AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

ENGG07011-AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

COURSE COORDINATOR: M.S.AUZINE

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Coursework Assessment Feedback

Module Title: Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems
Course/Year Aircraft Engineering Year 1 Session 2017-18
Module Code: ENGG07011 Word-Count: 1500
CW Title Computer-based airfoil and wing aerodynamics analysis
Date Due: Date Submitted:
Student ID Number:

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REPORT
Write-up: Introduction
(5%), structures (5%),
presentation (5%), and
referencing (5%)
(20%)
Computational
techniques/tools:
description (10%), set-
up (5%), and post
processing (5%)
(20%)
Computational data:
Graphs (5%),
presentation (5%),
discussion/analysis
(10%)
(20%)
Evaluation of the
software, data and
application of data
(20%)
Conclusion
(20%)
TOTAL MARKS (%)

FEEDBACK SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

BERNOULLI PRINCIPLE ............................................................................................. 4

CONTINUITY EQUATION ........................................................................................... 5
XFLR5

AIRFOIL ....................................................................................................................... 6
SOFTWARE................................................................................................................. 6
AERODYNAMIC DATA

AIRFOIL TYPE............................................................................................................. 9
AIRFOIL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ......................................................................... 9
NACA AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................. 9
MATHEMATICAL EQUATION OF NACA AIRFOIL ................................................... 10
NACA 2419 ................................................................................................................ 11
WING DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 15
CONCLUSION

LIMITATIONS OF XFLR5…………………………………………………………………17

PRECAUTIONS………………………………………………………………………….

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 18

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INTRODUCTION
The ultimate lift of an aircraft is generated through its wings which has a certain airfoil.
There are four main forces acting on an aircraft: lift, drag, up thrust, weight. For the
moment, investigations and analyses will be more concentrated on lift coefficient drag,
coefficient and angle of attack (alpha).

Lift generation: How lift is generated through an airfoil?

This lift phenomenon can be explained using:

 Bernoulli theorem
 Continuity equation

BERNOULLI PRINCIPLE

According to Bernoulli principle, in fluid dynamics, for a frictionless flow, an increase in

pressure causes a decrease in velocity and vice-versa. Bernoulli equation can be
applied on both compressible and incompressible flows moving at low Mach numbers.
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. It states
that in a steady flow, the sum of all kinetic & potential energy per unit volume/mass in a
fluid along a streamline is constant at all points on that streamline. This last statement
will lead to conservation of mass-energy (continuity equation).(Clancy 2006)

The general formula of Bernoulli equation states that:

Total pressure = Stagnation pressure + dynamic pressure

1 2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝜌𝑣
2

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CONTINUITY EQUATION

The entire continuity equation is based on this statement:

”Energy can neither be created nor destroyed”

The sum of the total energy entering a system must equal to the sum of energy leaving
the system; conservation of mass-energy.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡
This physical phenomenon can be visualised by the use of the Venturi tube.

Figure 1.Venturi tube.

Assume that the flow is incompressible, steady and frictionless. The mass flow rate and
the volumetric flow rate is always constant. (Anderson, 2009)

𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜌𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝜌𝐴3 𝑉3

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AIRFOIL

According to Bernoulli principle, an increase in pressure causes a decrease in velocity

and vice-versa. The pressure difference above and below the airfoil/wing causes lift
generation.

Now applying both Bernoulli principle and continuity equation over an airfoil
(NACA2419):

Figure 2.

In Figure 2, three specific critical areas have been put into consideration.

This equation can be derived:

1 1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 = 𝑃3 + 𝜌𝑉32
2 2 2
SOFTWARE

Computational fluid dynamics algorithms (CFD) are used to simulate flow over an
object. Software using (CFD) divide the geometrical object into a finite number of
individual units. The more division (meshing) the more accurate aerodynamic result is
obtained. (Anderson, 2013)

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XLFR5

XFOIL is a graphic user interface program for the design and analysis of subsonic
detached airfoils. It consists of a series of menu-driven systems which perform several
useful functions such as:

1. Viscous (or inviscid) analysis of an airfoil, allowed

 forced or free transition

 transitional separation bubble(s)
 limited trailing edge separation
 lift and drag predictions just beyond CLmax
 Karman-Tsien compressibility correction

2. Airfoil design and redesign by an interactive specification of a surface speed

distribution via screen cursor or mouse. Two such facilities are implemented.

 Full-Inverse, based on a complex-mapping formulation

 Mixed-Inverse, an extension of XFOIL's basic panel method

Full-inverse allows multi-point design, while Mixed-inverse allows relatively strict

geometry control over parts of the airfoil.

3. Airfoil redesign by an interactive specification of new geometric parameters such as:

 New max thickness and/or camber

 New leading edge radius
 New trailing edge thickness
 New camber line via geometry specification
 New camber line via loading change specification
 flap deflection
 Explicit contour geometry (via screen cursor)

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4. Blending of airfoils

5. Drag polar calculation with fixed or varying Reynolds and/or Mach numbers.

6. Writing and reading of airfoil geometry and polar save files

7. Plotting of geometry, pressure distributions, and polars

XFOIL is most appropriate for use on a good workstation. The source code of XFOIL is
Fortran 77. The plotting library also uses a few C routines for the X-Windows interface
(Mark Drela 2001).

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AERODYNAMIC DATA

AIRFOIL TYPE

NACA stands for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. The 4 digits NACA type
airfoil can be generated using mathematical equations. The NACA airfoils can also be
represented by sets of coordinates derived from mathematical calculations. These
coordinates can be eventually inputted into computer software such as auto-cad and
xflr5 for further analysis.

AIRFOIL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

 Chord line: it is defined as a straight line between the leading edge and the
trailing edge.
 Mean Chamber Line: it is the vector sum of the upper and lower chamber.
 Maximum Camber: it is the maximum distance from the chord line to the upper
chamber.
 Maximum Thickness: it is the distance between the lower chamber and upper
surfaces.

NACA AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

NACA (2419) airfoil

The 1𝑠𝑡 digit indicates the maximum chamber of the chord length in the y-axis
(horizontal). It is expressed as a percentage of the chord line. In this case 2% of chord
line

The 2𝑛𝑑 digit indicates the location of the maximum chamber in the x-axis (vertical).In
this case 4% of chord line.

The 3𝑟𝑑 and 4𝑡ℎ digits indicate the maximum thickness. In this case 19% of the chord
line.

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Figure 3. Illustration of some airfoil terminologies.

MATHEMATICAL EQUATION OF NACA AIRFOIL

𝑡
𝑦𝑡 = (0.2969√𝑥 − 0.1260𝑥 − 0.3516𝑥 2 + 0.2843𝑥 3 − 0.101𝑥 4 )
0.2
Where;

t = maximum airfoil thickness in tenths of the chord (i.e. 19% of chord line).

x = coordinates along the length of the (chord line) on the x-axis.

y = coordinates above and below the line extending along the length of the airfoil (chord
line) on the y-axis.

(Marzocca, Pier 2016)

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NACA 2419

NACA 2419 is generated using a NACA foil generator. The coordinates of the airfoil are
saved in a (.dat file type) and then uploaded to XFLR5.The airfoil is then subject to
batch analysis where aerodynamic calculations are performed.

PARAMETERS USED FOR BATCH FOIL ANALYSIS

Analysis Mach Number of

Reynolds Number Range Analysis Range
Type Number Interations
1 400,000 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 1,000,000 0 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 25 1000

COLOR CODE FOR REYNOLDS NUMBER

COLOR REYNOLDS NUMBER

Pink 1 400,000
White 500,000
Green 600,000
Orange 700,000
Yellow 800,000
Pink 2 900,000
Blue 1,000,000

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GRAPH OF LIFT COEFFICIENT (Cl) V/S DRAG COEFFICIENT (Cd)

Figure 4.

Observation and analysis;

 It can be noticed from Figure 4, as Reynolds number increases; both Cl and Cd

increase. But Cl increases at a faster rate than Cd, resulting in an overall
increase in the lift coefficient (Cl).
 The maximum aerodynamic efficiency can be obtained at the stationary point of
the graph. Where Reynolds Number is equal to 1,000,000.

𝑑𝐶𝑙
𝐺𝐿𝐼𝐷𝐸 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = ≈ 31
𝑑𝐶𝑑

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GRAPH OF LIFT COEFFICIENT V/S ANGLE OF ATTACK (Alpha)

Figure 5.

Observation and analysis:

 From Figure 5, it can be noticed that Cl increases as alpha increases until it

reaches a maximum point.
𝑑𝐶𝑙
 At maximum point, = 0 ,maximum lift coefficient is experienced. Where
𝑑𝛼

Reynolds number=1,000,000; α=17°; Cl≈ 1.520.

𝑑𝐶𝑙
 After the maximum point, < 0 , lift coefficient decreases as alpha increases,
𝑑𝛼

stall will occur for an angle of attack greater than (α=17°).

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GRAPH OF DRAG COEFFICIENT V/S ANGLE OF ATTACK (α)

Figure 6.

Observation and analysis:

 From Figure 6, as the angle of attack (α) increases, glide ratio increases
until it reaches a maximum point. For Reynolds number=1,000,000
maximum 𝐺𝐿𝐼𝐷𝐸 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ≈ 100 , when angle of attack 𝛼=8°.
 After the maximum point, glide ratio decreases as the angle of attack
increases.

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WING DESIGN

For the wing design, the Cessna 172R aircraft wing specifications were taken as
reference.

WING SPECIFICATIONS

(Cessna May 2010) (Jane, 2009)

 Wingspan: 11.0 𝑚
 Wing area: 16.2 𝑚2
 Aspect ratio: 7.32
 Taper Ratio: 0.68
 Wing root chord: 5 feet 4 inches (1.63 𝑚)
 Wing tip chord: 3 feet 8.5 inches (1.12 𝑚)
 Dihedral:1 degree 44 minutes

Figure 7.Isometric view

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Figure 8.Top view

Figure 9.Front view

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CONCLUSION

The whole effectiveness of computational fluid mechanics software is how well it

replicates/simulates reality. Nowadays engineers can ‘’virtual prototyping” and “virtual
testing” without investing in a huge amount of money in wind tunnel and maket.

LIMITATION OF XLFR5

 Results such as lift/drag coefficient are purely based on hypothetical the principle
of lifting lift theory (LLT).Accurate results should not be expected for wings of low
aspect ratio and large amount of sweep.
 Non- viscous LLT calculations can be performed.
 The LLT considers that all airfoil exists only in two dimensions. Sweep angle and
dihedral angle are not accountable in the calculation of lift distribution.

PRECAUTIONS

 XFLR5 analysis is accurate only for low Reynolds Number.

 Airfoil can’t be analyzed at supersonic, hypersonic speeds.
 Construction and evaluation of airfoil can’t 100% rely on XFLR5 results. Due to
multiple flaws in the algorithms.

(Guidelines QXFLR5, 2009)

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REFERENCES

1.Clancy, J. L. (2006). Aerodynamics, Sterling Book House.

2.Anderson, J. and W. Hughes (2009). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics + Schaum's

Outline of Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill Education.

3.Marzocca, Pier. "The NACA airfoil series" (PDF). Clarkson University. Retrieved July
5, 2016.

4.Mark Drela, MIT Aero & Astro.Harold Youngren, Aerocraft, Inc, accessed 22
November 2017

<http://web.mit.edu/drela/Public/web/xfoil/xfoil_doc.txt>

5. Anderson, J. D., et al. (2013). Computational Fluid Dynamics: An Introduction,

Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

6. Cessna (May 2010). "Skyhawk 172R Specification and Description" (PDF).

Retrieved 22 August 2010.

7. Jane, F. T., et al. (2009). Jane's All the World's Aircraft, McGraw-Hill.

8. Guidelines for QFLR5 v0.03 1/58 October 2009

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