Addis Ababa Science & Technology

University

COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Thermo-Fluid Laboratory report (EMEg5103)

EXPERIMENT 2: VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
SECTION: A

Group member ID NO

1. ZEWDU TEKILU……………………………………........ETS0078/10
2. BEIDEMICHAEL YITBAREK………………………… ETS0202/10
3. BEKURETSION NIGUSSIE……………………………. ETS0209/10
4. ABDURHAMAN YIMER…………………………….......ETS0023/10
5. ALEM MEZGEBE…………………………………...…... ETS0095/10
6. ABEL SINTAYEHU………………………………...…….ETS0037/10
7. ABDULMELIK KABETO………………………………...ETS0020/10
8. ABENEZER MATEBIE…………………………………...ETS0047/10
9. AMANUEL HIRKO………………………………………..ETS0118/10
10. NEBIYOU FIKADU……………………………………......ETS0788/09

Submitted to: Mr. MILLION ASFAW

Sub.Date: Friday, December 10,2021
Table of Contents
Table of figures........................................................................................................................................I
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................II
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................1
OBJECTIVE..........................................................................................................................................1
THEORY...............................................................................................................................................2
APPARATUS........................................................................................................................................4
Nomenclature.........................................................................................................................................5
Technical Data........................................................................................................................................5
PROCEDURE........................................................................................................................................6
General Start-Up Procedures..............................................................................................................6
Experimental Procedures....................................................................................................................6
General Shut-down Procedures..........................................................................................................6
RESULTS..............................................................................................................................................7
CALCULATIONS...........................................................................................................................10
DISCUSSION......................................................................................................................................12
CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................................13
RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................................13
REFERENCE.......................................................................................................................................14

Table of figures
Figure 1: A venturi tube.........................................................................................................................3
Figure 2:Parts of Bernoulli’s Apparatus Test Equipment......................................................................4
Figure 3: Dimensions of tube.................................................................................................................5
Figure 4: At max difference of h1 & h5.................................................................................................8

I
ABSTRACT
This experiment is about Bernoulli’s theorem. The objective of this experiment is to
demonstrate or validate the Bernoulli’s theorem. This experiment uses the Bernoulli ‘s
Theorem Demonstration Apparatus. The apparatus contains of many part which are venturi
meter, pad of manometer tube, pump, and water tank equipped with pump water controller,
water host and tubes. This experiment uses the venturi meter to measure the fluid flow
through a pipe. The venturi tube has converging and diverging portion that function of
increasing and decreasing the velocity of fluid and lower and higher the static pressure
respectively. The experiment is conducted for three times with different flow rates starting
the first after the level pressure of each manometer A, B, C, D, E and F is equal and stable.
The flow rate was taken as the water indicator reached at 5 litres of water level. Level
pressure of each manometer is measured as head loss. From the experiment conducted, we
observed than when fluids move from a region of higher pressure to lower pressure, the
velocity of the fluid increases. There are a little bit differences on the speed of the flow and
the pressure when we use Bernoulli’s equation and Continuity equation to calculate velocity.
Thus, we concluded that the Bernoulli’s theorem is accepted. The experiment was a
successfully and the objectives are obtained.

II
III
INTRODUCTION
Bernoulli’s principle tells us that windows tend to explode rather than implode when
hurricanes. During the hurricanes, a very high speed of air outside the window leading to low
air pressure compare to inside, which the air is still. The differences of forces causing the
windows push outward and explode. That it is why to better open all windows during the
hurricane. Another example of Bernoulli’s principle application is to determine the flow speed
of a fluid. The devices such as venturi meter or an orifice plate is used and can be placed into
a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. The reduction in diameter will cause an increase
in the fluid flow speed, thus according to Bernoulli’s there must be decrease in pressure.

In his book, Daniel Bernoulli states that “as the speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas)
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. He comes up this principle and published in
his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. The book describes the theory of water flowing through a
tube and water flowing from a hole in a container which explained the hydronomic pressure.

In order to demonstrate the Bernoulli’s principle, model: armfield - Bernoulli’s Theorem

Demonstration apparatus is used. The apparatus consists of a classical Venturi made of clear
acrylic. A series of wall tapping allow measurement of the static pressure distribution along
the converging duct, while a total head tube is provided to transverse along the centre line of
the test section. These tapings are connected to a manometer bank incorporating a manifold
with air bleed valve. Pressurization of the manometers is facilitated by a hand pump.

This unit has been designed to be used with Hydraulics Bench for students to study the
characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging sections. During the
experiment, water is fed through a hose connector and students may control the flow rate of
the water by adjusting a flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.

OBJECTIVE
To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow
of water in a tapered duct plates.

1
THEORY
Bernoulli’s principle is essentially a work energy conservation principle which states that an
ideal fluid or for situations where effects of viscosity are neglected, with no work being
performed on the fluid, the total energy is constant. This principle also states that the sum of
all forms of energy in a fluid flowing along an enclosed path (a streamline) is the same at any
two points in that path.

The pressure, speed and height (h) at two points in a steady-flowing, non-viscous,
incompressible fluid are related by the equation:
1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg h1=P2 + ρ v 2 + ρg h2
2 2

This equation is the sum of the kinetic energy, potential energy and gravitational energy at
height. If the equation was multiplied through by the volume, the density can be replaced by
mass and the pressure replaced by force times distance. As the replacement, we can see that
the difference in pressure does work which can be used to change the kinetic energy and the
potential energy of the fluid for this equation.
The continuity equation states that for an incompressible fluid flowing in a tube of varying
cross-section, the mass flow rate is the same everywhere in the tube. The equation of
continuity can be written as:
ρV ρA∗S
¿)inlet = ¿)outlet + ¿)cv ; we know that m = ṁ= t = t ,

s
but =v (velocity) this implies that: - ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2
t

ρ = density, A = cross sectional area, v = velocity

The density stays at the constant and then it is simply the flow rate (Av) that is constant. The
velocity of fluid is greater in the narrow section as we applied the continuity equation.
Bernoulli's principle also states that if a non-viscous flow along a pipe of varying cross
section. Then, an increment in the speed of the fluid simultaneously with a drop in pressure or
a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy and the pressure increases when the pipe opens out
and the fluid stagnate. Thus, pressure would decrease when the velocity increases.

p v2
+ +z=ht=Constant
This is expressed with the following equation: ρ g 2g
Where, p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section, ρ = Density of the flowing fluid,

g = Acceleration due to gravity, v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the centre at the cross section with respect to a datum

ht = Total (stagnation) head

2
The sum of the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv) or dynamic head and the elevation head
(z) is known as the total head (ht). The total head ht at any cross section is constant according
to the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a pipe. The results will deviate from the
theoretical ones in real flow due to friction, other imperfections and the measurement
uncertainties. The centreline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same
horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the ‘z’ values are
zeros so that the above equation reduces to:

p v2
+ =ht =Constant
ρg 2g ; This represents the total head at cross section.

Venturi Meter: The venturi meter is a tool used to measure the flow through a pipeline. This
apparatus consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a
converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below. The
converging portion’s function is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static
pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure
difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the
area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

outlet
Figure 1: A venturi tube

3
APPARATUS
I. Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit
This equipment is designed and fabricated to demonstrate the theorem of Bernoulli. It
consists of the following units as shown below in the figure.

Figure 2:Parts of Bernoulli’s Apparatus Test Equipment

1. Test Section
2. Water Inlet
3. Unions
4. Air Bleed Screw
5. Discharge Valve
6. Gland Nut
7. Hypodermic Probe
8. Adjustable Feet
II. A stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
III. Centrifugal pump

4
Nomenclature

Name Symbol Unit Type Definition

Volume Collected V M3 Measured Taken from scale on hydraulics bench (liters)

Time to Collect t s Measured Time taken to collect the known volume of water
in the hydraulics bench.

Flow rate Qt M3/s Calculated Qt =V/t

Manometer Legend hx Given Manometer identification labels

Area of Duct M2 A Given The area of the duct at each tapping.

Static Head m hs Measured Measured value from the appropriate manometer.

The manometer readings are taken in mm Water.

Velocity m /s v Calculated Velocity of fluid in duct = Qv/A

Dynamic Head m hd Calculated v2/2g

Total Head m ho Calculated h+v2/2g

Distance into Duct m Measured Position of the Total Head Probe from the datum
at tapping h1

Probe Reading h8 Measured Total head

Technical Data
The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. These
values are being checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with our own
measurements. The dimensions of the tube are detailed below:

Figure 3: Dimensions of tube

5
PROCEDURE
General Start-Up Procedures
1. The clear acrylic is ensured that the test section is installed with the converging
section upstream. The unions are tightening.
2. The apparatus is located on the flat top of the bench.
3. A spirit level is attached to baseboard and on top of the bench is levelled by adjusting
the feet.
4. The flexible inlet tube is connected using the quick release coupling in the bed of the
channel.
5. A flexible hose is connected to the outlet and directed into the channel.
6. The outlet flow control valve at the Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit is
gradually opened to allow the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench is filled.
7. The water is allowed to fill in the manometer tubes until all trapped air is removed.
8. Air bleed screw is opened and controlled to get a certain volumetric flow. The screw is
re-tightened when the manometer has reached a convenient height.

Experimental Procedures
1. The general Start-up Procedures is performed
2. All manometer tubes are checked properly connected to the corresponding pressure
taps are air-bubble free.
3. The discharged valve is adjusted to a high measureable flow rate.
4. After the level is stabilized, the water flow rate is measured using volumetric method.
5. The probe tube connected to manometer H8 is gently slide, so that the cross section of
venturi tube at A reached its end.
6. Step 5 is repeated for other cross sections (B, C, D, E and F).
7. Step 3 to 6 is repeated with three other flow rates by regulating the venturi discharged.
8. The velocity, V is calculated using the continuity equation where; v=Qav / A i
9. Carry out a timed volume collection, using the volumetric tank, in order to determine
the volume flow rate.
10. Reading the total pressure head distribution: Measure the total pressure head
distribution by traversing the total pressure probe along the length of the test section.

General Shut-down Procedures

1. Water supply valve and venturi discharge valve are closed.
2. The water supply pump is turned off.

6
 3. Water from the unit is drained off when not in use
Results
We have taken the readings at 3 flow rates.
i. At maximum flow rates, when the difference between h1 and h5 is maximum.
ii. Make the difference between h1 and h5 50%(half).
iii. Take an average of the first and the second result.

RESULTS
i. At maximum flow rates, when the difference between h1 and h5 is maximum.
First we have recorded the volume of water up to it gets at 5L using stop watch.

Volume of water: 5L = 5x10-3m3

Time taken: 47sec, then using the formula,

V 5 x 10−3 m3
Q= = = 1.064x10-4m3/s.
t 47 sec

Flowrate: 1.064x10-4m3/s.

Since total head is the sum total of dynamic and static head, so the dynamic one is the
difference of the other two.
h1 – h5 = 220-95 = 125mm = 0.125m

Dynamic Head, 𝒉𝒅 = 𝒉𝒕 − 𝒉𝒔

Velocity, V , g = 9.81m/s2

Volume Time to Flow Rate heads Distance Area Static Velocity Dynamic Total
Collected Collect QV (𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄) into duct of Head v (m/s) Head Head
V (m3) t(sec) Ht (m)
(m) duct hS (m) hd (m)
(m2)
0.005 47 1.064x10 -4
h1 0.00 490.9x10-6 0.220 0.000 0.000 0.220
0.005 47 1.064x10-4 h2 0.0603 151.7x10-6 0.190 0.767 0.03 0.220
0.005 47 1.064x10-4 h3 0.0687 109.4x10-6 0.170 0.99 0.05 0.220
0.005 47 1.064x10-4 h4 0.0732 89.9x10-6 0.140 1.25 0.08 0.220
0.005 47 1.064x10-4 h5 0.0811 78.5x10-6 0.095 1.56 0.125 0.220
0.005 47 1.064x10-4 h6 0.1415 490.9x10-6 0.115 1.44 0.105 0.220

7
 0.25 Relation of Ht,hd and hs
0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 Ht
hd
0.2 0.19 hs
0.17 Linear
Pressure heads

(hs)
0.15 0.14
0.125
0.115
0.105
0.095
0.1
0.08

0.05
0.05
0.03

0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Head positions

Figure 4: At max difference of h1 & h5

ii. Make the difference between h1 and h5 50%(half). h1 – h5 = 180-90 = 90mm = 0.09m

Volume of water: 5L = 5x10-3m3

V 5 x 10−3 m3
Time taken: 55 s, Q = = = 8.8x10-5m3/s.
t 57 sec

Flowrate: 8.8x10-5m3/s.

Dynamic Head, 𝒉𝒅 = 𝒉𝒕 − 𝒉𝒔

8
 Velocity, V , g = 9.81m/s2

Volume Time to Flow Rate Head Distance Area Static Velocity Dynamic Total
Collected Collect QV (𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄) positio Head v (m/s) Head Head
into duct of
t(sec) n ht (m)
V (m3) (m) duct hS (m) hd (m)
(m2)
0.005 57 8.8x10-5 h1 0.00 490.9x10-6 0.180 0.000 0.000 0.180
0.005 57 8.8x10-5 h2 0.0603 151.7x10-6 0.160 0.44 0.010 0.180
0.005 57 8.8x10-5 h3 0.0687 109.4x10-6 0.145 0.7 0.025 0.180
0.005 57 8.8x10-5 h4 0.0732 89.9x10-6 0.130 0.83 0.035 0.180
0.005 57 8.8x10-5 h5 0.0811 78.5x10-6 0.100 0.99 0.080 0.180
0.005 57 8.8x10-5 h6 0.1415 490.9x10-6 0.135 0.94 0.045 0.180

position vs head
0.2 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
0.18 0.16
0.16 0.145
0.13 0.135
0.14
0.12 0.1 Ht
Heads

0.1 0.08 hd
0.08 hs
0.06 0.045
0.035
0.04 0.025
0.02 0.01
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
position

iii. Take the difference between h1 and h5 an average of the first and the second result.

1st, h1 – h5 = 220-95 = 125mm = 0.125m and from the 2nd, h1 – h5 = 180-90 = 90mm = 0.09m

0.125+0.09
Now take the average = = 0.110m
2

Volume of water: 5L, Time taken: 54s

V 5 x 10−3 m3
Time taken: 54 s, Q = = = 9.3x10-5m3/s.
t 54 sec

Flowrate: 9.3x 10-5 m3/s

Dynamic Head, 𝒉𝒅 = 𝒉𝒕 − 𝒉𝒔

9
 Velocity, V , g = 9.81m/s2

Volume Time to Flow Rate Distance Area of Static Velocity Dynamic Total
Collected Collect Head v (m/s) Head Head
QV (𝒎𝟑⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄) into duct duct
t(sec) ht (m)
V (m )3
(m) (m2) hS (m) hd (m)
0.005 54 9.3x 10-5
h1 0.0000 490.9x10-6 0.200 0.00 0.00 0.200
0.005 54 9.3x 10-5 h2 0.0603 151.7x10-6 0.180 0.63 0.02 0.200
0.005 54 9.3x 10-5 h3 0.0687 109.4x10-6 0.165 0.83 0.035 0.200
0.005 54 9.3x 10-5 h4 0.0732 89.9x10-6 0.145 1.04 0.055 0.200
0.005 54 9.3x 10-5 h5 0.0811 78.5x10-6 0.09 1.47 0.110 0.200
0.005 54 9.3x 10-5 h6 0.1415 490.9x10-6 0.120 1.17 0.07 0.190

0.25

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

0.2 0.19
0.18
0.165
0.145
0.15
0.12
Heads

0.11 Ht
0.1 0.09 hd
0.07 hs
0.055
0.05 0.035
0.02
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
heads positiom

CALCULATIONS
During the experiment, reading of Ht, hs, and time taken of water to be filled until 5L
are recorded. In order to clearly understand the effect of cross-section of tube on the
velocity of the fluid let’s calculate for each section using Bernoulli’s(VB) and
Continuity(Vc) equation.
There are a few things need to be calculated in order to determine the difference value
between VB and VC:
1. VB by using the Bernoulli’s equation
2. Area of each of the cross section (A, B, C, D, E and F)
3. Volumetric flow rate of each experiment (1st, 2nd and 3rd)
4. VC by using continuity equation

10
1. To calculate VB, using the Bernoulli’s equation

p v2
+ +z=Ht =Constant
ρg 2g
We eliminate the pressure and z; thus we have this equation:

V B=√ 2 g ( Ht−h s ¿ )¿ =√ 2 g h d

we have calculated the VB of the cross section of the trial experiment as shown above in the
tables.

2. The area of each cross section of the tube are calculated using this equation:
π Di 2

Ai=
4
2
π (13.9)
As for example; DB = 13.9 mm therefore Ai=
4

= 0.000152 m2

DB = 13.9mm DF = 25mm
DC = 11.8mm
DD = 10.7mm
DE = 10.0mm

3. Volumetric flow rate of each trial (1st, 2nd and 3rd) are calculated using equation;
volume of water (m3)
Qav = as shown above in the table.
time taken(s)
4. Lastly, we substituted the value of Ai and Q into the continuity equation, lets calculate for
A of fist trial experiment.

Q
3
−4 m
V c = av = 1.064 x 10 /s
= 0.7m/s
Ai 0.000152 m2

Thus VC = 0.7 m/s

We calculated the difference value between VB and VC. For cross section A;

VB - VC = 0.767-0.7m/s = 0.067m/s

All of the calculations are repeated for every trial experiment

11
12
DISCUSSION
The objectives of this experiment is to investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when
applied to the steady flow of water in a tapered duct and to measure the flow rates and both
static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent and divergent tube of known geometry for
a range of steady flow rates. This experiment is based on the Bernoulli’s principle which
relates between velocities with the pressure for an in viscid flow. To achieve the objectives of
this experiment, Bernoulli’s theorem demonstration apparatus along with the hydraulic bench
were used. This instrument was combined with a venturi meter and the pad of manometer
tubes which indicate the pressure of A until H but for this experiment only the pressure in
manometer A until F being measured. A venturi is basically a converging-diverging section
(like an hourglass), typically placed between tube or duct sections with fixed cross-sectional
area. The flow rates through the venturi meter can be related to pressure measurements by
using Bernoulli’s equation. From the result obtained through this experiment, it is being
observed that when the pressure difference increase, the flow rates of the water increase and
thus the velocities also increase for both convergent and divergent flow. The result shows a
rise at each manometer tubes when the pressure difference increases. As fluid flows from a
wider pipe to a narrower one, the velocity of the flowing fluid increases. This is shown above
where the velocity of water that flows in the tapered duct increases as the duct area decreases,
regardless of the pressure difference and type of flow of each result taken. From the analysis
of the results, it can be concluded that the velocity of water decrease as the water flow rate
decrease. There must be some parallax and zero error occurs when taking
the measurement of each data. The observer must have not read the level of static head
properly. Moreover, the eyes are not perpendicular to the water level on the manometer.
Therefore, there are some minor effects on the calculations due to the errors. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid when applied to steady flow of water in
tapered duct and absolute velocity values increase along the same channel. Although the
experiment proof that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid for both flow but the values obtain
might be slightly differ from the actual value. This is because there is some error maybe
happen during the experiment is done. While taking the reading of the manometer, there
might be possibility that the eye position of the readers is not parallel to the scale. Thus, this
error will contribute to the different in the values obtained. Other than that, the readers must
take the accurate reading from the manometers. In order to get the accurate value, the water
level must be let to be really stable. Thus, a patient is needed in order to run this experiment

13
successfully because sometimes the way the experiment is conduct may influence the result of
the experiment.

14
CONCLUSION
First we had clearly made an assumption for the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation as follows:

 The fluid is ideal or perfect, that is viscosity is zero, the flow is steady (The velocity of
every liquid particle is uniform), There is no energy loss while flowing; The flow is
incompressible, the flow is irrotational, there is no external force.
Based on these assumption, Bernoulli state high velocity of fluid flow result in low pressure
and based on continuity equation, smaller area results in high velocity. Thus, the result proved
both equation could be used to determine the velocity of fluid flow in manometer. Even the
value is not exactly the same, but the pattern of increasing and decreasing at the converging
and diverging portion is same. So that, as the velocity increases, the total head pressure also
increases for both convergent and divergent flow. Therefore, the total pressure(energy) in all
cases is equal as per the reading taken from pitot tube measurement(h8)

The results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure difference
increases. From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid for
convergent and divergent flow as both of it does obey the equation. For both flow, as the
pressure difference increase, the time taken for 5L water collected increase and the flow rates
of the water also increase. Thus, as the velocity of the same channel increase, the total head
pressure also increases for both convergent and divergent flow.

RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to obtain accurate results, there are a few recommendations and precautions that
should be taken during undergo the experiment. Firstly, the equipment must be drained before
starting and after the experiment, to prevent the equipment damaged. Next, make sure there is
no air bubbles trapped before and during running the experiment. The air bubbles will affect
the result of the experiment. Other than that, the experiment should be run after we have fully
understands the unit and the procedures to avoid some simple mistakes. In addition, to get the
accurate results, the eye level must be perpendicular to the reading when recording the data to
avoid parallax error, by the reading at the right meniscus. Besides that, the control valve
should be maintained at a constant flow so that each at every reading of each manometer has
the same value of pressure.
Furthermore, when taking the time taken using the stopwatch, the suction pipe has to be
started simultaneously to get the accurate volumetric flow rate. Next, the experiment should
be repeated for a few times so that an average value could be obtained. Lastly, the leakage of
water in the instrument must be avoided to reduce the error during conducting the experiment.

15
REFERENCE
1. “Bernoulli’s Principle” from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_principle.
Retrieved on 13th Oct 2014
2. Elementary Fluid Mechanics 7th Edition, Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John K.
Vennard, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
3. “Bernoulli’s Equation” from
http://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/Bernoulli.html. Retrieved on 18th
May 2014
4. Venturi Meters from www.thermopedia.com/content/1241. Retrieved on 13h Oct 2014
5. Joseph B. Franzini. Fluid Mechanics. 10 th Ed. McGrawHill (2002)

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