UNIVERSITY OF DEBRECEN

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

INTERNSHIP REPORT

Angie Loayza
Environmental Technology, Planning, Constructions Specialization

Debrecen
2021
 UNIVERSITY OF DEBRECEN
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

PLAGIARISM STATEMENT
 UNIVERSITY OF DEBRECEN
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
Table of Contents
Introduction...........................................................................................................1

1. Circular Economy..........................................................................................3

1.1 From the linear economy to the circular economy model.......................3

1.2 The implementation of the circular economy.........................................5

2. Ecosystem services.........................................................................................7

1.1 Biodiversity.............................................................................................8

2.2 Waste management hierarchy................................................................8

3. Organic waste.................................................................................................9

3.1 Organic waste classification.......................................................................10

3.2 Organic waste utilization............................................................................12

3.2.1 Animal feed..........................................................................................13

3.2.2 Composting..........................................................................................13

3.2.3 Vessel Composting...............................................................................15

3.2.4 Windrow Composting..........................................................................15

3.2.4 Static Composting................................................................................15

3.2.5 Vermiculture........................................................................................16

3.2.6 Anaerobic digestion..............................................................................16

3.2.7 Biomass conversion..............................................................................18

4. Description of the task..................................................................................23

4.1 Description of 3 bioenergy-fuel alternatives.................................................23

5. Discussion.....................................................................................................27

5.1 Conclusions and suggestions.................................................................28

6. References....................................................................................................29
 Introduction
The present internship report focuses on the utilization of organic waste towards a

circular economy as a contribution to sustainable development. In recent decades, economic

growth, industrial development and modern technologies have brought a new level of comfort

and well-being to our lives, leading to an increment in the consumption of goods and services.

However, this growth has been achieved at the expense of the depletion of natural resources,

especially the excessive consumption of many minerals.

World Bank states: “Solid waste management is a universal issue affecting every single

person in the world” (2018, p1). Therefore, the lack of utilization of organic waste is one of the

most complex problems faced by governments worldwide. For the analysis of this problem it is

necessary to mention its causes which are fundamentally determined by the consumption

patterns of the population, socio-economic conditions, population size and others. As a result, the

definition of the organic percentage of municipal solid waste varies based on location/country.

According to a World Bank study published in 2018, the world generates two billion tons of

municipal solid waste each year. As per this report, organic waste represents 44 % of the total

waste generated globally. This fraction fluctuates according to the nations' income levels.

It is evident that the organic fraction is considerably high in the composition of MSW

and, if it is not properly disposed, it generates environmental problems such as air, soil and water

pollution, generation of bad odors, emission of greenhouse gases, among others, putting the

population at risk due to the source of infections that can be caused. These problems specially

happen in less developed nations, due to a lack of know-how and financial help.

In this context, it is of vital importance to take advantage of the organic fraction, since it

allows recovering the biochemical value of the nutrients it contains and using them in several

applications with economic and environmental value, in addition to extending the useful life of

the final disposal sites and reducing environmental impacts.

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The present research aims to achieve the following objectives:

 Address basic concepts: description of the processes, type of treatments and

technologies.

 Identify the different management alternatives for the utilization of organic waste

existing at international level.

 Access to the information sources that are related to alternatives for the management

of organic waste in order to lead to a circular economy.

 Describe each of the most common alternatives for organic waste management,

treatment or reuse, based on the data gathered.

 Description of the results obtained in each case study.

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 1. Circular Economy

For Ellen MacArthur Foundation, an organization that has allocated resources to the

study and implementation in Europe of the circular economy, "is a restorative and regenerative

economy by intention and by design to maintain products, components and materials at their

highest degree of usefulness and value at all times, distinguishing technical and biological

cycles" (2015).

Therefore, it is a system of production and consumption that surpasses the linear system

and in which the term "expiration" is replaced by "restoration"; the use of chemicals and toxics

that damage the biosphere and harm reuse is eliminated as much as possible through the

elimination of waste and the commitment to renewable energies; all this by optimizing the design

of products and materials on the one hand and systems and business models on the other. (Ellen

MacArthur Foundation 2014)

1.1 From the linear economy to the circular economy model

Since the mid-18th century with the Industrial Revolution, we have been operating under

the logic of a linear model of production and consumption of a linear model of production and

consumption, whose scheme consists of take, make and discard. In this unidirectional model,

"companies extract the necessary raw materials from the environment to make products that can

be inserted in some environment to make products that can be inserted in some market (...) is

expected to be purchased and used by a consumer it until the product deteriorates and, finally,

once the product is no longer useful to the consumer, it is discarded to acquire a new one"

(González & Vargas, 2017).

This linear model has allowed improvements in the economic dynamics of different

countries (mainly developed ones) and in their economic growth and industrial development

given the context of globalization. Despite this, there are different reasons why this model is

questioned for its unsustainability and the need, therefore, for a change in the operating system

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of the current economy jointly between companies, governments and other institutions. Some of

the reasons proposed by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2015) are:

First of all, this linear system is based on the idea that the planet's resources are infinite,

hence their continuous large-scale exploitation. This intensive exploitation generates significant

negative externalities (deterioration) of the planet's natural systems. This implies environmental

pressures such as climate change, loss of biodiversity, degradation of soil and natural capital.

Secondly, this system implies greater operational and financial risks for companies. There

is constant pressure on components and stocks of resources, implying risks in the supply of

components and materials needed for production, which in turn would generate increases in the

prices of inputs and goods, affecting economic growth in an environment of uncertainty and the

attraction of foreign direct investment.

Thirdly, this linear scheme generates significant volumes of waste along the value chain

of companies. This is not only present at the end of the production cycle but also between links

in the chain, which, added to problems such as planned obsolescence and perceived

obsolescence, means that on the one hand these goods are quickly discarded because their life

cycle is shorter from their design and manufacture, and on the other hand, the current dynamics

of consumption mean that these goods are discarded in less time of use, because that is how

consumers perceive them, which in turn implies new purchases of goods.

This means that we are currently under the growth limits of this model. If we add to this,

problems such as industrial growth, demographic growth, and changes in consumption patterns,

it could be consumption patterns, we could end up with situations such as the depletion of natural

resources, environmental contamination, environmental change, and the environmental pollution,

climate change, among others.

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 Figure 1: Linear vs circular economy

Source: Sustainability guide (2018).

These fundamental principles provide a framework that incorporates methods and

approaches from different sources, such as cradle-to-cradle, biomimicry, industrial symbiosis,

ecosystem services, collaborative consumption, and, of course, both established and new

methods of recovery and recycling of waste.

1.2 The implementation of the circular economy

Under the premise that a circular economy seeks to restore financial, manufacturing,

human, social and natural capital in order to ensure improvements in goods and services, Ellen

MacArthur Foundation proposes a systemic diagram that presents the continuous flow of

technical and biological materials, called the "value circle" (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2020,

para. 2), described in Figure 2.

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 Figure 2: Circular economy system diagram.

Source: Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2019).

The traditional design approach focuses especially on considering and satisfying the

needs of the end user. However, in a circular design the approach goes further, studying the

circular system within which the product will exist (end-of-life supply and recovery system,

maintenance, new life cycles, reuse, spare parts, re-manufacturing...). This implies understanding

the impact of the design on all participating parties and their subsequent lives, implying the need

to create feedback loops at all stages, in order to constantly improve the design decisions made.

Therefore, it is important to balance the needs of the user, with a more global perspective given

by the constraints of the circular system. (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2020).

The breadth of the circular economy framework allows to propose different solutions for

each product-service challenge, in order to avoid generating waste or pollution and to maintain

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products for as long as possible. The principles of the circular economy are a very broad

umbrella that always leave the door open to a multitude of strategies and innovations, but giving

preference to systems of reuse, shared use, remanufacturing and refurbishment over recycling

(Fig.2).

2. Ecosystem services

According to Daily, G.

Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems,

and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfill human life. They maintain biodiversity and

the production of ecosystem goods, such as seafood, forage timber, biomass fuels, natural fiber,

and many pharmaceuticals, industrial products, and their precursors (1997).

Ecosystem services are the product of a long and complex process of interactions

between relief, abiotic conditions such as climate, and different attributes that characterize the

biodiversity of a territory. These operate together generating, in a cascading manner, multiple

ecological functions that can be perceived as benefits and have some value for human beings.

For operational purposes, ecosystem services along functional lines can be classified

using categories of provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services needed to maintain

the other services.

Table 1: Classification of ecosystem services

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 Source:  Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)

“Ecosystem services can be perceived also as an interface between people and nature,

which is illustrated by so called cascade model” (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2010).

The ecosystem functions, in the context of the cascade model, are understood as the

characteristics or behaviors of the ecosystem that underpins its capacity to deliver an ecosystem

service (e.g. ability of the woodland or grassland to generate a standing stock of biomass). Those

elements and features, which are behind the ecosystem capacity to deliver services, are

sometimes called ‘supporting’ or ‘intermediate’ services, while the ‘final’ ecosystem service is

what we actually can harvest (e.g. hey, timber) or gain from ecosystem (e.g. flood protection,

beautiful landscape etc.). The ‘final’ services directly contribute to human well-being through the

benefits that they support (e.g. health and safety).

1.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity (or "biological diversity") denotes the diversity of species, the diversity of

habitats (ecosystems) and the genetic diversity within each species. Biodiversity denotes

according to the Convention on Biological Diversity "the variability among living organisms

from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the

ecological complexes of which they are part". In other words, it is the basis of the natural wealth

by which nature is defined as such. Biological diversity is very important for the functioning of

the ecosystems on which we depend, since human life and economic livelihoods depend on

certain conditions in the environment. (Biodiversity in Good Company Initiative e.V. 2014)

A high biodiversity ensures that nature as a whole has the capacity to adapt.

2.2 Waste management hierarchy

The aim of the waste management hierarchy is to achieve optimal environmental

outcomes and is accepted nationally and internationally as a guide for prioritizing waste

management practices. “It describes the preferred order of waste management practices, from

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most to least preferred”. The purpose of the waste hierarchy is to generate the minimum amount

of waste and extract maximum practical benefits from products. The correct application of the

waste hierarchy can have numerous advantages. It can help to reduce pollution, decrease in

greenhouse gas emissions, conserve energy, preserve resources, create job opportunities and

stimulate the growth of green technology (DEA, 2017).

The waste management hierarchy offers a systematic and holistic approach to waste

management during the waste life cycle, which in turn addresses reduction, avoidance, reuse,

recovery, treatment, recycling and safe disposal as a last option (DEA, 2012).

Figure 3: Illustration of the waste management hierarchy.

Source: Van Jaarsveldt (2016).

3. Organic waste

Organic wastes are biodegradable matters derived from animals and plants. Organic

wastes are classified as household food wastes, human and animal wastes, and agricultural

residues. Green waste, food waste, biodegradable plastics, and paper waste all are common

organic wastes found in municipal solid waste (Lardinois, 1993). Domestic or household organic

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wastes consist of cooked or uncooked foods, plants, flowers, fruits, vegetables, napkins, paper

towels, eggshells, rice, beans, and waxed cardboard sheets. These organic household wastes are

highly organic in nature and can be turned into compost at home after source separation. (The

Schumacher Center for Technology & Development, n.d.)

3.1 Organic waste classification

According to Navarro, P., et al. in the technical standard GTC 53-74, they are classified

according to their origin, source or type of generator. (1995)

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 Table 1: Types of organic waste

GENERATOR WASTE TYPE

DESCRIPTION
TYPE
Firewood residues
NATURAL - Twigs and branches
FORESTRY
Foliaje
Waste generated by animal handling
Livestock Manure
AGRICOLA activities
Natural Mortality
Agriculture Vegetable crop residues.

Feathers and scales, dung, blood, offal.

Manure, Tamos.
Deteriorated products

Process waste and surplus

Meat products

Fats
Deteriorated products

Process waste and surplus

Dairy
Husk
Bran
Paper pulp

Alcoholic Yeast
beverages
Food processing
industries Bagasse
Husk or seed
Fruits and vegetables
Waste from sweepings

Excess organic waste from processing

Fats
Oilseed cakes
Fats
Bran
Starches
Bagasse
Coffe seeds
Cereals and grains
Bagasse
Byproducts
INDUSTRIAL Sugar
Tanneries Liming Process: Fat, hair and fleshing
Shavings and sawdust
Wood and Pulp Starch

Other industries Organic sludge from treatment plants (Includes water from domestic wastewater)
Marketplaces; Fresh and processed organic waste
INSTITUTIONAL tourist and
recreational
AND
activities
COMMERCIAL recreational Pruning and yard waste
activities

Fresh and processed organic waste

DOMESTIC Home

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 Source: GTC 53-7 Guide for the use of organic solid waste.

Taking into account Table 1, it can be considered that organic waste is generated by

activities such as agriculture, livestock, food processing industries, leather industries, forestry,

sludge processing plants, commercial, tourism, domestic activities and marketplaces.

3.2 Organic waste utilization

Lardinois (1993) Explains that the majority of waste produced in residential areas, as

well as some commercial and industrial places such as restaurants, markets, hotels, the animal

processing industry, and the vegetable packing industry, are organic. Households generate a

considerable amount of organic waste, which includes raw kitchen waste and garden waste.

Low-income nations have a larger percentage of organic matter, ranging from 40 to 85%,

compared to high-income countries, which have a percentage of 20 to 50%.

Figure 4: Schematic overview of organic waste management technologies.

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 There are different kinds of options and technologies which are widely used nowadays in

industrialized countries and non-industrialized countries for the effective management of organic

waste, which are discussed below.

3.2.1 Animal feed

One of the simplest techniques to reuse organic waste generated by homes and business

sectors is to utilize it as feed. Backyard animal raising is a popular activity in low- and medium-

income nations' rural and urban regions (Lardinois, 1993).

Organic home trash is an inexpensive source of food for animals that is readily available

and abundant. The utilization of organic waste as animal fodder can enhance nutritional levels

and minimize reliance on impure feed.

3.2.2 Composting

Composting organic wastes is an important carbon flow and nutrient cycling pathway in

both developed and developing nations. Composting, often known as nature's recycling, is a self-

heating, aerobic, solid-phase process that biologically degrades organic waste materials into a

very valuable humus-like substance. The end product of this process is known as "compost"

(from the Latin compositum, which means "composed of more than one material"), and it

stabilizes biologically diverse forms of organic waste by transforming them into a final product

containing a proportion of humus. (Papale et al., 2021).

This is a process that imitates the natural decomposition that exists in ecosystems, except

that in this case the management conditions are enhanced to accelerate the process time and

consequently its productivity

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 Figure 5: Temperature changes in the composting process.

Source:

Microorganisms (2021).

3.2.2.1 Phases of composting

- Mesophilic phase (medium temperature): In this phase the microorganisms will

begin to grow and multiply on the waste, and consequently begin to consume it.

Here the smaller and less chemically complex waste will decompose, causing the

temperature of the pile to increase (up to 45°C) and the presence of steam will be

noticed. This phase lasts between two and eight days (FAO, 2013).

- Thermophilic or Hygienization Phase (high temperature): The temperature

will increase up to 75°C, where pathogenic microorganisms die; microorganisms

capable of tolerating high temperatures and decomposing more complex

compounds such as waxes, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin multiply.

Depending on climatic factors, materials to be composted and several other

factors, this phase can last from several days to months (FAO, 2013).

This phase is very important because the heat produced can sanitize the material, i.e.

sanitize it of pathogenic microorganisms for plants, animals and humans; likewise, this phase

eliminates weed seeds.

- Mesophilic Phase 2 (cooling): Once the sources of mainly N and also the sources

of C are exhausted, the temperature drops again to room temperature and the

degradation of polymers such as cellulose continues. Below 40°C, mesophilic

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 microorganisms grow again. Several weeks are needed to complete this phase and

it is normal to confuse it with the maturation phase due to the low temperature

(FAO, 2013).

Once this stage is completed, the compost can be harvested for agricultural use, taking

into account that since the material is not mature, its applications will be limited, depending on

cultural work and crops.

- Maturation phase: This phase lasts 3-6 months, the compost obtained matures,

giving way to secondary reactions that will enrich it with humic and fulvic acids

(FAO, 2013).

The result of this process can rise to a compost that can be used for any agricultural

purpose and will not present phytotoxicity problems for any crop.

3.2.3 Vessel Composting

According to Misra, R., et al. “in-vessel composting refers to any type of composting

conducted in an enclosed area such as a container, building, or vessel. In-vessel methods depend

on a variety of forced aeration and mechanical turning techniques to enhance the composting

process”. (2003) This method is labor-intensive and expensive.

3.2.4 Windrow Composting

Windrow composting involves placing raw materials in long, thin piles called windrows

that are turned constantly. The mixing of the components allows for the aeration into the setup.

A typical windrow composting setup should begin at 3 feet for dense materials such as manures

and 12 feet for fluffy materials such as leaves (Misra, R., et al. 2003). It is difficult, and costly to

support, but it is rapid and retains heat.

3.2.4 Static Composting

According to Misra, R., et al. This is a conventional composting process in which waste

is decomposed aerobically utilizing passive aeration (little and infrequent turnings or static

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aerations like perforated poles or pipes). This process takes time, but it is a simple form of

composting with low operating and capital expenses when compared to vermicomposting,

windrows, and vessels. This method just requires the creation of a pile of raw materials and has a

low labor and equipment demand. Aeration is primarily dependent on the passive flow of air

through the pile, which progressively degrades the organic content (2003).

3.2.5 Vermiculture

Green World (2011) describes vermiculture, also called vermicomposting, as the

intensive cultivation or breeding of worms to recycle biodegradable organic waste into a

fertilizer known as "vermicompost", also used as meat for various uses in animal feed (fish

farming, poultry farming, fishing, etc.). It is a simple alternative to transform, at a low cost,

biodegradable organic wastes (manure, crop residues, fodder, remains derived from food

preparation, etc.), which are insufficiently used, into a fertilizer with excellent properties.

Worm humus, due to its extraordinary soil regeneration properties and the nutrients it contains,

is, in the opinion of many farmers, the best organic fertilizer in the world.

3.2.6 Anaerobic digestion

Some authors state the following:

“Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an attractive alternative for waste treatment practice

because it allows for both, energy recovery and pollution control. Anaerobic degradation or

digestion is the breakdown of biomass by a diverse group of microorganisms working together in

the absence of oxygen” (Abdelgadir et al., 2014).

Biological processes are primarily utilized to remove pollutants in waste water treatment,

and numerous biological treatment methods are now accessible, with promising results in the

treatment of complex organic materials.

3.2.6.1 Stages of Anaerobic Digestion

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 Anaerobic digestion occurs in four phases: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and

methanogenesis; the anaerobic digestion process is based on interactions between the various

bacteria capable of carrying out the four aforementioned processes. A simplified flow of the four

digestion stages is described below.

Figure 6: The simplified scheme of pathways in anaerobic digestion

Source: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

- Hydrolysis

Organic biomass in anaerobic digesters generally contains complex polymers that

are inaccessible to microbes unless further broken down by hydrolysis or pretreatments.

As a result, the hydrolysis process performs the function of breaking down organic

macromolecules into smaller components that acidogenic bacteria can use. (Abdelgadir et

al., 2014)

- Acidogenesis

Acidogenic microorganisms can create intermediate volatile fatty acids (VFAs)

and other compounds by absorbing hydrolysis products through their cell membranes.

The specific concentrations of intermediates produced in the acidogenesis stage may

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 depend on the conditions of the digester; it has been reported that VFA concentrations

can fluctuate significantly for digesters operating at different pH, with different studies

presenting seemingly contradictory results. (Abdelgadir et al., 2014)

- Acetogenesis

Acetogenesis is the process by which these higher VFAs and other intermediates

are converted into acetate, with hydrogen also being produced by the action of acetogenic

microorganisms, which have extracted all the food from the biomass, eliminating the

waste from their cells as food in the next stage. from their cells as food in the next stage.

- Methanogenesis

In the methanogenesis phase accessible intermediates are consumed by

methanogenic microorganisms to produce methane. Methanogenic microorganisms

represent a group of obligate anaerobic archaea.

3.2.7 Biomass conversion

The processes that allow the conversion of biomass resources directly into energy or

secondary energy sources are grouped around three main categories, namely: Thermochemical,

Chemical and Biochemical. Wood fuels and other forms of solid biomass are regularly used in

thermochemical processes. At wet biomass as well as agricultural products are processed most of

the time by the chemical or biochemical routes. This is often achieved with the aid of mechanical

processes in the initial stages of processing (Bauen et al., 2009).

3.2.7.1 Thermochemical processes

This type of methods involves oxidation reactions or thermal decomposition of biomass

by the action of high temperatures. The following processes belong to this group:

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 (a) Combustion - The carbon and hydrogen contained in the biomass react with oxygen,

supplied in pure or mixed form, in sufficient quantities to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water

in addition to releasing thermal and light energies.

This is one of the best understood and most popular methods of biomass utilization, both

traditional and modern. It is therefore a mature technology. Biomass can even be successfully

incorporated into conventional thermal power plants that operate conventional coal-fired thermal

power plants (IEA, 2003).

b) Gasification - Through partial oxidation, i.e., incomplete combustion, at high

temperature, biomass is converted into a gas mixture.

This gaseous mixture is combustible due to the presence of carbon monoxide (CO) and

hydrogen (H2) in varying percentages depending on several factors. These include the type of

biomass, the variable used for the reaction and the configuration of the gasifier. The energy

content of this gas mixture is around 10 to 45% of the calorific value of natural gas (Chum et al.,

2011). Once the impurities are removed, the gas produced is called synthesis gas. Syngas can be

used for electricity generation or as a substitute for diesel in internal combustion engines adapted

for this purpose (Chum et al., 2011). Compared to combustion, gasification is a more efficient

and manipulable process, with the possibility of obtaining fuels and chemical by-products useful

in various fields.

c) Pyrolysis - Consists of the thermal decomposition of biomass in an atmosphere devoid

of oxygen. From the pyrolysis of biomass, solid (coke or char), liquid (pyrolysis oils also known

as bio-oils) and gaseous (pyrolysis gas) by-products are obtained. The quantities of these

products depend on the operating conditions: pressure, temperature and retention time. The

composition of the pyrolyzed material also plays a role. At moderate temperatures (450 to 550

°C) reached abruptly and with short retention times, known as fast pyrolysis, a higher production

of oxygenated oils is obtained (Masera, col., 2006).

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 3.2.7.2 Chemical processes

In these processes, the biomass components are transformed by induced chemical

reactions, which, unlike thermochemical methods, occur at temperatures that are not necessarily

very high. The most relevant processes in this field are briefly described below:

a) Transesterification - Occurs when an alcohol, usually methanol, reacts, with the aid

of a catalyst, acid or base, with the triglycerides present in vegetable oils and animal

fats, forming a fatty acid ester in addition to glycerin as a by-product. The esters thus

obtained are what has been called biodiesel, which can be mixed in different

proportions with diesel of fossil origin to run vehicle engines or other types of

machines. When oilseeds are used as raw material, it is necessary to first extract their

oil, either by crushing or by means of chemical solvents (Chum et al., 2011).

b) Hydrogenation - Applies equally to vegetable oils, animal fats and recycled oils,

which are forced to react with hydrogen (H2) with the assistance of the appropriate

catalyst. The result is a series of hydrocarbons that can be easily added, in any

percentage, to diesel and propane synthesized from petroleum. Biofuels formulated

through hydrogenation of oils and fats from organic sources are characterized, among

other things, by lower sulfur content and higher viscosity (Knothe, 2010).

Hydrogenation, however, is a process still in early stages of development and

implementation compared to transesterification.

3.2.7.3 Biochemical processes

Here, a series of chemical reactions occur as a result of the direct action of various kinds

of microorganisms under controlled and specific conditions. Often these reactions are linked to

the organisms' own metabolic functions and can also be manipulated by artificial processes. The

most popular options for biochemical conversion of biomass into energy are briefly discussed

below:

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a) Fermentation – It is carried out by microorganisms, commonly yeasts, which

metabolize the carbohydrates present in the biomass in an environment with little or

no oxygen. The product is then distilled to extract ethanol, an alcohol that has

multiple uses in industry, in the preparation of beverages and as a fuel or additive in

gasoline for mobile and stationary applications (Masera et al., 2006).

b) Anaerobic degradation - The decomposition is carried out under anaerobic

conditions conducive to the growth of microorganism colonies that are responsible

for completing different phases of the process. The resulting energetic product is a

mixture of gases consisting mainly of methane (CH4, 50 to 70%) and carbon dioxide

(CO2). Anaerobic degradation begins when the selected organic matter is deposited

in a closed container, waiting for its disintegration to begin due to the activity of the

multiple types of anaerobic bacteria previously introduced in the container. The gas

emanating from the anaerobic degradation processes, known as biogas, can be burned

not only for thermal purposes, but also for the generation of mechanical and electrical

energy. Biogas can also be subjected to an enrichment process to remove some of its

components and thus increase the percentage of CH4 (85 to 90%) (Bauen et al., 2009;

Petersson and Wellinger, 2009). In principle, once the anaerobic decomposition

effluent is stabilized, it can be applied as a fertilizer or soil revitalizer.

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Figure 7: Biomass conversion

Source: NexusPMG (2020)

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 4. Description of the task

A collection of successful projects in the field of bioenergy was created. This is not
meant to be a comprehensive exercise, but rather to provide a variety of examples that cover a
wide range of geographical regions, feedstocks, conversion/end use, and actors. The materials
used for its development were internet and articles. According to the data gathered all the
facilities were operating.

To perform a descriptive study of the cases, the following parameters were taken in to
account:

 Replicability and scale-up potential of the project

 Contribution to sustainable development
 Feedstocks and final products
 Success factors and constraints
 Technology used in the project

4.1 Description of 3 bioenergy-fuel alternatives.

Table 3: Cases in the field of bioenergy

CASE N-1 LARGE BIOMASS CHP PLANT IN STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN

Stockholm, Sweden, has a large biomass combined heat and
power (CHP) facility. To generate high electricity, efficient combustion
TECHNOLOGY using circulating fluidized bed (CFB) technology with high steam data.
Condensing water vapor in the flue gas recovers energy from the flue
gas before the stack. Emissions of flue gases are quite low.
PRINCIPLE
Forestry residues and wood wastes
FEEDSTOCKS
PRODUCTS Heat (district heating) and electricity.
- Sustainable energy, generating sustainable district heating for
nearly 200,000 households each year;
CONTRIBUTION - Climate change, decreasing CO2 emissions in Stockholm by
TO about 126,000 t/year and worldwide emissions by 650,000 t/year
SUSTAINABLE through the production and export of renewable electricity to
DEVELOPMENT Europe.
GOALS - Healthy lifestyles, with the plant located in an urban area with
strong expectations on local environmental performance. It
symbolizes a sophisticated upgrade of Stockholm's district
heating system, which will use fuel more effectively and cut
emissions substantially.
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 - Sustainably managed forests, with Fortum Värme being Europe's
first energy firm to be certified by the Forest Stewardship
Council's (FSC) Chain of Custody (CoC). By 2016, all fuels will
be confirmed according to FSC Controlled Wood, with the
objective of sourcing 50% of the fuel from FSC certified forests
by 2020.

- Using waste products as a fuel.

SUCCESS - CO2 reduction targets in Stockholm and Sweden. The project
FACTORS delivers a major contribution to decarbonize heat/energy
provision in Stockholm Accessibility (harbor).

REPLICABILITY
- The plant is one of the largest in the world, what means that can
AND SCALE-UP
be implemented in such a big cities
POTENTIAL:
-Regular flow of fuel transports by ships and trains. The plant has
high fuel demand (12,000 m3 /day and 3 million m3 /year).
CONTRAINTS
- It is close to residential areas which puts high demands on noise
reduction, safety and a good dialogue.
WOOD-FUELED GASIFIER PLANT AT SKIVE DISTRICT
CASE N-2
HEATING COMPANY, DENMARK
TECHNOLOGY Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) gasifier
PRINCIPLE
Pelletized forest residues
FEEDSTOCKS
PRODUCTS Electricity and heat (district heating)
CONTRIBUTION - The facility uses regionally sourced biomass to replace fossil
TO fuels for power and heat (pelletized forest residues).
SUSTAINABLE - The operation contributes sustainably to regional economic
DEVELOPMENT growth, lowers GHG emissions, and assures locally cheap
GOALS energy.
REPLICABILITY
- High replicability and scale-up potential at regional, national and
AND SCALE-UP
international level.
POTENTIAL:
SUCCESS - An interested and persistent host/plant owner, preferably with
FACTORS: access to a district heating network to facilitate high conversion
efficiency;
- High electricity price or economic favoring of solid biofuels e.g.
via tax exemption of biomass for heating, taxation of fossil fuels
or feed-in tariffs for electricity (equalizing subsidies that apply to
fossil fuels);
- Supply chain that is matured to supply sustainably sourced fuel;

24
 A TSO (transmission system operator) that allows decentralized
electricity generation;
- Education/knowledge/access to dos and don’ts when applying a
recently matured technology.
- Fuel quality, Low electricity prices (if no feed-in tariff applies),
CONTRAINTS Lack of heat demand, Local disapproval of such a
plant/technology.
CASE N-3 ALL-GAS: ALGAE BIOFUEL FOR VEHICLES, SPAIN
TECHNOLOGY Microalgae biofuel production for vehicles based on
wastewater nutrients and biomethane upgrading to CNG.
PRINCIPLE Nutrients found in wastewater which are converted into
FEEDSTOCKS microalgae biomass.
PLANT 2 Ha of algae cultures and biofuel production above 26,000 kg
CAPACITY CH4/year (enough to run 35 vehicles x 15 000 km/yr)
OPERATIONAL Above 35,000h (non-stop operation since 2014 on various
EXPERIENCE scales)
ACHIEVED
FEEDSTOCK 2000 m3/ d of wastewater that transform to between 100 to 140 ton
CAPACITY biomass per hectare and year, or a total of 250 t/yr on the 2 ha.
- Compressed biomethane for fleet vehicles (> 90 % CH4)
Co-products:
PRODUCTS 1. Residual biomass after anaerobic digestion rich in
aminoacids, nitrogen and phosphorus (biofertilizer)
2. Reuse waste water.
- Need for wastewater treatment: extension, upgrading or
replacement of existing facilities - or waste nutrients from
SUCCESS manure and animal farming
FACTORS - Available Land
- Fleet of municipal cars to be converted to CNG, or easy access
to gas network with quality.
- Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Wastewater energy
requirements are cut in half as compared to conventional
techniques (from 0.5 kWh el/m3 to 0.1 kWh/m3).
- Patterns of consumption and production that are sustainable:
CONTRIBUTION Waste may be used to create third generation biofuels on-site.
TO - Biomethane for fleet cars may be produced using recovered
SUSTAINABLE nutrients found in wastewater, eliminating the need for
DEVELOPMENT freshwater, arable land, or chemical fertilizers.
GOALS - Reliable, sustainable, energy: biomethane for fleet cars may be
generated using recovered nutrients from wastewater,
eliminating the need for freshwater, arable land, or artificial
fertilizers.
- Ensure the availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation: a new wastewater treatment model is created
with a positive energy balance - biofuel is produced and power
demands are minimized.

REPLICABILITY - Replicability of FP project is very high since it needs mainly just

AND SCALE-UP wastewater and non-arable land for its application. The land
25
 POTENTIAL: requirements of the process (kg CH4/ha year) will depend on
the climatological conditions, in the Mediterranean region an
algae harvest around 100 t / ha is possible, yielding up to 15
000 kg Ch4/yr
- Climatic conditions affect the performance of the process.
- Land availability and nutrient supply (wastewater, manure)
CONTRAINTS - Permits related to the operation of Compressed natural gas.
(CNG) facilities.

Source: IEA Bioenergy (2018)

26
 5. Discussion

Based on the availability data of the cases studied, the case study of CHP plant in

Stockholm provides promising results in the sense that it generates sustainable district heating

for almost 200,000 households each year, the study reveals that with some improvements the

plant could decrease CO2 emissions in Stockholm by about 126,000 t/year and worldwide

emissions by 650,000 t/year through the production and export renewable electricity to Europe.

The CHP plant's fuel acceptance is relatively high and flexible; basically, any type of organic

waste, regardless of size or moisture content, could be introduced. It demonstrates that such

facilities can be built in large cities with district heating systems. Alternatively, the emphasis can

be on electricity generation, but the heat from the turbine must be cooled off, as in a thermal

power plant. It should be emphasized that this is a large-scale installation in an urban

environment with significant local environmental performance requirements (in terms of odors,

water treatment, noise, safety and transport movements).

In the second case referred to wood-fueled gasifier plant in Denmark the technology used

is Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) gasifier which provides electricity and heat, 70% of the district

heating production for 8,500 households in the community, the facility aims to produce 40 GWh

of electricity annually. One of the advantages is the reduction of GHG emissions, but its Fuel

quality is low and not well approved.

Regarding the third case (ALL-GAS), it utilizes wastewater as a source of nutrients for

the culture and offers a circular economy model in which algae clean the wastewater through

photosynthesis without the need of external source of energy. While the main product

(compressed biomethane) is being produced, co-products such as residual biomass and reused

water are also produced simultaneously.

Overall, the main results show that the organic waste management situations used in the

three examples still have certain limitations that need to be addressed for better large-scale

27
growth of organic waste conversion systems. However, it is a great improvement because the

goal of these technologies is to enhance the population quality of life while reducing the

environmental impacts of traditional systems.

5.1 Conclusions and suggestions

 In the presented internship report were addressed the basic concepts, description of

the processes, type of treatments and technologies.

 The most common alternatives for the management, treatment or reuse of organic

waste, existing at the international level, were described based on the data collected.

 This research has provided valuable information about the different ways to reuse and

take advantage of organic waste.

 It is necessary for governments to assume their responsibility, since lately there have

been practices that pretend to be environmentally friendly, they put on green make-

up, use terms such as eco or bio, but in reality, they continue to be highly linear. In

this sense, it is necessary to advance in the creation of laws that regulate the transition

to a circular economy that encourages such practices and that penalizes those that are

harmful to ecosystems. Governments must accept these initiatives and offer the

required assistance, especially in developing countries in which the lack of financial

means to deploy ecologically beneficial technology.

 It is also important to update and provide accessible data about these treatments or

systems of organic utilization so that the population is aware of the available methods

and may use them even in their own homes.

28
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