ANALOG COMMUNICATION |1

Question: What do you mean by communication system? Draw a basic block

diagram of a communication system and explain the various components of it.

Answer:

Communication system: The term ‘Communication’ refers to sending,

receiving and processing of information by electric means. A communication
system is a way of transferring information from one source to another.

Basic block diagram of a communication system:

Figure: Basic block diagram of communication system

1. Source: The source originates a message, such as a human voice, a

television picture, a teletype message or data.
2. Input transducer: If the data is nonelectrical (human voice, teletype
message, television picture), it must be converted by an input transducer
into an electrical waveform referred to as the baseband signal or message
signal.
3. Transmitter: The transmitter modifies the baseband signal for efficient
transmission. The transmitter consists of one or more of the following
subsystems: a pre-emphasizer, a sampler, a quantizer, a coder and a
modulator.
4. Channel: The channel is a medium such as wire, coaxial cable, a
waveguide, an optical fiber or a radio link through which the transmitter
output is sent.
5. Receiver: The receiver reprocesses the signal received from the channel
by undoing the signal modification made at the transmitter and the
channel. The receiver output is fed to the output transducer.
6. Output transducer: Output transducer converts the electrical single to
its original form-the message.

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |2

7. Destination: The destination is the unit to which the message is

communicated.

Question: What is carrier modulation? Explain DSB-SC modulation and

demodulation with necessary diagram.

Answer:

Carrier modulation: The communication that uses modulation to shift the

frequency spectrum of a signal is known as carrier frequency. The modulation
process in which one of the basic parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of
a sinusoidal carrier of a high frequency ωc is varied in proportion to the
baseband signal m(t) is known as carrier modulation.

DSB-SC Modulation: Amplitude modulation is characterized by an

information-bearing carrier amplitude A(t) that is a linear function of the
baseband (message) signal m(t). At the same time, the carrier frequency ωc and
the phase θc remain constant. If the carrier amplitude A is made directly
proportional to the modulating signal m(t), then modulated signal is m(t)cosωct.
This type of modulation simply shifts the spectrum of m(t) to the carrier
frequency. Thus if,

m(t) M(f)

then, m(t)cos2πfct [M(f + fc)+M(f fc)]

and the following points to be noted:

1. M(f fc) is M(f) shifted to the right by fc and M(f + fc) is M(f) shifted to
the left by fc. Thus the process of modulation shifts the spectrum of the
modulating signal to the left and to the right by fc.
2. If the bandwidth of m(t) is B Hz, then from figure (c) the modulated
signal has bandwidth of 2B Hz.
3. The modulated signal spectrum centered at fc, consists of two parts: a
portion that lies outside fc, known as the upper sideband (USB) and a
portion that lies inside fc, known as the lower sideband (LSB).
4. Unless the message signal M(f) has an impulse at zero frequency, the
modulated signal in this scheme does not contain a discrete component of
the carrier frequency fc. In other words, the modulation process does not

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |3

introduce a sinusoid at fc. For this reason it is called double sideband

suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation.

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |4

DSB-SC Demodulation: The DSB-SC modulation translates or shifts the

frequency spectrum to the left and the right by ωc. To recover the original signal
m(t) from the modulated signal, it is necessary to retranslate the spectrum to its
original position. The process of recovering the signal from the modulated
signal is referred to as demodulation or detection. Thus demodulation which is
almost identical to modulation, consists of multiplication of the incoming
modulated signal m(t)cosωct by a carrier cosωct followed by a low pass filter as
shown in figure (e).

e(t) = m(t)cos2ωct = [m(t)+m(t)cos2ωct]

therefore, the Fourier transform of the signal e(t) is,

E(ω) = M(ω)+ [M(ω+2ωc)+M(ω 2ωc)]

This shows that the signal e(t) consists of two components m(t) and
m(t)cos2ωct, with their spectra as shown in figure (d). The spectrum of the
second component, being a modulated signal with carrier frequency 2ω c, is
centered at 2ωc. Hence this component is suppressed by the low pass filter in
figure (e). The desired component , being a low pass spectrum passes
through the filter unharmed, resulting in the output m(t).

Question: What is SNR?

Answer: Signal to noise ratio (SNR) is a measure that compares the level of a
desired signal to the level of ground noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal
power to the noise power and often expressed in decibels.

SNR =

Question: How AM modulation cab be achieved by using non-linear

devices?/Discuss the principle of single balanced modulator with the help of
necessary block diagram.

Answer:

Non-linear modulators: Modulation can also be achieved by using non-linear

devices such as a semiconductor diode or a transistor. The figure below shows

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |5

one possible scheme which uses two identical nonlinear elements shown by
boxes marked NL.

Let the input-output characteristics of either of the nonlinear elements be

approximated by a power series:

y(t) = ax(t)+bx2(t)

where x(t) and y(t) are the input and the output respectively, of the nonlinear
element. The summer output z(t) in figure is given by

z(t) = y1(t) y2(t) = [ax1(t)+b (t)] [ax2(t)+b (t)]

Now substituting the two inputs x1(t) = cosωct+m(t) and x2(t) = cosωct m(t) in
the above equation we have,

z(t) = [a{cosωct+m(t)}+ b ] [a{cosωct m(t)}+b

]

=acosωct am(t)+b acosωct am(t) b

= 2am(t)+4bm(t)cosωct

The spectrum of m(t) is centered at the origin, whereas the spectrum of

m(t)cosωct is centered at ωc. Consequently, when z(t) is passed through a
bandpass filter tuned to ωc, the signal am(t) is suppressed and the desired
modulated signal 4bm(t)cosωct passes through unharmed.

In this circuit there are two inputs: m(t) and cosωct. The summer output z(t)
does not contain one of the inputs, the carrier signal cosω ct. Consequently the
carrier signal does not appear at the input of the final bandpass filter. The circuit
acts as a balanced bridge for one of the input (the carrier). Circuits which have
this characteristic are called balanced circuits. The nonlinear modulator in figure
is an example of a class of modulators known as balanced modulator. This
circuit is balanced with respect to only one input (the carrier); the other input
m(t) still appears at the final bandpass filter which must reject it. For this
reason, it is called a single balanced modulator.
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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |6

Question: Explain double balanced modulator with necessary circuit diagram.

Answer:

Double balanced modulator: The modulator circuit which is balanced with

respect to both inputs is called a double balanced modulator. Ring modulator is
an example of double balanced modulator.

Ring modulator: Ring modulator is one kind of switching modulator shown in

the figure below.

Figure: Ring Modulator

During the positive half-cycles of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3 conduct and D2
and D4 are open. Hence, terminal a is connected to c and terminal b is connected
to d. During the negative half-cycles of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3 are open
and D2 and D4 are conducting, thus connecting terminal a to d and terminal b to
c. Hence the output is proportional to m(t) during the positive half-cycle and to

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |7

–m(t) during the negative half-cycle. In effect, m(t) is multiplied by a square

pulse train wo(t), shown in figure (b). The Fourier series for wo(t) is,

wo(t) = [cosωct cos3ωct+ cos5ωct ……….]

and vi(t) = m(t)wo(t) = [m(t)cosωct m(t)cos3ωct+ m(t)cos5ωct ……….]

The signal m(t)wo(t) is shown in figure (d). When this waveform is passed
through a bandpass filter tuned to ωc, the filter output will be the desired signal
(4/π)m(t)cosωct.

In this circuit there are two inputs: m(t) and cosωct. The input to the final
bandpass filter does not contain either of these inputs. Consequently this circuit
is an example of a double balanced modulator.

Question: Briefly discuss QAM with suitable diagram.

Answer: The DSB signal occupy twice the bandwidth required for the baseband.
This disadvantage can be overcome by transmitting two DSB signals using
carriers of the same frequency but in phase quadrature as shown in figure. In
this figure the boxes labeled –π/2 are phase shifters which delay the phase of an
input sinusoid by –π/2 rad.

QAM Modulation: If the two baseband signals to be transmitted are m1(t) and
m2(t), the corresponding QAM signal ΦQAM(t), the sum of the two DSB
modulated signals, is

ΦQAM(t) = m1(t)cosωct+m2(t)sinωct

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |8

Both modulated signals occupy the same band. Yet two baseband signals can be
separated at the receiver by synchronous detection using two local carriers in
phase quadrature.

Now considering the multiplier output x1(t) of the upper arm of the receiver,

x1(t) = 2ΦQAM(t)cosωct

= 2[m1(t)cosωct+m2(t)sinωct]cosωct

= 2m1(t)cos2ωct+2m2(t)sinωctcosωct

= m1(t)[1+cos2ωct]+m2(t)sin2ωct

= m1(t)+m1(t)cos2ωct+m2(t)sin2ωct

The last two terms are suppressed by low pass filter, yielding the desired output
m1(t). Similarly the output of the lower receiver branch can be shown to be
m2(t). This scheme is known as quadrature amplitude modulation or quadrature
multiplexing.

QAM Demodulation: Now let the carrier at the demodulator be 2cos(ωct+θ). In

this case,

x1(t) = 2[m1(t)cosωct+m2(t)sinωct]cos(ωct+θ)

= 2m1(t)cosωctcos(ωct+θ)+2m2(t)sinωctcos(ωct+θ)

=m1(t)[cos(ωct+ωct+θ)+cos(ωct ωct θ)]+

m2(t)[ sin(ωct+θ+ωct) sin(ωct+θ ωct)]

= m1(t)cosθ+m1(t)cos(2ωct+θ) m2(t)sinθ+m2(t)sin(2ωct+θ)

The low pass filter suppresses the two signals with frequency 2ωc, resulting in
the output m1(t)cosθ m2(t)sinθ.

Application of QAM modulation: Quadrature multiplexing is used in

television to multiplex the so-called chrominance signals which carry the
information about colors. There the synchronization is achieved by periodic
insertion of a short burst of carrier signal.

Question: Discuss SSB and VSB amplitude modulation with necessary diagram.

Answer:

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION |9

SSB amplitude modulation: The DSB spectrum has two sidebands: the upper
sideband (USB) and the lower sideband (LSB), both containing the complete
information of the baseband signal. A scheme in which only one sideband is
transmitted is known as single sideband (SSB) transmission, which requires
only one-half the bandwidth of the DSB signal.

An SSB signal can be coherently demodulated. For example, multiplication of a

USB signal by cosωct shifts its spectrum to the left and right by ω c. Low pass
filtering of this signal yields the desired baseband signal. The case is similar
with LSB signals. Hence demodulation of SSB signals is identical to that of
DSB-SC signals without an additional carrier. Hence they are suppressed carrier
signals.

VSB amplitude modulation: A vestigial sideband (VSB), also called

asymmetric sideband system is a compromise between DSB and SSB which
inherits the advantages of DSB and SSB but avoids their disadvantages at a
small cost.

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
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In VSB, instead of rejecting one sideband completely, a gradual cutoff of one

sideband as shown in figure (d) is accepted. The baseband signal can be
recovered exactly by a synchronous detector in conjunction with an appropriate
equalizer filter Ho(ω) at the receiver output. If a large carrier is transmitted
along with the VSB signal, the baseband signal can be recovered by an envelop
detector.

Question: What is angle modulation? What are the advantages of angle

modulation over amplitude modulation?

Answer:

Angle modulation: Angle modulation is the process by which the angle

(frequency or phase) of the carrier signal is changed in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of modulating or message signal. Angle modulation is
of two types:

1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation
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 A N A L O G C O M M U N I C A T I O N | 11

In frequency modulation, the modulating signal causes the carrier frequency to

vary. These variations are controlled by both the frequency and the amplitude of
the modulating wave. In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is controlled
by the modulating waveform.

Advantages of angle modulation:

1. Wideband FM gives significant improvement in the SNR at the output of

the RX which proportional to the square of modulation index.
2. Angle modulation is resistant to propagation-induced selective fading
since amplitude variations are not important and are removed at the
receiver using a limited circuit.
3. Angle modulation is very effective in rejecting interference.
4. Angle modulation allows the use of more efficient transmitter power in
information.
5. Angle modulation is capable of handling a greater dynamic range of
modulating signal without distortion than AM.

Disadvantages of angle modulation:

1. Angle modulation requires a transmission bandwidth much larger than

the message signal bandwidth.
2. Angle modulation requires more complex and expensive circuits than
AM.

Question: Derive the expression for bandwidth of angle modulated

waves./Show that the FM signal is not band limited.

Answer: In order to determine the bandwidth of an FM wave, let us define,

a(t) = ∫

and ̂ =

Now, ̂ Re ̂

Expanding the exponential in power series yields

And

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 A N A L O G C O M M U N I C A T I O N | 12

̂ Re[ ̂ ]

which shows that the modulated wave is not band-limited. It has infinite
bandwidth and is not related to the modulating signal spectrum in any simple
way as was the case in AM.

Question: What is frequency modulation? Derive the expression of frequency

modulation.

Answer:

Frequency modulation: The modulation process where the frequency of the

carrier wave varies with the magnitude of variations of the modulating or audio
signal. FM is used in

1. Commercial radio broadcasting

2. Television sound transmission
3. Two way mobile radio
4. Cellular radio
5. Microwave and satellite communication

Characteristics of FM:

1. Carrier amplitude will be constant.

2. Carrier frequency will be varied with respect to the amplitude of message
signal.

Mathematical expression of FM modulation:

Let,

message signal be, Vm(t) = Vmcosωmt

carrier signal. Vc(t) = Vccos(ωct+θ)

During the process of frequency modulations the frequency of carrier signal is

changed in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of message signal.
Therefore the frequency of carrier after modulation is written as,

ωi = ωc+k1Vm(t) = ωc+k1Vm(t)cosωmt

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To find the instantaneous phase angle of modulated signal, integrating the above
equation with respect to t,

Φi = ∫

=∫

Thus we get the FM wave as,

VFM(t) = VccosΦ1

= Vccos( )

= Vccos( )

where, mf = modulation index =

This is the mathematical derivation of FM wave.

Question: Write down the differences between wide band frequency modulation
(WBFM) and narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM).

Answer:

WBFM NBFM
1. Modulating index is greater than 1. 1. Modulation index is less than 1.
2. Frequency deviation is 75 KHz. 2. Frequency deviation is 5KHz.
3. Modulating frequency range from 3. Modulation frequency is 3KHz.
30Hz-15Hz.
4. Bandwidth is 15 times of NBFM. 4. Bandwidth is 2Fm.
5. Noise is more suppressed. 5. Less suppressing of noise.
6. It is used in entertainment and 6. It is used in mobile communication.
broadcasting.

Question: Discuss FM and PM in terms of instantaneous frequency.

Answer:

Concept of instantaneous frequency:

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Let us consider a generalized

sinusoidal signal,

Φ(t) = A cos(t)

where θ(t) is the generalized angle

and is a function of t.

Now, over a small interval ∆t 0,

the signal Φ(t) = Acosθ(t) and the
conventional sinusoid Acos(ωct+θo)
are identical, that is,

Φ(t) = Acos(ωct+θo) t1 < t < t2

If the instantaneous frequency ωi at any instant t is the slope of θ(t) then

ωi(t) =

⇒ θ(t) = ∫

Now, in terms of PM (phase modulation), the angle θ(t) is varied linearly with
m(t);

θ(t) = ωc(t)+θo+kpm(t)

where, kp is a constant and ωc is the carrier frequency.

If θo = 0 then,

θ(t) = ωc(t)+kpm(t)

Finally the resulting PM wave is,

ΦPM(t) = Acos[ωct+kpm(t)]

The instantaneous frequency ωi(t) in this case is given by,

ωi(t) = = ωc+kpm(t)

Hence, in PM, the instantaneous frequency ωi varies linearly with the derivative
of the modulating signal. If the instantaneous frequency ωi is varied linearly
with the modulating signal, we have FM. Thus, in FM the instantaneous
frequency ωi is
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 A N A L O G C O M M U N I C A T I O N | 15

ωi(t) = ωc+kfm(t)

where kf is a constant. The angle θ(t) is now

θ(t) = ∫ [ ]

= ∫

Considering θ(t) to be zero, the FM wave is given by,

ΦFM(t) = Acos[ ∫ ]

Question: What is narrow band FM. Derive the expression of narrow band FM.

Answer:

Narrow band FM: The FM wave which has a small bandwidth is called
narrow band FM. The modulation index mf of narrow band is small as compared
to one radian. Hence, the spectrum of narrow band FM consists of the carrier
and upper sideband and a lower sideband.

Practically the narrow band FM systems have mf less than 1. The maximum
permissible frequency deviation is restricted to about 5kHz.

The system is used in FM mobile communication such as police wireless,

ambulances, taxicab etc.

Analysis of Narrow band FM:

We know the expression for instantaneous frequency of FM wave is given by,

Φi = Φc+kfm(t)

where, m(t) is the modulating signal.

The term kfm(t) represents the frequency deviation. The constant kf will control
the deviation. For the small values of kf, the frequency deviation is small and the
spectrum of FM signal has a narrow band. Hence it is called the narrow band
FM.

Let us consider the expression for FM wave as under,

ΦFM(t) = Acos[ ∫ ]

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By representing this in the exponential manner, we have,

ΦFM(t) = Acosθ(t) = A

Therefore,
∫
ΦFM(t) = A =A =A

Where, ∫

If <<1 for all values, then

̂ A[1+j kf g(t)]

which is the expression of narrow band FM.

Question: Discuss wide band FM.

Answer:

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We know, the expression of bandwidth of FM wave is,

ΦFM(t)

Here, a(t) = ∫

If the deviation in the carrier frequency is large enough so that the condition
| | is not satisfied, then the higher order terms in the above equation
cannot be neglected.

Let us consider the modulating signal m(t) which is band-limited to B Hz i.e.

highest modulating frequency is B Hz, then as per Carson’s rule,

BWFM = 2(β+1)B

In FM, frequency deviation depends only on the peak value of modulating

signal whereas it is independent of the spectrum of modulating signal. On the
other hand in phase modulation,

Frequency deviation = [modulating frequency] [max. angular shift of carrier]

This is illustrated in the following:

Question: What is frequency demodulation? Discuss the demodulation of FM

signal.

Answer:

Frequency demodulation: Frequency demodulation is the process of getting

back or regenerating the original modulating signal from the modulated FM
signal.
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 A N A L O G C O M M U N I C A T I O N | 18

We know the expression of FM wave is given below,

ΦFM(t) = Acos[ ∫ ]

The instantaneous frequency of FM signal,

ωi = ωc+kf m(t)

If we apply ΦFM(t) to an ideal differentiator, the otput is,

̇ = ∫

= A[ωc+kf m(t)]sin[ ∫ ]

The signal ̇ is both amplitude and frequency modulated as shown in figure

(b), the envelop being A[ωc+kf m(t)]. Because ∆ω = kf mp<ωc, ωc+kf m(t)>0 for
all t and m(t) can be obtained by envelop detection of ̇ .

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)
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Question: State the Carson’s Rule.

Answer:

Carson’s rule: Bandwidth is twice the sum of the maximum frequency

deviation and the modulating frequency. i.e.

BW = 2(∆f+fm)

Question: Discuss the comparison between FM and PM.

Answer:

FM PM
1. The equation of FM wave is s(t) = 1. The equation of PM wave is s(t) =
Accos[ωct+2πkf m(t)] Accos[ωct+kp m(t)]
2. The frequency deviation is linearly 2. The phase shift of the carrier is
proportional to the instantaneous linearly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal. instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
3. Frequency modulation is direct 3. Phase modulation is indirect
method of producing FM signal. method of producing FM.
4. The modulation index of an FM 4. The modulation index is
signal is the ratio of the frequency proportional to the maximum
deviation to the modulating amplitude of the modulating signal.
frequency.
5. To have better quality of 5. The amount of frequency shift
transmission and reception of produced by a phase modulator
higher audio frequencies, pre- increases with the modulating
emphasis and de-emphasis circuits frequency. Hence an audio
are used. equalizer is required to compensate
this.
6. Amplitude of the FM wave is 6. Amplitude of the PM wave is
constant. constant.
7. Noise is better suppressed in FM 7. Noise immunity is inferior to that of
system as compared to PM system. FM.
8. FM is mainly used for FM 8. PM is used in mobile
broadcasting as well as communication system.
entertainment purposes.

Question: Distinguish between coherent and envelop detector./Write down the

difference between coherent demodulation and non-coherent demodulation.

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Answer:

Coherent demodulation Envelop detector

1. The coherent demodulation of a 1. Envelop detector does not require to
DSB-SC signal requires the possess any carrier signal at the
receiver to possess a carrier signal receiver.
that is synchronized with the
incoming carrier.
2. The requirement of carrier signal 2. The requirement of carrier signal
cannot be easily achieved. can be easily achieved since the a
carrier is sent along with the
modulated signal.
3. To utilize the coherent 3. The receiver does not need to be
demodulator, the receiver must be sophisticated.
sophisticated enough.
4. The receiver of the coherent 4. The receiver of envelop detector is
demodulator is difficult to easy to implement.
implement.
5. The implementation of receiver is 5. The implementation of receiver is
very costly. less costly.

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Communication Theory (EEE-601)