additive manufacturing technology to create custom, on-demand 3D
printed surgical implants for patients suffering from bone cancer.
In general, healthcare applications for additive manufacturing are expanding, particularly as the
safety and efficacy of AM-built medical devices is established. The fabrication of one-of-a-kind
synthetic organs also shows promise.
4. Product Development
As the potential for AM's design flexibility is realized, once impossible design concepts are
now being successfully re-imagined. Additive manufacturing unleashes the creative potential of
designers who can now operate free of the constraints under which they once labored.
1.5 Additive Manufacturing (AM) Process Chain
There are a total of five steps in the chain and these are 3D modeling, data conversion and
transmission, checking and preparing, building and postprocessing. Depending on the quality of
the model and part in Steps 3 and 5 respectively, the process may be iterated until a satisfactory
model or part is achieved.
However, like other fabrication processes, process planning is important before the RP
commences. In process planning, the steps of the RP process chain are listed. The first step is
3D geometric modeling. In this instance, the requirement would be a workstation and a CAD
modeling system. The various factors and parameters which influence the performance of each
operation are examined and decided upon. For example, if a SLA is used to build the part, the
orientation of the part is an important factor which would, amongst other things, influence the
quality of the part and the speed of the process. Needless to say, an operation sheet used in this
manner requires proper documentation and guidelines. Good documentation, such as a process
logbook, allows future examination and evaluation, and subsequent improvements can be
implemented to process planning. The five steps are discussed in the following sections.

1.5.1 3D MODELING
Advanced 3D CAD modeling is a general prerequisite in RP processes and, usually is the most
time-consuming part of the entire process chain. It is most important that such 3D geometric
models can be shared by the entire design team for many different purposes, such as
interference studies, stress analyses, FEM analysis, detail design and drafting, planning for
manufacturing, including NC programming, etc. Many CAD/CAM systems now have a 3D
geometrical modeler facility with these special purpose modules.
There are two common misconceptions amongst new users of RP. First, unlike NC
programming, RP requires a closed volume of the model, whether the basic elements are
surfaces or solids. This confusion arises because new users are usually acquainted with the use
of NC programming where a single surface or even a line element can be an NC element.
Second, new users also usually assume what you see is what you get. These two
misconceptions often lead to under
28 Rapid Prototyping: Principles and Applications
specifying parameters to the RP systems, resulting in poor performance and nonoptimal
utilization of the system. Examples of considerations that have to be taken into account include
orientation of part, need for supports, difficult-to-build part structure such as thin walls, small
slots or holes and overhanging elements. Therefore, RP users have to learn and gain experience
from working on the system. The problem is usually more complex than one can imagine
because there are many different RP machines which have different requirements and capabil
ities. For example, while a SLA requires supports, SGC does not, and SGC works most
economically if many parts are nested together and processed simultaneously (see Chapter 3,
Sections 3.1 and 3.2).
1.5.2 DATA CONVERSION AND TRANSMISSION
The solid or surface model to be built is next converted into a format dubbed the STL file
format. This format originates from 3D Systems which pioneers the STereoLithography
system. The STL file format approximates the surfaces of the model using tiny triangles.
Highly curved surfaces must employ many more triangles, which mean that STL files for
curved parts can be very large. The STL file format will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
Almost, if not all, major CAD/CAM vendors supply the CAD-STL interface. Since 1990,
almost all major CAD/CAM vendors have developed and integrated this interface into their
systems.
This conversion step is probably the simplest and shortest of the entire process chain. However,
for a highly complex model coupled with an extremely low performance workstation or PC, the
conversion can take several hours. Otherwise, the conversion to STL file should take only
several minutes. Where necessary, supports are also converted to a separate STL file. Supports
can alternatively be created or modified in the next step by third party software which allows
verification and modifications of models and supports.
The transmission step is also fairly straightforward. The purpose of this step is to transfer the
STL files which reside in the workstation to the RP system’s computer. It is typical that the
workstation and the RP system are situated in different locations. The workstation, being a
Chapter 2: Rapid Prototyping Process Chain 29
design tool, is typically located in a design office. The RP system, on the other hand, is a
process or production machine, and is usually located on the shopfloor. Data transmission via
agreed data formats such as STL or IGES may be carried out through a diskette, email
(electronic mail) or LAN (local area network). No validation of the quality of the STL files is
carried out at this stage.
1.5.3 CHECKING AND PREPARING
The computer term, garbage in garbage out, is also applicable to RP. Many first time users are
frustrated at this step to discover that their STL files are faulty. However, more often than not,
it is due to both the errors of CAD models and the nonrobustness of the CAD-STL interface.
Unfortunately, today’s CAD models — whose quality are dependent on the CAD systems,
human operators and postprocesses — are still afflicted with a wide spectrum of problems,
including the generation of unwanted shell-punctures (i.e. holes, gaps, cracks, etc.). These
problems, if not rectified, will result in the frequent failure of applications downstream. These
problems are discussed in detail in the first few sections of Chapter 6.
At present, the CAD model errors are corrected by human operators assisted by specialized
software such as MAGICS, a software developed by Materialise, N.V., Belgium [4]. This
process of manual repair is very tedious and time consuming especially if one considers the
great number of geometric entities (e.g. triangular facets) that are encountered in a CAD model.
The types of errors and its possible solutions are discussed in Chapter 6.
Once the STL files are verified to be error-free, the RP system’s computer analyzes the STL
files that define the model to be fabricated and slices the model into cross-sections. The cross-
sections are systematically recreated through the solidification of liquids or binding of powders,
or fusing of solids, to form a 3D model.
In a SLA, for example, each output file is sliced into cross-sections, between 0.12 mm
(minimum) to 0.50 mm (maximum) in thickness. Generally, the model is sliced into the
thinnest layer (approximately 0.12 mm) as they have to be very accurate. The supports can be
created
30 Rapid Prototyping: Principles and Applications
using coarser settings. An internal cross hatch structure is generated between the inner and the
outer surface boundaries of the part. This serves to hold up the walls and entrap liquid that is
later solidified with the presence of UV light.
Preparing building parameters for positioning and stepwise manu facturing in the light of many
available possibilities can be difficult if not accompanied by proper documentation. These
possibilities include determination of the geometrical objects, the building orientation, spatial
assortments, arrangement with other parts, necessary support structures and slice parameters.
They also include the determination of technological parameters such as cure depth, laser
power and other physical parameters as in the case of SLA. It means that user-friendly software
for ease of use and handling, user support in terms of user manuals, dialogue mode and online
graphical aids will be very helpful to users of the RP system.

Many vendors are continually working to improve their systems in this aspect. For example, a
software, Partman Program, was introduced by 3D Systems [5] to reduce the time spent on
setting parameters for the SLA process. Before this software is introduced, parameters (such as
the location in the 250 mm ⋅ 250 mm box and the various cure depths) had to be set manually.
This was very tedious for there may be up to 12 parameters to be keyed in. These parameters
are shown in Table.
However, the job is now made simpler with the introduction of default values that can be
altered to other specific values. These values can be easily retrieved for use in other models.
This software also allows the user to orientate and move the model such that the whole model is
in the positive axis’ region (the SLA uses only positive numbers for calculations). Thus the
original CAD design model can also be in “negative” regions when converting to STL format.
1.5.4 BUILDING
For most RP systems, this step is fully automated. Thus, it is usual for operators to leave the
machine on to build a part overnight. The building process may take up to several hours to
build depending on the size and number of parts required. The number of identical parts that
can be built is subject to the overall build size constrained by the build volume of the RP
system.
1.5.5 POSTPROCESSING
The final task in the process chain is the postprocessing task. At this stage, generally some
manual operations are necessary. As a result, the danger of damaging a part is particularly high.
Therefore, the operator for this last process step has a high responsibility for the successful
process realization. The necessary postprocessing tasks for some major RP systems are shown
in Table 2.2.

The cleaning task refers to the removal of excess parts which may have remained on the part.
Thus, for SLA parts, this refers to excess resin residing in entrapped portion such as a blind
hole of a part, as well as the removal of supports. Similarly, for SLS parts, the excess powder
has to be removed. Likewise for LOM, pieces of excess wood like blocks of paper which acted
as supports have to be removed.
As shown in Table 2.2, the SLA procedures require the highest number of postprocessing tasks.
More importantly, for safety reason, specific recommendations for postprocessing tasks have to
be prepared, especially for cleaning of SLA parts. It was reported that accuracy is related to the
post-treatment process [6]. Specifically, Ref. 6 refers to the swelling of SLA-built parts with the
use of cleaning solvents. Parts are typically cleaned with solvent to remove unreacted
photosensitive resin. Depending upon the “build style” and the extent of crosslinking in the
resin, the part can be distorted during the cleaning process. This effect was particularly
pronounced with the more open “build styles” and aggressive solvents. With the “build styles”
approaching a solid fill and more solvent-resistant materials, damage with the cleaning solvent
can be minimized. With newer cleaning solvents, like TPM (tripropylene glycol monomethyl
ether) introduced by 3D Systems, part damage due to the cleaning solvent can be reduced or
even eliminated

1.6 Classification of AM Process

While there are many ways in which one can classify the numerous RP systems in the market,
one of the better ways is to classify RP systems broadly by the initial form of its material, i.e.
the material that the prototype or part is built with. In this manner, all RP systems can be easily
categorized into (1) liquid-based (2) solid-based and (3) powder based.

1.6.1 Liquid-Based

Liquid-based RP systems have the initial form of its material in liquid state. Through a process
commonly known as curing, the liquid is converted into the solid state. The following RP
systems fall into this category:

(1) 3D Systems’ Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA)

(2) Cubital’s Solid Ground Curing (SGC)
(3) Sony’s Solid Creation System (SCS)
(4) CMET’s Solid Object Ultraviolet-Laser Printer (SOUP) (5) Autostrade’s E-Darts
(6) Teijin Seiki’s Soliform System
(7) Meiko’s Rapid Prototyping System for the Jewelry Industry
(8) Denken’s SLP
(9) Mitsui’s COLAMM
(10) Fockele & Schwarze’s LMS
(11) Light Sculpting
(12) Aaroflex
(13) Rapid Freeze
(14) Two Laser Beams
(15) Microfabrication

As is illustrated in the RP Wheel in Figure 1.3, three methods are possible under the “Photo-
curing” method. The single laser beam method is most widely used and include all the above RP
systems with the exception of (2), (11), (13) and (14). Cubital (2) and Light Sculpting (11) use
the masked lamp method, while the two laser beam method is still not commercialized. Rapid
Freeze (13) involves the freezing of water droplets and deposit in a manner much like FDM to
create the prototype.

1.6.2 Solid-Based

Except for powder, solid-based RP systems are meant to encompass all forms of material in the
solid state. In this context, the solid form can include the shape in the form of a wire, a roll,
laminates and pellets. The following RP systems fall into this definition:

(1) Cubic Technologies’ Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

(2) Stratasys’ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

(3) Kira Corporation’s Paper Lamination Technology (PLT)
(4) 3D Systems’ Multi-Jet Modeling System (MJM)
(5) Solidscape’s ModelMaker and PatternMaster
(6) Beijing Yinhua’s Slicing Solid Manufacturing (SSM), Melted Extrusion Modeling (MEM)
and Multi-Functional RPM Systems (M-RPM)
(7) CAM-LEM’s CL 100
(8) Ennex Corporation’s Offset Fabbers

Referring to the RP Wheel in Figure 1.3, two methods are possible for solid-based RP systems.
RP systems (1), (3), (4) and (9) belong to the Cutting and Glueing/Joining method, while the
Melting and Solidifying/Fusing method used RP systems (2), (5), (6), (7) and (8).

1.6.3 Powder-Based
In a strict sense, powder is by-and-large in the solid state. However, it is intentionally created as
a category outside the solid-based RP systems to mean powder in grain-like form. The following
RP systems fall into this definition:

(1) 3D Systems’s Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

(2) EOS’s EOSINT Systems
(3) Z Corporation’s Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
(4) Optomec’s Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
(5) Soligen’s Direct Shell Production Casting (DSPC)
(6) Fraunhofer’s Multiphase Jet Solidification (MJS)
(7) Acram’s Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
(8) Aeromet Corporation’s Lasform Technology
(9) Precision Optical Manufacturing’s Direct Metal Deposition (DMDTM)
(10) Generis’ RP Systems (GS)
(11) Therics Inc.’s Theriform Technology
(12) Extrude Hone’s Prometal TM 3D Printing Process

All the above RP systems employ the Joining/Binding method. The method of joining/binding
differs for the above systems in that some employ a laser while others use a binder/glue to
achieve the joining effect.

1.7 Software for AM

Additive manufacturing is the term used to describe the process of manufacturing items by
layering material layer-upon-layer using data and automation to create a finished product. The
process of additive manufacturing is the antithesis of machining. Additive manufacturing is
referred to by some as 3D printing, but additive manufacturing has a more industrial connotation.
Additive manufacturing is the future, and more and more products are being created through this
process, as software and hardware gets better. Here's a list of the best additive manufacturing
software:

1. Solid Edge Siemens Digital Industries Software

2. DigitalClone for Additive Manufacturing (DC-AM) Sentient Science
3. Netfabb® software Autodesk
4. Fusion 360 with PowerMill Autodesk
5. Creo PTC
6. Flow 3D Flow Science
7. Ultimaker Cura Ultimaker
8. Amhyon Additive Works
9. VPS-Micro VEXTEC Corporation

Methods of RP

1. Stereo lithography (SLA)

2. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

3. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

4. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

5. Ballistic Particle Manufacturing

6. Solid Base or Ground Curing (SGC)

 1. Stereo lithography (SLA)

SLA is also known as SL, optical fabrication, photo-solidification, or resin printing. During the
SL manufacturing process, a concentrated beam of ultraviolet light or a laser is focused onto the
surface of a vat filled with a liquid photopolymer. The beam or laser is focused, creating each
layer of the desired 3D object by means of cross-linking or degrading a polymer. In general, SLA
uses UV curable resins. Those are normally on epoxy- or acrylic-base, more rarely on a vinyl-
base. All resins are liquid, and solidify when exposed to UV. While there were only a few,
mostly low-performance resins in the beginning, there are plenty of high-performance materials
available today, with a wide range of characteristics.

Photopolymerization 3D printing technology encompasses several different process that rely on

the same basic strategy: a liquid photopolymer contained in a vat (or tank) is selectively cured by
a heat source. Layer by layer, a 3D physical object is built until completion. There are multiple
types of curing devices in addition to the oldest technique, which is based on lasers. Digital Light
Processing projectors and even LCD screens are now a popular way of photopolymerizing
materials given their low cost and very high resolution

Working

 3D Systems’ stereolithography process creates three-dimensional plastic objects directly from

CAD data.

 The process begins with the vat filled with the photo-curable liquid resin and the elevator table set
just below the surface of the liquid resin.
 The operator loads a three-dimensional CAD solid model file into the system.

 Supports are designed to stabilize the part during building.

 The translator converts the CAD data into a STL file.

 The control unit slices the model and support into a series of cross sections from 0.025 to 0.5 mm
(0.001 to 0.020 in) thick.

 The computer-controlled optical scanning system then directs and focuses the laser beam so that
it solidifies a two dimensional cross-section corresponding to the slice on the surface of the
photo-curable liquid resin to a depth greater than one layer thickness.

 The elevator table then drops enough to cover the solid polymer with another layer of the liquid
resin.

 A leveling wiper or vacuum blade (for ZephyrTM recoating system) moves across the surfaces to
recoat the next layer of resin on the surface.

 The laser then draws the next layer.

 This process continues building the part from bottom up, until the system completes the part.

 The part is then raised out of the vat and cleaned of excess polymer.

 The main components of the SLA system are a control computer, a control panel, a laser, an
optical system and a process chamber.

 The workstation software used by the SLA system, known as 3D Lightyear exploits the full
power of the Windows NT operating system, and delivers far richer functionality than the UNIX-
based Maestro software.
 2. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), or Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), is an additive

manufacturing process that belongs to the material extrusion family. In FDM, an object is built by
selectively depositing melted material in a pre-determined path layer-by-layer. The materials used
are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form.

 FDM is the most widely used 3D Printing technology: it represents the largest installed base of
3D printers globally and is often the first technology people are exposed to. In this article, the
basic principles and the key aspects of the technology are presented.

 A designer should keep in mind the capabilities and limitations of the technology when
fabricating a part with FDM, as this will help him achieve the best result.

Process

 A spool of thermoplastic filament is first loaded into the printer. Once the nozzle has reached the
desired temperature, the filament is fed to the extrusion head and in the nozzle where it melts.

 The extrusion head is attached to a 3-axis system that allows it to move in the X, Y and Z
directions. The melted material is extruded in thin strands and is deposited layer-by-layer in
predetermined locations, where it cools and solidifies. Sometimes the cooling of the material is
accelerated through the use of cooling fans attached on the extrusion head.

 To fill an area, multiple passes are required (similar to coloring a rectangle with a marker). When
a layer is finished, the build platform moves down (or in other machine setups, the extrusion head
moves up) and a new layer is deposited. This process is repeated until the part is complete.

 https://youtu.be/raSAhXb2ea4

Printer Parameters
 Most FDM systems allow the adjustment of several process parameters, including the
temperature of both the nozzle and the build platform, the build speed, the layer height and the
speed of the cooling fan. These are generally set by the operator, so they should be of little
concern to the designer.

 What is important from a designer's perspective is build size and layer height:

 The available build size of a desktop 3D printer is commonly 200 x 200 x 200 mm, while for
industrial machines this can be as big as 1000 x 1000 x 1000 mm. If a desktop machine is
preferred (for example for reducing the cost) a big model can be broken into smaller parts and
then assembled.

 The typical layer height used in FDM varies between 50 and 400 microns and can be determined
upon placing an order. A smaller layer height produces smoother parts and captures curved
geometries more accurately, while a larger height produces parts faster and at a lower cost.
 3. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

 3D Systems Corporation was founded by Charles W. Hull and Raymond S. Freed in 1986.

 The founding company, DTM Corporation, was established in 1987 to commercialize the SLS®
technology.

 The latest and fourth generation SLS® system is the VanguardTM. The system is capable of
producing objects measuring up to 380 mm length by 330 mm width by 380 mm (15 inches) in
height, accommodating most rapid prototyping applications.

 The new VanguardTM system offers several significant improvements over the previous
generation systems such as improved part accuracy, higher speed, smoother surface finish and
finer resolution

Principle of SLS

1. Parts are built by sintering when a CO2 laser beam hits a thin layer of powdered material.

The interaction of the laser beam with the powder raises the temperature to the point of melting,
resulting in particle bonding, fusing the particles to themselves and the previous layer to form a solid.

2. The building of the part is done layer by layer. Each layer of the building process contains the
cross-sections of one or many parts.

The next layer is then built directly on top of the sintered layer after an additional layer of powder
is deposited via a roller mechanism on top of the previously formed layer.
 1. A thin layer of heat-fusible powder is deposited onto the part building chamber.

2. The bottom-most cross-sectional slice of the CAD part under fabrication is selectively “drawn”
(or scanned) on the layer of powder by a heat-generating CO2 laser.

The interaction of the laser beam with the powder elevates the temperature to the point of
melting, fusing the powder particles to form a solid mass.

The intensity of the laser beam is modulated to melt the powder only in areas defined by the
part’s geometry. Surrounding powder remain a loose compact and serve as supports.

3. When the cross-section is completely drawn, an additional layer of powder is deposited via a
roller mechanism on top of the previously scanned layer. This prepares the next layer for
scanning.

4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated, with each layer fusing to the layer below it. Successive layers of
powder are deposited and the process is repeated until the part is completed.
 4. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)

 Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a method of 3D printing.

 It was developed by the California-based Helisys Inc. (now Cubic Technologies).

 During the LOM process, layers of plastic or paper are fused — or laminated — together
using heat and pressure, and then cut into the desired shape with a computer-controlled
laser or blade.

 While LOM is not the most popular method of 3D printing used today, it is still one of the
fastest and most affordable ways to create 3D prototypes.

Principle

 Parts are built, layer-by-layer, by laminating each layer of paper or other sheet-
form materials and the contour of the part on that layer is cut by a CO2 laser.

 Each layer of the building process contains the cross-sections of one or many parts.
The next layer is then laminated and built directly on top of the laser-cut layer.

 The Z-control is activated by an elevation platform, which lowers when each layer is
completed, and the next layer is then laminated and ready for cutting. The Z-height
is then measured for the exact height so that the corresponding cross sectional data
can be calculated for that layer.

 No additional support structures are necessary as the “excess” material, which are
cross-hatched for later removal, act as the support.
LOM Process

 Like all 3D-printed objects, models made with an LOM system start out as CAD
files. Before a model is printed, its CAD file must be converted to a format that a 3D
printer can understand — usually STL or 3DS.

 An LOM apparatus uses a continuous sheet of material — plastic, paper or (less

commonly) metal — which is drawn across a build platform by a system of feed
rollers. Plastic and paper build materials are often coated with an adhesive.

 To form an object, a heated roller is passed over the sheet of material on the build
platform, melting its adhesive and pressing it onto the platform.

 A computer-controlled laser or blade then cuts the material into the desired pattern.
The laser also slices up any excess material in a crosshatch pattern, making it easier
to remove once the object is fully printed.

 After one layer of the object is formed, the build platform is lowered by about one-
sixteenth of an inch — the typical thickness of one layer.
  New material is then pulled across the platform and the heated roller again passes
over the material, binding the new layer to the one beneath it. This process is
repeated until the entire object has been formed.

 Once an object is done "printing," it is removed from the build platform, and any
excess material is cut away. Objects printed in paper take on wood-like properties,
and can be sanded or finished accordingly.

 Paper objects are usually sealed with a paint or lacquer to keep out moisture.

Post-Processessing

 The last phase, post-processing, includes separating the part from it.

 The metal platform, home to the newly created part, is removed from the machine.
A forklift may be needed to remove the larger and heavier parts from the LOMs
support material and finishing it.

 Normally a hammer and a putty knife are all that is required to separate the LOM
block from the platform. However, a live thin wire may also be used to slice through
the double-sided foam tape, which serves as the connecting point between the LOM
stack and the platform.

 The surrounding wall frame is lifted off the block to expose the crosshatched pieces
of the excess material. Crosshatched pieces may then be separated from the part
using wood carving tools.

 After the part is extracted from surrounding crosshatches the wood-like LOM part
can be finished.

 Traditional model-making finishing techniques, such as sanding, polishing, painting,

etc. can be applied.

 After the part has been separated it is recommended that it be sealed immediately
with urethane, epoxy, or silicon spray to prevent moisture absorption and expansion
of the part. If necessary, LOM parts can be machined — by drilling, milling and
turning.
Industry 4.0

Industry 4.0 is built on nine technology pillars. These innovations bridge the physical and digital
worlds and make smart and autonomous systems possible. Businesses and supply chains already
use some of these advanced technologies, but the full potential of Industry 4.0 comes to life
when they’re used together.

What is the Fourth Industrial Revolution?

The first industrial revolution came with the advent of mechanisation, steam power and water
power.This was followed by the second industrial revolution, which revolved around mass
production and assembly lines using electricity.The third industrial revolution came with
electronics, I.T. systems and automation, which led to the fourth industrial revolution that is
associated with cyber physical systems.
Big Data and AI analytics: In Industry 4.0, Big Data is collected from a wide range of sources,
from factory equipment and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, to ERP and CRM systems, to
weather and traffic apps. Analytics powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
are applied to the data in real time – and insights are leveraged to improve decision-making and
automation in every area of supply chain management: supply chain planning, logistics
management, manufacturing, R&D and engineering, enterprise asset management (EAM), and
procurement.

Horizontal and vertical integration: The backbone of Industry 4.0 is horizontal and vertical
integration. With horizontal integration, processes are tightly integrated at the “field level” – on
the production floor, across multiple production facilities, and across the entire supply chain.
With vertical integration, all the layers of an organization are tied together – and data flows
freely from the shop floor to the top floor and back down again. In other words, production is
tightly integrated with business processes like R&D, quality assurance, sales and marketing, and
other departments – and data and knowledge silos are a thing of the past.

Cloud computing: Cloud computing is the “great enabler” of Industry 4.0 and digital
transformation. Today’s cloud technology goes way beyond speed, scalability, storage, and cost
efficiencies. It provides the foundation for most advanced technologies – from AI and machine
learning to the Internet of Things – and gives businesses the means to innovate. The data that
fuels Industry 4.0 technologies resides in the cloud, and the cyber-physical systems at the core of
Industry 4.0 use the cloud to communicate and coordinate.

Augmented reality (AR): Augmented reality, which overlays digital content on a real
environment, is a core concept of Industry 4.0. With an AR system, employees use smart glasses
or mobile devices to visualize real-time IoT data, digitized parts, repair or assembly instructions,
training content, and more when looking at a physical thing – like a piece of equipment or a
product. AR is still emerging but has major implications for maintenance, service, and quality
assurance as well as technician training and safety.

Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT): The Internet of Things (IoT) – more specifically, the
Industrial Internet of Things – is so central to Industry 4.0 that the two terms are often used
interchangeably. Most physical things in Industry 4.0 – devices, robots, machinery, equipment,
products – use sensors and RFID tags to provide real-time data about their condition,
performance, or location. This technology lets companies run smoother supply chains, rapidly
design and modify products, prevent equipment downtime, stay on top of consumer preferences,
track products and inventory, and much more.

Additive manufacturing/3D printing: Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, is another key

technology driving Industry 4.0. 3D printing was initially used to as a rapid prototyping tool but
now offers a broader range of applications, from mass customization to distributed
manufacturing. With 3D printing, for example, parts and products can be stored as design files in
virtual inventories and printed on demand at the point of need – reducing both transportation
distances and costs.

Autonomous robots: With Industry 4.0, a new generation of autonomous robots is emerging.
Programmed to perform tasks with minimal human intervention, autonomous robots vary greatly
in size and function, from inventory scanning drones to autonomous mobile robots for pick and
place operations. Equipped with cutting-edge software, AI, sensors, and machine vision, these
robots are capable of performing difficult and delicate tasks – and can recognize, analyze, and
act on information they receive from their surroundings.

Simulation/digital twins: A digital twin is a virtual simulation of a real-world machine, product,

process, or system based on IoT sensor data. This core component of Industry 4.0 allows
businesses to better understand, analyze, and improve the performance and maintenance of
industrial systems and products. An asset operator, for example, can use a digital twin to identify
a specific malfunctioning part, predict potential issues, and improve uptime.

Cybersecurity: With the increased connectivity and use of Big Data in Industry 4.0, effective
cybersecurity is paramount. By implementing a Zero Trust architecture and technologies like
machine learning and blockchain, companies can automate threat detection, prevention, and
response – and minimize the risk of data breaches and production delays across their networks.
Benefits of Industry 4.0

Intelligent products

Develop connected, self-aware products that are capable of sharing information about their
health, location, usage level, storage conditions, and more. The data these smart products share
can help you improve everything from product quality and customer service to logistics and
R&D. They can also anticipate service needs, receive remote upgrades, and open the door to
new, service-based business models.

Intelligent factories

Run smart factories – highly digitized, largely autonomous facilities that take full advantage of
advanced technologies like Big Data, artificial intelligence, robotics, analytics, and the IoT. Also
called Factory 4.0, these plants are self-correcting, employ smart manufacturing 4.0 processes,
and make it possible to deliver customized products cost efficiently and at scale.

Intelligent assets

Almost every physical asset deployed today has built-in sensors – which, when connected to the
IoT and analytics, are game changers for enterprise asset management. With intelligent assets,
technicians can monitor asset performance in real time, anticipate and prevent downtime, employ
dynamic and predictive maintenance, take advantage of digital twins, and tightly integrate assets
and business processes.

Empowered people

No matter how autonomous your systems get, you will always need people. Empower them with
technologies like AI and access to live sensor data – so they know what’s happening on the shop
floor and are ready to make quick decisions and handle issues as they spring up. Wearable
devices and augmented reality apps can also help them solve problems, monitor their health, and
keep them safe.

Companies are experiencing the benefits

There’s a broad portfolio of Industry 4.0 solutions in the market, helping thousands of companies
transform their digital supply chain – reinventing production, focusing on customers, and
connecting their entire organization.
Here are some benefits companies are experiencing:

Radical improvements in productivity and automation: Businesses are making data-driven

decisions across their operations, improving forecast accuracy, supporting on-time delivery, and
building profit-optimized plans.

Resiliency and agility no matter what the market or economy bring: Companies are shaping the
future digital supply chain based on state-of-the-art planning.

Confidence to explore new business models and seize opportunities quickly: Thanks to Industry
4.0 solutions, businesses are reducing costs, improving market efficiency, and connecting supply
chains by sea, land, and air.

Green and sustainable solutions without sacrificing profitability: Customers are becoming more
efficient and cost-effective by going digital – while meeting their environmental objectives
without compromising on other business goals, such as profitability and scalability.