SQL 

is a database computer language designed for the retrieval and management of data in a
relational database. SQL stands for Structured Query Language. This tutorial will give you a
quick start to SQL. It covers most of the topics required for a basic understanding of SQL and to
get a feel of how it works.

Why to Learn SQL?

SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and
retrieving data stored in a relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and
SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.
Also, they are using different dialects, such as −

 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

 Oracle using PL/SQL,
 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.

Applications of SQL
As mentioned before, SQL is one of the most widely used query language over the databases. I'm
going to list few of them here:
 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.
 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

Audience
This SQL tutorial is prepared for beginners to help them understand the basic as well as the
advanced concepts related to SQL languages. This tutorial will give you enough understanding
on the various components of SQL along with suitable examples.

Prerequisites
Before you start practicing with various types of examples given in this tutorial, I am assuming
that you are already aware about what a database is, especially the RDBMS and what is a
computer programming language.
SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion, fetching rows,
modifying rows, etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
language, but there are many different versions of the SQL language.

What is SQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and
retrieving data stored in a relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational Database
Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and
SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.
Also, they are using different dialects, such as −

 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

 Oracle using PL/SQL,
 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.

Why SQL?
SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages −
 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.
 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-
compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

A Brief History of SQL

 1970 − Dr. Edgar F. "Ted" Codd of IBM is known as the father of relational
databases. He described a relational model for databases.
 1974 − Structured Query Language appeared.
 1978 − IBM worked to develop Codd's ideas and released a product named
System/R.
 1986 − IBM developed the first prototype of relational database and standardized
by ANSI. The first relational database was released by Relational Software which
later came to be known as Oracle.
SQL Process
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best way
to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.
There are various components included in this process.
These components are −

 Query Dispatcher
 Optimization Engines
 Classic Query Engine
 SQL Query Engine, etc.
A classic query engine handles all the non-SQL queries, but a SQL query engine won't handle
logical files.
Following is a simple diagram showing the SQL Architecture −

SQL Commands
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE, SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be classified into the following
groups based on their nature −
DDL - Data Definition Language
Sr.No. Command & Description

CREATE
1
Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the database.

ALTER
2
Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.

DROP
3
Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the database.

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Sr.No. Command & Description

SELECT
1
Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.

INSERT
2
Creates a record.

UPDATE
3
Modifies records.

DELETE
4
Deletes records.

DCL - Data Control Language

Sr.No. Command & Description
 GRANT
1
Gives a privilege to user.

REVOKE
2
Takes back privileges granted from user.

What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and
for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft
Access.
A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system
(DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.

What is a table?
The data in an RDBMS is stored in database objects which are called as tables. This table is
basically a collection of related data entries and it consists of numerous columns and rows.
Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational
database. The following program is an example of a CUSTOMERS table −
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

What is a field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the CUSTOMERS table
consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record
in the table.

What is a Record or a Row?

A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table. For
example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table. Following is a single row of data
or record in the CUSTOMERS table −
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is a column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific
field in a table.
For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which represents location
description and would be as shown below −
+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
| Ahmedabad |
| Delhi |
| Kota |
| Mumbai |
| Bhopal |
| MP |
| Indore |
+----+------+

What is a NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which means a field with a
NULL value is a field with no value.
It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that
contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank during a record
creation.

SQL Constraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to limit the type of
data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database.
Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only
to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the entire table.
Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL −
 NOT NULL Constraint − Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
 DEFAULT Constraint − Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
 UNIQUE Constraint − Ensures that all the values in a column are different.
 PRIMARY Key − Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
 FOREIGN Key − Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database table.
 CHECK Constraint − The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column
satisfy certain conditions.
 INDEX − Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

Data Integrity
The following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS −
 Entity Integrity − There are no duplicate rows in a table.
 Domain Integrity − Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the
type, the format, or the range of values.
 Referential integrity − Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.
 User-Defined Integrity − Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall
into entity, domain or referential integrity.

Database Normalization
Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two
reasons of this normalization process −
 Eliminating redundant data, for example, storing the same data in more than one
table.
 Ensuring data dependencies make sense.
Both these reasons are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and
ensures that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines that help
guide you in creating a good database structure.
Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of a form as the format or the way
a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to organize the database structure, so
that it complies with the rules of first normal form, then second normal form and finally the third
normal form.
It is your choice to take it further and go to the fourth normal form, fifth normal form and so on,
but in general, the third normal form is more than enough.
 First Normal Form (1NF)
 Second Normal Form (2NF)
 Third Normal Form (3NF)