Sensors in Robotics Introduction _ InChap. 3, various sensor devices tised as components of the robot control system These devices ineluded position sensors such as resolvers and nd velocity sensors such as as peripheral devices tor the robot, just as end effectors discussed in C hap. 5 are used as peripheral devices, Most industrial be employed in this way in order for the equipment in the workcell were discussed, encoders, fachometers, Sensors can also be used applications require that sensors robot to operate with other pieces of In this chapter, the various types of sensors tha devices in robotics and the reasons why they are us ed as peripheral are needed have been considered We begin with a general discussion of transdi icers and sensors, then examine the sensors that are most commonly employed in robot applications in the chapter describes the four major categories of uses of robotics The final section sensor systems in 6.1 TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical variable (e.g., force, Pressure, temperature, velocity, flow rate, etc.) into another form. A common conversion is to electrical voltage, and the reason for making the conversion is that the converted signal is more convenient to use and evaluate using a digital computer. A sensor is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a physical variable of interest. Some of the common sensors and transducers include strain gauges (used to measure force and pressure), thermocouples (temperatures), speedometers (velocity), and Pitot tubes (flow rates). Any sensor or transducer requires calibration in order to be useful as a measuring device. Calibration is the procedure by which the relationship between the measured variable and the converted output signal is established, Earlier we have seen that sensors can be clarified into external and intemal sensors based on their functions. Transducers and sensors can also be classified into two basic types depending on the form of the converted signal. The two types are’ en | ee eee& Industrial Robotic: 1. Analog transducers 2. Digital transducers Analog transducers provide a continuous analog signal such as electrical vo), or current, This signal ean then be interpreted as the value of the physical variant that is being measured. Digital transducers produce a digital output signal, either.” the form of a set of parallel status bits or a series of pulses that can be counted, j either form, the digital signal represents the value of the measured variable, Digi transducers are becoming more popular because of the ease with which they oq he toad as separate measuring instruments, In addition, they offer the advantage ; automation and process control that they are generally more compatible with iy, digital computer than analog-b In order to be useful as measuring devices, in robotics and in other application, sensors must possess certain features, Some of the desirable engineering features of sensors and transducers are presented in Table 6-1. Few if any sensors have all of nd a compromise must be made among them to select the best sensor for a given application ler ip sed sensors. these desirable features, Table 6.1 Desirable features of sensors. Accuracy: The accuracy of the measurement should be as higl as possible. Accuracy is interpreted to mean that the true value of the variable can be sensed with no systematic postive cor negative errors in the measurement. Over many measurements of the variable, the average error between the actual value and the sensed value will tend to be zero. 2. | Precision: The precision of the measurement should be as high as possible. Precision means that there is litle or no random variability in the measured variable. The dispersion in the values of a seties of measurements will be minimized. 3. | Operating range: The sensor should possess a wide operating range and should be accurate and precise over the entire range. 4. | Speed of response: The transducer should be capable of responding to changes in the sensed variable in minimum time. Ideally, the response would be instantaneous. 5. | Calibration: The sensor should be easy to calibrate. The time and trouble required to accomplish the calibration procedure should be minimum. Further, the sensor should not require frequent recalibration. The term ‘drift’ is commonly applied to denote the gradual loss in accuracy ofthe sensor with time and use, and which would necessitate recalibration. 6. | Reliability: The sensor should possess a high reliability. It should not be subject to frequent failures during operation T. | Cost and ease of operation: The cost to purchase, install, and operate the sensor should be as low as possible. Further, the ideal circumstance would be that the installation and operation af the device would not require a specially trained, highly skilled operator, 6.2 SENSORS IN ROBOTICS The sensors used in robotics mainly for interaction with the environment include a wide range of devices which can be divided into the following gene! categories:Sensors in Robotics 143) 1. Tactile sensors 2. Proximity 3. Miscellaneous sensors and sensor-based systems 4. Machine vision systems nd range sensors We will discuss the first three of these categories in the sections that follow. The fourth category, machine vision, is examined in the next chapter. Table 6.2 provides a listing of some of the common sensors tha are applicable in robotic workcells, Table 6.2 Sensor devices used in robot workcells Ammeter—(mi iscellaneous) Electrical meter used to measure electrical current. Edy curentdetectors—(proximity sensor Device that emits an allemating magnetic fed tthe tp of @ probe, which induces eddy currents in any conductive object in the range of the device. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a conductive object. Electrical contact switch—(touch sensor) Device in which an electrical potential is established between two objects, and when the potential becomes zero this indicates contact between the two objects. Not a commercial device. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a conductive object. Infrared sensor—proximty sensor) Transducer which measures temperatures by the infared light | mite from the surface ofan object. Can be used to indicate presence or absence ofa hot object. Limit switch—{touch sensor) Electrical on-off switch actuated by depressing a mechanical lever or bution onthe device. Can be used to measure presence or absence ofan object. Linear variable differential transformer—miscellaneous) Electromechanical transducer used to | measure linear or angular displacement. Microswitch—{touch sensor) Small electrical mit switch (see, mit switch). Can be used to indicate presence or absence of an object. Ohmmeter—(miscellaneous) Meter used to measure electical resistance Optical pyrometer—{(proximty sensor, miscellaneous) Device used to measure high temperatures by sensing the brightness of an object's surface. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a hot object. Photometric sensors—(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Various transducers used to sense light ‘Category includes photocells, photoelectric transducers, phototubes, photodiodes. phototransistors, ‘and photoconductors. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of an object. Piezoelectric accelerometer—(misceltaneous) Sensor used to indicate or measure vibration. Potentiometer—(miscellaneous) Electrical meter used to measure voltage. Pressure transducers—{miscellaneous) Various transducers used to indicate air pressure and other fluid pressures. Conta.144 Industrial Robotics | Radiation pyromete—(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Device used fo measure high temperatires by sensing the thermal radiation emitting ftom the surface of an object. Can be used to indicate presence or absence of a hot object. Strain gage—(force sensor) Common transducer used to measure force, torque, pressure, ang other related variables. Can be used to indicate force applied to grasp an object | Thermistor-(miscellaneous) Device based on electrical resistance user Thermocouple-{miscellaneous) Commonly used device used to measure termperatures. Based on the physical principle that a junction of two dissimilar metals will emit an emf which can be reateg to temperature, Vacuum switches—(proximity sensor, miscellaneous) Device used to indicate negative air pressures, Can be used with a vacuum gripper to indicate presence or absence of an object. | Vision sensors—(vision system) Advanced sensor system used in conjunction with pattern recognition and other techniques to view and interpret events occurring in the robot workplace [Voice sensors—(voice and speed recognition) Advanced sensor system used to communicate ‘commands or information orally to the robot. 6.3 TACTILE SENSORS Tactile sensors are devices which indicate contact between themselves and some other solid object. Tactile sensing devices can be divided into two classes: touch sensors and force sensors. Touch sensors provide a binary output signal which indicates whether or not contact has been made with the object. Force sensors (also sometimes called stress sensors) indicate not only that contact has been made wi the object but also the magnitude of the contact force between the two. objects. 6.3.1 Touch Sensors Touch sensors are used to indicate that contact has been made between two objects without regard to the magnitude of the contacting force. Included within this category are simple devices such as limit switches, microswitches, and the like. The simpler devices are frequently used in the design of interlock systems in roboties For example, they can be used to indicate the presence or absence of parts in @ fixture or at the pick up point along a conveyor. Another use for a touch-sensing device would be as part of an inspection probe which is manipulated by the robot to measure dimensions on a workpart. A robot with six degrees of freedom would be capable of accessing surfaces on the part that would be difficult for a three-axis coordinate measuring machine, the inspection system normally considered for such an inspection task. Unfortunately, the robot’s accuracy would be a limiting factor in contact inspection work. 6.3.2 Force Sensors The capacity to measure forces permits the robot to perform a number of tasks. These include the capability to grasp parts of different sizes in material handling, machine loading, and assembly work, applying the appropriate level of force for the giv part, In assembly applications, force sensing could be used to determine if the sere¥* have become cross-threaded or if the parts are jammed.a RN ty ~~ cet used t0 Measure force, ers ce app 10 OFS an ober i gut SSLANO® SE8 meag vice used 10 measure 4 aS ey or metas wil emit an em et “Whi cay sed rt is) Device used to indicate . ceanetacence of absence ofan oa sor system used in ro tt res OTD He nea pon) Abanced SNS SIEM Uae gS a ORS contact between the , indicate contac remiselves devices can e divided into to cag S h sensors provide a binary output sigu) as been made with the object, Force it dicate not only that contact has been ma, ofthe contact force between the to obey e that contact has been made between toi f of the contacting force. Included vite qs limit switches, microswitches, and thei sed in the design of interlock systems ints to indicate the presence oF absence i, long a conveyor. Another use esd spection probe which is manipolt part A robot with six deBrees Fa ‘on the part that would be difie®. he inspection system normally OF the robot's accuracy woul : oo emits the robot to perform 4 oily arts of different sizes in eit plying the appropriate 1EVE" rift! ce sensine could be used '° i Sensors in Roboues 145) Force sensing in roboties ean be accomplished in several ways. A commonly used nique is a “forve-sensing wrist.” This consists of a special lond-cell mounted between the gripper and the wrist. Another technique is to measure the torque being exerted by each joint. This is usually accomplished by sensing motor current for each, of the joint motors. Finally, a thitd technique is to form an array of force-sensing, elements so that the shape and other information about the contact surface can be ined. We diseuss these thr deter Force-sensing wrist The purpose of a force-sensing wrist is to provide information about the three components of forve (FF. and F) and the three moments (M,, M,, and M.) being applied at the end effector. One possible construction of a force-sensing wrist is illistrated in Fig, 6.1, The device consists of a metal bracket fastenes to a rigid flame, The fran ied to the wrist of the robot and the tool is mounted to the center ofthe bracket, The figure shows how the sensors might react possibilities in the paragraphs that follow toa moment apie to the bracket due to frees and moment on the tol Goesin _ Rot Se Sted rane Cn Fis <1 passive conanraten equine caret te fara eee ae Wr eaaroeee bepection (coger) hl agin tole ala Since the forces ar usually apple the wrist in tobatons iis neces to first resolve the forces and moments into their six components. This kind of ‘computation can be carried out by the robot controller (if it has the required computational capability) or by a specialized amplifier designed for this purpose Based on these calculations, the robot controller can obtain the required information ‘of the forces and moments being applied at the wrist. This information could be used for a number of applications. As an example, an insertion operation (e.g. inserting a ‘peg into a hole in an assembly application) requires that there are no side forces being applied to the peg. Another example is where the robot’s end effector is required to follow along an edge or contour of an irregular surface, This is called force accom “modation, With this technique, certain forces are set equal to zero while others are set ‘equal to specific values. Using force accommodation, one could command the robot {0 follow the edge or contour by maintaining a fixed velocity in one direction and “Fixed forces in other directions Bri sob equipped Wah force: densing wrist pis the proper Compote CapREiae “Could be programmed to accomplish these kinds of applications. The procedure “Would begin by deciding on the desired force to be applied in each axis direction. The Controller would perform the following sequence of operations, with the resulting offset force calculated as illustrated in Fig, 6.2:ee Industrial Robotics 1, Measute the forces at the wrist in cach axis direction 2 Caleulate the forwe offsets required. The force offfet in each ditection i determined by subtracting the desired force from the measured force 8 Caleutate the torques to be applied by each axis to generate the desired fey offfets at the wrist, These are moment calculations which take into account the combined effects of the various joints and links of the robot 4. Then the robot must provide the torques calculated in step 3 so that the desireg forees are applied in each direction Forve-sensing wrists are usually very rigid devices so that they will not dette, undesirably while under load, When designing problems that may be environment, This m force-sensing wrist there are severa} ncountered, The end-of-the-arm is often in a relatively hostile nis that the device must be sufficiently rugged to withstang the environment, For example, it must be capable of tolerating an occasional crash of the robot arm, At the same time the device must be sensitive enough to detec small forces, Thi overtravel limit is a physical stop designed to prevent the force sensor from deflecting so far that it would be damaged. 7 design problem is usually solved by using overtravel limits, An Tool foo) Part ‘actual F ‘oflset Fig. 6.2 Force accommodation, showing how the required offset force would compensate for the difference between actual force and desired force. The calculations required to utilize a force-sensing wrist are complex and requir’ considerable computation time, Also, for an arm traveling at moderate-to-high speeds, the level of control over the arm just as it makes contact with an object i limited by the dynamic performance of the arm, The momentum of the arm makes it difficult to stop its forward motion quickly enough to prevent a crash.Sensors in Robotics 147) Design of force sensors is a very complex process due to the redundancies present in the force sensing process itself, Force sensors are made using strain gages that measure the strain along particular axes, As shown in the Fig. 6.3 a single cantilever beam can be used to measure forces along two axes directions, i.c., x-axies and axies J Strain gage Zz aS Fig. 6.3 Single cantilever beam fixed at one end and subjected to a load at the other end. It is to be noted that in 3D space we can have a total of three forces and three moments. Hence, a single contilever beam cannot measure all the six components. A force sensor is usually made having four arms, each of which responds to two forces as given in Fig. 6.4. Fig. 6.4 Internal structure of sensor. = frYe Industrial Robotics ee \ A complete force/torque sensor also called a wrist sensor is as shown j, Pip. 6.5 -Wy Ws Vj 1 : if : ie aaa ; Ws = & |G a Ws W, Fig. 6.5 A force torque sensor. ‘At the center, we have three forces and three moments acting. Writing the force balance equation for static equilibrium we have. ™) le 0010000 1\\w 5 0100100 Of/n Fr) _/1 001 01 1 Ol] My} |0 0 0 1 0 0 1 O|| ns My 100001 0 Oj. M.) \o 110100 1}}w| Writing these set of equation in short form, we have F=CW where matrix ‘F” contains the external forces and moments acting at the centre, “Cin the matrix relating the external forces to the forces at the beams and “J is the strain gage readings corresponding to the forces in each beam. As can be seen from the equation above the matrix *C” is non-square and hence a uniqueSensors in Robotic: BY) solution does not exist to obtain the value of w;...Wv4, for a given force and moment input Hence, force sensors need to be accurately calibrated before use and they also contain some errors as exact solution to the equation do not exist, The sensor is normally installed at the wrist of the robot. The forces and moments acting on the gripper is then reflected at the wrist sensor. Joint sensing If the robot by the motors is proportional to the current flowing through the armature. A simple way (0 measure this current is to measure the voltage drop across a small precision resistor in series with the motor and power amplifier. This simplicity makes this technique attractive; however, measuring the joint torque has several disadvantages. First, measurements are made in joint space, while the forces of interest are applied by the tool and would be more usefull if made in tool space. The measurements therefore not only reflect the forces being applied at the tool, but also the forces and torques required to accelerate the links of the arm and to overcome the friction and transmission losses of the joints, In fact, if the joint friction is relatively high (and it usually is), it will mask out the small forces being applied at the tool tip. One area where joint torque sensing shows promise of working well is with direct-drive robots. Direct-drive robots are a relatively new innovation in which the drive motors are located at the joints of the manipulator. In torque sensing, this configuration reduces the friction and transmission losses, and the problems of torque measurement which accompany these losses are thereby reduced. s de servomotors then the torque being exerted Tactile array sensors A tactile array sensor is a special type of force sensor composed of a matrix of force-sensing elements. The force data provided by this type of device may be combined with pattern recognition techniques to describe a number of characteristics about the impression contacting the array sensor surface. Among these characteristics are 1. the presence of an object, 2. the object's contact area, shape, location, and orientation, 3. the pressure and pressure distribution, and. 4, force magnitude and location. Tactile array sensors can be mounted in the fingers of the robot gripper or attached to a work table as a flat touch surface. ‘The device is typically composed of an array of conductive elastomer pads. ‘As each pad is squeezed its electrical resistance changes in response to the amount of deflection in the pad, which is proportional to the applied force. By measuring the resistance of each pad, information about the shape of the object against the array of sensing elements can be determined. The operation of a tactile frray sensor (with an 8 x 8 matrix of pressure-sensitive pads) is pictured in Fig. 6.6. In the background is the CRT monitor display of the tactile impression made by the object placed on the surface of the sensor device, As the number of pads in the array is increased the resolution of the displayed information improves. i, i... =Qs Industrie! Robotios mee Fig. 6.6 Tactile array sensor device mounted in a mechanical gripper (Photo courtesy: of Lord Corporation) FERampie 6.1 4 Possible use of a tactile array sensor is to measure the Example 6.1 j.c¢ and moments being applied to an object by the robot A typical application of this capability is the case of a robot inserting a peg into ahole. Suppose the peg misses the hole slightly creating a binding action between the peg and the hole. Figure 6.7 illustrates the situation showing the likely pattem of forces on the tactile array sensor surface. The problems in designing and using a tactile array sensor include wear of the contacting surface and the possible need for multiplexing to minimize the number of interconnections if the number of sensors in the array is very large Figure 6.8 shows the Lord Corporation’s LTS 300 Series product which contaits 4 large touch field surface (approximately 6 in. square) composed of an 80 by 80 pattern of sensor elements, making a total of 6400 sensitive sites. Each sensor has gray scale capability to allow force magnitude to be measured at each sensor location on the surface. The principal application foreseen for this product is for location and orientation of components in robotic assembly operations as shown in Fig. 6.9Sensors in Robotics 3] S Fig. 6.7 Tactile array sensor mounted on a flat work surface. (Photo courtesy: Lord Corporation) Fig. 6.8 Tactile array sensor using 8 x 8 sensor array with display of tactile impression. (Photo courtesy: Lord Corporation)qe nustrial Robotics Fingers M4 Sensing pads Pattern on B Pattern ond Fig. 6.9 Possible binding action in an insertion task sensors has lead to the development Research into potential materials for tactile ric of a force-sensing skin of Polyvinylidene di-Fluoride. This is a piezoe material which means that it generates an output voltage when it is squeezed. Advant: of Polyvinylidene di-Fluoride include its availability in sheets only a few ten-thousandths. ofan inch and the fact that it is impervious to most chemicals. Another interesting feature of this material is that it is pyroelectric, meaning that it generates a voltage when heated. This feature suggests the possibility for designing a tactile sensor that provides simultaneous force and temperature sensing. 6.4 PROXIMITY AND RANGE SENSORS Proximity sensors are devices that indicate when one object is dose to another object. How close the object must be in order to activate the sensor is dependent on the particular device. The distances can be anywhere between several millimeters and several feet. Some of these sensors can also be used to measure the distance between the object and the sensor, and these devices are called range sensors. Proximity and ly be located on the wrist or end effector since these are the moving parts of the robot. One practical use of a proximity sensor in robotics would be to detect the presence or absence of a workpart or other object. Another important application is for sensing human beings in the robot workcell. Range sensors would be useful for determining the location of an object (e.g., the ‘workpatt) in relation to the robot. range sensors would typical| mma a eT TINS | Vel Cay Ying (a, Dy Sugg ‘si snsai? - bjt wor ig ttt Sensors in Robotics 183) available for designing proximity and range sensors cctrical field techniques a few of A variety of technologies are ‘These technologies include optical devices, acoustics, (ea. eddy currents and magnetic fields), and others, We will survey only the possibilities in the following paragraphs Optical proximity sensors can be designed using either visible or invisible ed) light sources, Infrared sensors may be active or passive. The active sensors infrared beam and respond to the reflection of the beam against a target incandescent light source is a common device (in send out The infrared-reflectance sensor using that is commercially available, The active infrared sensor can be used to indicate not only whether or not a part is present, but also the position of the part. By timing the interval fiom when the signal is sent and the echo is received, a measurement of the distance between the object and the sensor can be made. This feature is especially useful for locomotion and guidance systems, Passive infrared sensors are simply devices which detect the presence of infrared radiation in the environment. They are often utilized in security systems to detect the presence of bodies giving off heat Within the range of the sensor. These sensor systems are effective at covering large areas in building interiors Another optical approach for proximity sensing involves the use of a collimated light beam and a linear array of light sensors. By reflecting the light beam off the surface of the object, the location of the object can be determined from the position of its reflected beam on the sensor array. This scheme is illustrated in Fig. 6.10. The formula for the distance between the object and the sensor is given as follows Receiver (sensing array) ro Light source Lense Fig. 6.10 Scheme for a proximity sensor using reflected light against a sensor array x=0,5y tan(A) where x= the distance of the object from the sensor ‘y= the lateral distance between the light source and the reflected light beam against the linear array. This distance corresponds to the number of elements contained within the reflected beam in the sensor array A= the angle between the object and the sensor array as illustrated in Fig. 6.10. Use of this device in the configuration shown relies on the fact that the surface of the object must be parallel to the sensing array. Acoustical devices can be used as proximity sensors s s ty sensors. Ultrasonic frequencies (above 20,000 Hz) are often used in these devices because the sound is res the ‘See omWe ee Industrial Robotics range of human hearing, One type of acoustical proximity sensor uses a cylindrica ‘ hearing One Wyre emitter atthe closed end of the chamber, The emitter sets up a pattern of standing waves in the cavity which is altered by the presence of an object near the open end. A microphone located in the wall of the chamber is used to sense the change in the sound pattern. This kind of de also be used as a range sensor Proximity and range sensors based on the use of electrical fields are commercially available, Two of the types in this category and eddy-current sensors field sensors, Bddy-curtent devices ereate a primary alte small region near the probe. This field induces eddy currents in an object placed in the region so long.as the object is made of a conductive material. These eddy currents produce their own magnetic field which interacts with the primary field to change its flux density, The probe detects the change in the flux density and this indicates the ‘open-ended chamber wit presence of the object Magnetic field proximity sensors reed switch and a permanent magnet. T tof the object being detected or it ean be part of the sensor device. In either case, the device can be designated so that the presence of the object in the region of the sensor completes the magnetic circuit and activates the reed switch. This type of proximity sensor design is attractive because of its relative simplicity and be is required for its operation clatively simple and can be jet can be made a p nade using a ase no external power supply 6.5 MISCELLANEOUS SENSORS AND SENSOR BASED SYSTEMS The miscell fegory covers the remaining types of sensors and transducers that might be used for interlocks and other purposes in robotic workcells. This category includes devices with the capability to sense variables such as temperature pressure, fluid flow, and electrical properties. Many of the common transducers and used for these variables are listed in Table 6.2. ‘An area of roboties research that might be included in this chapter is voice sensing or voice programming. Voice-programming systems can be used in robotics for orl ‘communication of instructions to the robot. Voice sensing relies on the techniques of speech recognition to analyze spoken words uttered by a human and compare those words with a set of stored word patterns. When the spoken word matches the stored word pattern, this indicates that the robot should perform some particular actions which correspond to the word or series of words. We will explore this technology in more detail in Chap. 19. 6.6 USES OF SENSORS IN ROBOTICS ‘The major uses of sensors in industrial robotics and other automated manufactur- ing systems can be divided into four basic categories: 1, Safety monitoring 2. Interlocks in workcell control 4, Part inspect ig, Determining ne of the impo erations in oreo wor mr chap. 17 “rhe second mai workcell contro mence of activi jon of the r jon must | rs, often Ver Se seuss in “The third categ quality chara Franual inspection nits the inspec Ta which every P: js that the sensor and defects. For detect flaws int accomplished wi our discussion of ‘automatic inspec applications in C The fourth m other informatio people, equipme! information requ orientation, colo would need to bi i in execut complet + Workpart + Random j Accuracy req the robot. Feedt Positioning. An example.Se, eae ee ae a FS SAS EM EGE TG Sensors in Robotics 156) 3. Part inspection for quality control and related information about objects in the ated manufactur ection of human robot cell 4. Deter 1 position One of the important applications of sensor technology in autom: ing operations is safety or hazard monitoring which concerns the prote workers who work in the vieinity of the robot or other equipment safety monitoring and other methods of ensuring worker safety in roboticsis explored This subject of in Chap. 17. The second major use of sensor technology in robotics is fo implement interlocks in workcell control, As mentioned in Chap. 2, interlocks are used to coordinate the sequence of activities of the different pieces of equipment in the workcell. In the tain clements of the work cycle whose Jement in the cycle exccution of the robot program, there are completion must be verified before proceeding with the next Sensors, often very simple devices, are utilized to provide this kind of verification We will discuss interlocks and their uses in Chap. 11 on workcell control. The third category is quality control. Sensors can be used to determine a variety of part quality characteristics. Traditionally, quality control has been performed using manual inspection techniques on a statistical sampling basis. The use of sensors permits the inspection operation to be performed automatically on a 100 percent basis, in which every part is inspected. The limitation on the use of automatic inspection is that the sensor system can only inspect for a limited range of part characteristics and defects. For example, a sensor probe designed to measure part length cannot detect flaws in the part surface. Many applications of automated inspection are accomplished without the use of robotics. The reason for including this category in our discussion of robotic sensors is that robots are, in fact, often used to implement automatic inspection systems by means of sensors. We will discuss robot inspection applications in Chap. 15. The fourth major use of sensors in robotics is to determine the positions and other information about various objects in the workcell (e.g., workparts, fixtures, people, equipment, etc.). In addition to positional data about a particular object, other information required to properly execute the work cycle might include the object's orientation, color, size, and other characteristics. Reasons why this kind of data would need to be determined during the program execution include: + Workpart identification, and + Random position and orientation of parts in the workcell ‘Accuracy requirements in a given application exceed the inherent capabilities of the robot. Feedback information is required to improve the accuracy of the robot’s positioning. ‘An example of workpart identification would be in a workcell in which the robot processes several types of workparts, each requiring a different sequence of actions by the robot. Each part presented to the robot would have to be properly identified so that the correct subroutine could be called for execution. This type of identification problem arises in automobile body spot-welding lines where the line is designed to weld several different body styles (e.g., coupes, sedans, wagons). Each welding robot along the line must execute the welding cycle for the particular body style at that station, Simple optical sensors are typically used to indicate the presence or absence of specific body style features in order to make the proper identificationUse Industrial Robotics - = An example of the part position and orientation problem is where a robot woyyy be required to pick up parts moving along a conveyor in random orientation yng position, and place them into a fixture sensed as it eame down the line, In addition, for 4, To accomplish the task, the exiet location ‘of each part would have to be § ‘al pripper (o grasp the particular workpart, the orientation of robot to use a mechanic ermined. AIL of this information wouiy the part on the conveyor would have to be dete have to be processed by the workcell controller (or other computer) in teal ting in order to guide the robot in the execution of its programmed work eycle Vision systems represent an important category of sensor system that might be employed jy determine such characteristies as part location and orientation, We consider maching ificant enough to merit its own chapter vision to be a topic in robotics whieh is sig That chapter follows this one In some applications, the accuracy requi stringent than the inherent accuracy and repeatability of the robot. C operations represent examples of this case, The robot is required to assemble tw parts whose alignment must be very elose, closer than the accuracy of the robot. One possible solution that might be used is a remote center compliance (RCC) device The use of the RCC device in assembly will be described in Chap. 15 All four categories of sensorapplications (safety monitoring, interlocks, inspection and positional data) are instances where the sensor constitutes a component of a control system used in the robot work cell to accomplish some specific control function, That control system, in turn, is a component of a larger control system which we are calling the workcell control system. Alll of the control functions which takes place in the workcell are coordinated and regulated by this larger system. Our discussion of robot workcell control will resume in Chap. 11, after we have examined robot programming, an obvious prerequisite for workcell control nents in the application are more tain assembly @roblems 6.1 It is desired to design a safety monitoring system for a robot cell in which a robot loads an automatic production machine with parts arriving on a conveyor. The robot is large and it is considered dangerous for workers to wander into the work volume of the robot. Aside from the other safety precautions that might be taken to ensure the safety of the workers, the safety monitori system will use one or more sensors to detect the presence of humans in the cell. (a) Write the detailed ‘functional specifications’ for the sensor system. That is, make up a list of the things the sensor system must do, and the ways in which it will have to operate. (6) From the list of sensors in Table 6.2, select several alternative sensors that will satisfy the functional specifications, and compare its features against the specifications. For cach sensor, explain how it will be configured in the safety monitoring system. Use sketches if necessary to illustrate the configuration. (c) Select the best alternative, and justify your selection.157 6.2. Using the list of sensors in Table 6.2 in the text, describe several methods for determining the presence or absence of a metallic part a fixture. Assume the dimensions of the part are: length = 127.0 mm (5 in.), width = 36.0 mm (1.4 in.), and thickness = 20.0 mm (0.8 in.). The fixture is a mechanical vise with two jaws for holding the part. For each alternative, make a sketch of how the sensor would be positioned relative to the part 6.3. Using the list of sensors in Table 6.2 in the text, describe several methods for determining the presence or absence of a non-metallic part in a fixture. Assume the dimensions of the part are: length = 127.0 mm (5 in.). width = 36.0 mm (1.4 in.), and thickness = 20.0 mm (0.8 in.). The fixture is a mechanical vise with two jaws for holding the part. For each alternative make a sketch of how the sensor would be positioned relative to the part 6.4 Using the list of sensors in Table 6.2 in the text, describe several sensors that might be used for determining the dimensions ofa workpart ofa fiat worktable in a robot cell. Assume that the robot could be used to implement the sensor system, or that the sensor operation could be independent of the robot. Use sketches as necessary to illustrate your proposal 6.5 Two differently sized parts share the same conveyor. Both parts are made of steel and have a square base which measures 46 mm (1.8 in.) on a side One part is 33 mm (1.3 in.) in height while the other part is 25 mm (1.0 in.) high. Both parts travel with their bases down against the conveyor in the same orientation and position. (They are not randomly oriented on the conveyer.) It is required that the parts be picked up by a robot and placed in two separate bins depending on their size. Select a sensor system from Table 6.2 that could be used to distinguish between the two part sizes, and describe how the workplace would be set up to implement the operation (make sketches as needed). Before selecting the sensor, consider several alternative sensor candidates and compare their relative attributes for the application. 6.6 With reference to Prob. 6.5 above, discuss how the problem of distinguishing between the two part sizes would become more complicated if the parts were to travel down the conveyor in random orientations. How would you deal with the problem? Describe more than one possible approach. 6.7 A linear array of light sensors is to be used to determine the distance x in the setup illustrated in Fig. 6.10 in the text, If the angle 4 representing the orientation of the collimated light source is 60 degrees and the reflection of the object reaches a position y = 42 mm (1.65 in.), determine the value of x. What will be the effect on the accuracy of the measurement, if the surface of the object is not parallel to the linear sensor array as illustrated in Fig. 6.10?Reference e 6 Industrial Robotios 1. Engelberger, Robotics in Practice, AMACOM (Aierican Managem. Association), New York, 1980, chap, 4. Men M. P. Groover, Automation, Production systems, and Com Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall, Eng! E. Kaftissen and M. Stephans, Jndustrtal Robots and Robotics, Reston Reston VA, 1984, chap, 5 Lord Corporation, Lord Tactile Sensors, Marketing/Technical Brochure, Cap NC. RN, Stauffer, ‘Progres 1983, pp. 43-49. L. L. Toepperwein, M. T, Blackman, et al., ICAM Robotics Application Guide Technical Report AFWAL-TR-80-4042, vol. 11, Materials Laboratory, Air Foros Wright Aeronautical Laboratories, Ohio, April 1980, ‘sin Tactile Sensor Development,’ Robotics Today, ShiteRobot end Effectors /Introduction An end effector is a device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables: the general-purpose robot to perform a specific task. It is sometimes referred to the robot’s “hand.” Most production machines require special-purpose fixtures and tools designed for a particular operation, and a robot is no exception. The end effector is part of that special-purpose tooling for a robot. Usually, end effectors must be custom engineered for the particular task which is to be performed. This can be accomplished either by designing and fabricating the device from scratch, or by purchasing a commercially available device and adapting it to the application. The company installing the robot can either do the engineering work itself or it can contract for the services of a firm that does this kind of work. Most robot manufacturers have special engineering groups whose function is to design end effectors and to provide consultation services to their customers, Also, there are a growing number of robot systems firms which perform some or all of the engineering work to install robot systems. Their services would typically include end effector design. 5.1 TYPES OF END EFFECTORS There are a wide assortment of end effectors required to perform the variety of different work functions. The various types can be divided into two major categories. 1. Grippers 2. Tools Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and hold objects. The objects are generally workparts that are to be moved by the robot. These part-handling applications include machine loading and unloading, picking parts ftom a conveyor, and arranging parts onto a pallet. In addition to workparts, other objects handled by robot grippers include cartons, bottles, raw materials, and tools. We tend to think of grippers as mechanical grasping devices, but there are altemative ways of holding objects involving the use of magnets, suction cups, or other means, In this chapter we will divide grippersri aa ae a (us Industrial Robotios according to whether they are mechanical grasping devices or some other physic al ' principle is used to retain the object. Section 5.2 examines the different type 6 of Mechanical gripper used in robotics, and See, 5.4 explores the various grippers thay use a means of retention other than mechanical Grippers can be classified as single grippers or double grippers although hj classification applies best to mechanical grippers. The single gripper is distinguisheg by the fact that only one grasping device is mounted on the robot's wrist. A double gripper has two gripping devices attached to the wrist and is used to handle two ate objects, The two gripping devices can be actuated independently. ‘The ing, applications v workpart to be loaded from 4 \l the finished part 1o be unloaded onto another conveyor sep double gripper is especially useful in 1 achine loading and unlos To illustrate, suppose that a particular job calls for ar conveyor onto a machine a With a single gripper, the robot would have to unload the finished part before picking up the raw part. This would consume valuable time in the production cycle because eto during these handling motions, With double gripper, the robot can pick the part from the incoming conveyor with one ind have it ready to exchange for the finished part. When the machine cycle is completed, the robot can reach in for the finished part with the available grasping device, and insert the raw part into the machine with the other grasping device, The amount of time that the machine is open is minimized. The term multiple gripper is applied in the case where two or more grasping mechanisms are fastened to the wrist. Double grippers are a subset of multiple grippers. The occasions when more than two grippers would be required are somewhat rare. There is also a cost and reliability penalty which accompanies an increasing number of gripper devices on one robot arm. Another way of classifying grippers depends on whether the part is grasped on its exterior surface or its internal surface, for example, a ring-shaped part. The first type is called an external gripper and the second type is referred to as an internal gripper In the context of this chapter, tools are end effectors designed to perform work on the part rather than to merely grasp it. By definition, the tool-type end effector is attached to the robot's wrist. One of the most common applications of industrial robots is spot welding, in which the welding electrodes constitute the end e' of the robot. Other examples of robot applications in which tools are used as end effectors include spray painting and arc welding, Section 5.4 discusses the various end effectors in this category. It was mentioned above that grippers are sometimes used to hold tools rather than workparts, The reason for using a gripper instead of attaching the tool directly to the robot’s wrist is typically because the job requires several tools to be manipulated by the robot during the work cycle. An example of this kind of application would be a debarring operation in which several different sizes and geometries of deburring tool must be held in order to reach all surfaces of the workpart. The gripper serves as a quick change device to provide the capability for a rapid changeover from one tool to the next. In addition to end effectors, other types of fixturing and tooling are required in many industrial robot applications. These include holding fixtures, welding fixtures, and other forms of holding devices to position the workpart or tooling during the work cycle. the machine would h Nope of the grippiRobot end Effectors 417. 5-2 MECHANICAL GRIPPERS 5.2.1 Basic Definitions and Operations A mechanical gripper is an end effector that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a mechanism to grasp an object. The fingers, sometimes called jaws, are the appendages of the gripper that actually make contact with the object. The fing are either attached to the mechanisin or are an integral part of the mechanism. If the fingers are of the attachable type, then they can be detached and replaced. The use of replaceable fingers allows for wear and inter-changeability, Different sets of fingers for use with the same gripper mechanism can be designed to accommodate different part models. An example of this interchangeability feature is illustrated in Fig. 5.1 in whieh the gripper is designed to accommodate fingers of varying sizes. In most applications, two fingers are- sufficient to hold the workpart or other object. Grippers with three of more fingers are less common. The function of the gripper mechanism is to translate some form of power input into the grasping action of the fingers against the part. The power input is supplied fiom the robot and can be pneumatic, electric, mechanical, or hydraulic. We will dliscuss the alternatives in See, 5.5, The mechanism must be able to open and close the fingers and to exert sufficient force against the part when closed to hold it securely. Detachable fingers Gripper Fig. 5:1 Interchangeable fingers can be used with the same gripper mechanism There are two ways of constraining the Workpart part in the gripper. The first is by physical Peete constriction of the part within the fingers. Reeeretl In this approach, the gripper fingers enclose Fingers the part to some extent, thereby constraining (adi the motion of the part. This is usually \O\ | accomplished by designing the contacting Gone surfaces of the fingers to be in the approximate shape of the part geometry. This method of constraining the part is illustrated in Fig. 5.2. The second way of holding the part is by of finger design friction between the fingers and the workpart. : oat With this approach, the fingers must apply a force that is sufficient for friction to retain the part against gravity, acceleration, and any other force that might arise during the holding portion of the work cycle. The fingers, or the pads attached to the Fig. 5.2. Physical constriction methodwe Industrial Robotics fingers which make contact with the part, are generally fabricated out Of a materia, that is relatively soft. This tends to inerease the coefficient of friction between the part and the contacting finger surface. It also serves to protect the part surface from seratching or other damage The friction method of holding the part results in a less complicated and therefore less expensive gripper design, and it tends to be readily adaptable to a greater Variety of workparts, However, there is a problem with the friction method that jg avoided with the physical constriction method, Ifa force of sufficient magnitude jg es of the fingers sist this slippage applied against the part in a direction parallel to the friction su as shown in Fig, 5.3(a), the part might slip out of the gripper. To r the gripper mst be designed to exert a force that depends on the weight of the part, the coefficient of fi and the finger surface, the tion) of the part, and the orientation between the direction of motion during Referring to Fig, 5.3(6), the following force equations, Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2), can be used to determine the required magnitude of the gripper force as a function of these factors. Equation (5.1) covers the simpler case in which weight alone is the force tending to cause the part to slip out of the gripper ction between the part surface ‘eleration (or decel acceleration and the direction of the fin Lyk, (5.1) where j! = coefficient of friction of the finger contact surface against the part surface n Fy = gripper force / = number of contacting fingers w = weight of the part or object being gripped Gripper ay 78 (coef. of friction- fo} lo} pad and part) Part-| |] | Pressure r ids (2 pads (2) ro Tor Ws) w (or we) 5 (6) (@) Fig. 5.3 Force against part parallel to finger surfaces tending to pull part out of gripper This equation would apply when the force of gravity is directed parallel to the contacting surfaces. If the force tending to pull the part out of the fingers is greater than the weight of the object, then Eq. (5.1) would have to be altered. For example, the force of acceleration would be a significant factor in fast part-handling cycles. Engelberger [3] suggests that in a high-speed handling operation the acceleration (or deceleration) of the part could exert a force that is twice the weight of the part. He reduces the problem to the use of a g factor in a revised version of Eq, (5.1) as follows: LiF, = wg 62)Robot ond Effectors 19) where ¢ ~ the g factor. The g factor is supposed to take account of the combined fleet of gravity and acceleration, If the acceleration force is applied in the same direction as the gravity force, then the g value ~ 3.0. If the acceleration is applied then the g value = 1,0 (2 » the weight of the part due to ht of the part due to gravity), If the acceleration then use ¢ ~ 2.0. The following example will in the opposite ditectic tion minus 1x the we accele is applied in a horizontal ¢ illustrate the use of the eq Pixample s.2) Suppose a sti cardboard carton weighing 10 Ibis held in a Bripper using friction against two opposing fingers. The coefficient of friction between the finger contacting surfaces and the carton surface is 0.25. The orientation of the carton is such that the weight of the carton is directed parallel to finger surfaces, A fast work cycle is anticipated so that a g factor of 3.0 should be applied to calculate the required gripper force. Determine the required gripper force for the conditions given, We can make use of Eq. (5.2) to solve for F,, ection Mins, (0.25)(2)F, = (10)(3.0) ai = 60 Ib 0.5 The gripper must cause a force of 60 Ib to be exerted by the fingers against the carton surface. There is an assumption implicit in the preceding calculations that should be acknowledged. In particular, itis assumed that the robot grasps the carton at its center of mass, so that there are no moments that would tend to rotate the carton in the gripper. In using Eq. (5.2) as a design formula, a factor of safety would typically be applied to provide a higher computed value of gripper force. For example, a safety factor (SF) of 1.5 in Example 5.1 would result in a calculated value of 1.5 x 60 = 90 Ib as the required gripper force. This safety factor would help to compensate for the potential problem of the carton being grasped at a position other than its center of mass. It is possible to determine the actual value of the g factor without resorting to the rough rule of thumb suggested above. However, data must be available conceming the accelerations and decelerations of the part and the direction of the acceleration (or deceleration) force. Fixampie's.2 illustrate, assume thatthe conditions of Example 5.1 apply PIE 5-2 except it is known that the carton will experience a maximum acceleration of 40 fu/sec/sec in a vertical direction when it is lifted by the gripper fingers. We assume that the force of acceleration will therefore be applied in the same direction as the weight, and that this direction is parallel to the contacting surfaces between the carton and the fingers. Determine the value of the g factor for this situation. The value of g would be 1.0 + the ratio of the actual acceleration divided by gravity acceleration of 32,2 fi/sec/sec, This ratio is 40/32.2 = 1.24, The g value would be 1.0 + 1.24 = 2.24.Gee Industrial Robotios ¢ Mechan Ge2m ms ypes of Gripp There are various ways of ¢ 8 sifying mechanical grippers and their actagy, mechanisms, One method is according, to the type of finger movement used by 4 gripper. In this classification, the grippers can actuate the opening and closing following motions: Of the fingers by one of th 1, Pivoting movement 2. Linear or translational movement These gripper actions are shown in the photographs of Figs. 5.4 and 5.5. tn the pivoting movement, the fingers rotate about fixed pivot points on the gripper to open and close, The motion is usually accomplished by some kind of linkage mechanism, In the linear movement, the fingers open and close by moving in parallel to ¢ other, This is accomplished by means of guide rails so that cach finger base slides along a guide rail during actuation, The translational finger movement might also be accomplished by means of a linkage which would maintain the fingers in a paralle orientation to cach other during actuation. ach a we Fig. 5.4 Mechanical gripper finger with pivoting movement. (Photo courtesy: Phd, Inc.) FESS Mechanical gripper finger with linear movement using guide rails, (Photo courtesy Phd, Inc.)Mechanical grippers ca Robot end Effectors a also be classed according to the type of kinematic device used to actuate the finger movement. In this classification we have the following types 6 Linkage actuation Gear-and-rack actuation Cam actuation Serew actuation Rope-and-pulley actuation Miscellaneous: The linkage category covers a wide range of design possibilities to actuate the ope! 2 and closing of the gripper. A few examples are illustra ed in Fig. 5.6. The design of the linkage determines how the input force F, to the gripper is converted into the gripping force Fy applied by the fingers. The linkage configuration also determines other operational features such as how wide the gripper fingers will open and how quickly the gripper will actuate. Figure 5.7 illustrates one method of actuat- ing the gripper fingers using a gear-and-rack configuration, The rack gear would be attached toa piston or some other mechanism that would provide a linear motion. Moveient of the rack would drive two partial pinion gears, and these would in tum open and close the fingers. The cam actuated gripper includes a variety of possible designs, one of which is shown in [Guide rail Fig. 5.7 Gear-and-rack method of ‘actuating the gripperCa Industrial Robotics Pip. $8. Acam-and- follower arrangement, often using a spring-loaded follower, can provide the opening. and closing action of the gripper. For example, movement of the cam in one direction would force the gripper fo open, while movement of the cam, in the opposite direction would cause the spring to force the gripper to close, The A is that the spring action would accommodate different sized parts, This might be desirable, for example, in a machining operation where a ind the finished part. The finished advantage of this arrangeny single gripper is used fo handle the raw workpart art might be significantly smatler afler machining i =A laa K mee S Fig Spring pW Cam-actuated gripper An example of the serew-type actua tion method is shown in Fig, 5.9. The odes OSe screw is turned by a motor, usually a ee Screw companied by a speed reduction mec! nism. When the screw is rotated in one direction, this causes a threaded block to be translated in one direction. When the screw is rotated in the opposite direction, the threaded block moves in the opposite direction, The threaded block is, in turn, connected to the gripper fingers to cause the corresponding opening and closing Baten Fig. 5.9 Screw-type gripper actuation. Rope-and-pulley mechanisms can be designed to open and close a mechanical gripper. Because of the nature of these mechanisms, some form of tension device must be used to oppose the motion of the rope or cord in the pulley system. For example, the pulley system might operate in one direction to open the gripper, and the tension device would take up the slack in the rope and close the gripper when the pulley system operates in the opposite direction. The miscellaneous category is included in our list to allow for gripper-actuating mechanisms that do not logically fall into one of the above categories. An example might be an expandable bladder or diaphragm that would he inflated and deflated to actuate the gripper fingers,Robot end Effectors iL] pper Force Analysis As indicated proviously, the purpose of the gripper mechanism is to conyert input power into the required motion and foree to grasp and hold an object, Let us illustrate the analysis that might be used to determine the magnitude of the required input power in onder to obtain @ given gripping force, We will assume that a friction type grasping action is being used to hold the part, and we will therefore use the gripper foree calculated in Lixample 5,1 as our starting point in Example 5.3 below We will demonstrate the analysis by several examples given below. A det of mechanism analysis is beyond the seope of this text, and the reader m other books such as Beer and Johnson [1] and Shigley and Mitchell (6) Fixampte's.3. Suprose the grip- Example 8.3 is a simple pivot-type device used for holding the eantboard eatton, as pictured in Fig 5.10, The gripper force, calculated in our previous Example 5.1, is 60 Ib, The gripper is to be actuated by a piston de- vice to apply an actuating force Fy. The corresponding lever arms for the wo forces are shown in the diagram of the PH S40 Pavrinpe gripper sedin “ae xample The analysis would require that the moments about the pivot arms be summed and made equal to zero, iled study hire Fylig~Falg =0 (60 1b(12 in.) — (F,)(3 in.) = 0 240 Ib 3 The piston device would have to provide an actuating force of 240 Ib to close the gripper with a force against the carton of 60 Ib. Picampte's.4. T™ diagram in Fig, 5.11 shows the finkage mechanism and Pte 3-4 dimensions ofa gripper used to handle a workpart fora machining operation. Suppose it has been determined thatthe gripper force is to be 25 Ib. What is required is to compute the actuating force to deliver this force of 25 Ib? tree es N.—Robot Interface oy Fig. 5.11 Gripper considered in Example 5.4 ‘ee tt—Sily Industrial Robotics Figure 5.12(a) shows how the symmetry of the gripper can be used to advantage ‘ dds to be considered. Part (b) of the figure about the pivot point for the finger lin, \ so that only one-half of the mechanism n shows how the moments might be summ against which the 25-Ib gripper force is applied. We find 25(4 cos 15°) = F sin 45°(1.5 cos 15°) + F cos 45°(1.5 sin 15°) 96.6 = F(1.0246 + 0.2745) = 1.299 1F F = 744 1b (a) 44 45 a Fa 74.4 © Fig. 5.12 Linkage analysis of Example 5.4. The actuating force applied to the plunger to deliver this force of 74.4 Ib to each finger is pictured in Fig, 5.12(c) and can be calculated as Fy = 2x 74.4 x cos 45° F, = 105.2 Ib Some power input mechanism would be required to deliver this actuating force of 105.2 Ib to the gripper. 5-3. OTHER TYPES OF GRIPPERS In addition to mechanical grippers there are a variety of other devices that can be designed to lift and hold objects. Included among these other types of grippers are the following: 1, Vacuum cups 2. Magnetic grippersRobot end Effectors 25) 3, Adhesive grippers 4. Hooks, scoops, and other miscellancous devices 1 Vacuum Cup: Vacuum cups, also called suction cups, can be used as gripper devices for handling certain types 01 objects, The usual requirements on the objects to be handled are that they be flat, smooth, conditions necessary to form a satisfactory vacuum between the objec ction cup. An example ofa vacuum cup used to lift flat and clear ind the si glass is pictured in Pip, 5.13. Fig. $.13 Vacuum cup gripper lifting glass plates. (Photo courtesy: Prab Conveyors, Inc.) The suction cups used in this type of robot gripper are typically made of elastic material such as rubber or soft plastic. An exception would be when the object to be handled is composed of a soft material. In this case, the suction cup would be made ofa hard substance. The shape of the vacuum cup, as shown in the figure, is usually round. Some means of removing the air between the cup and the part surface to create the vacuum is required. The vacuum pump and the venturi are two common devices used for this purpose. The vacuum pump is a piston-operated or vane-driven device powered by an electric motor. It is capable of creating a relatively high vacuum. The venturi is a simpler device as pictured in Fig. 5.14 and can be driven by means of ‘shop air pressure.’ Its initial cost is less than that of a vacuum pump and it is relatively reliable because of its simplicity. However, the overall reliability of the vacuum system is dependent on the source of air pressure. Nozzle Exhaust Airin Vacuum, Fig. 5.14 Venturi device used to operate a suction cup,a GE Industrial Roboties The lif capacity of the suction cup depends on the effective area of the cup ang s benween the cup and the object, The relationship can je "| the negative air presst summarized in the following equation PPA (54) Where F © the force or lift capacity, Ib P~ the negative pressure, Ib/in 1 ~ the total effective arca of the suction cup(s) used to create the vacuum, in The effective area of the cup during operation is approximately equal to the undeformed area determined by the diameter of the suction eup, The squashing action of the cup as it presses against the object would tend to make the effective area slightly larger than the undeformed area, On the other hand, if the center portion of the cup makes contact against the object during deformation, this would reduce the effective area over which the vacuum is applied, These two conditions tend to alive air pressure is the pressure differential between cancel each other out, The ney the inside and the outside of the vacuum cup, The following example will illustrate the operation of the vacuum cup as a robotic gripper device Examples. 4 Yteuum cup gripper will be used to lift flat plates of 18-4 7 a thick and measures stainless stecl, Fach piece of steel is. 2.0 by 3.0 f. The gripper will utilize two suction cups separated by about 1.5 ft for stability, Each suction cup is round and has a diameter of 5.0 in, Two cups are considered a requirement to overcome the problem that the plates may be off center with respect to the gripper ariations in the positioning of the end effector or in the positions of the steel plates before pick up, the suction cups will not always Because of operate on the center of mass of the plates. Consequently, static moments and inertia will result which must be considered in the design of the end effector We are attempting to compensate for these moments by providing two pressure points on the part, separated by a substantial distance, The negative pressure (compared to atmospheric pressure of 14.7 Ib/in.*) required to lift the stainless steel plates is to be determined. A safety factor of 1.6 is to be used to allow for acceleration of the plate and for possible contact of the suction cup against the plate which would reduce the effective area of the cup We must begin by calculating the weight of the stainless steel plate. Stainless steel has a density of 0.28 Ib/in.’. The weight of the plate would therefore be w = 0.28 x ‘ X24 x 36 = 60.48 Ib, __ This would be equal to the force /* which must be applied by the two suction cups, ignoring for the moment any effects of gravity (the g factor used before). The area of each suction cup would be= Rotor ond Electors 427) The area of the two cups would be 2 x 19,63 = 39.26 in. From Eq, (5.3), the negative pressure required to lift the weight can be determined by dividing the weight by the combined area of the two stction cups iP 1 00:48 16/39.26 in? = 1.54 Ibvin? Applying the safety factor of 1.6, we have P= 1.6% 1.54 Iblin? Some of the features and advantages that characterize the operation of suetion cup grippers used in robotics applications are 2.461b/in.” negative pressure 1. Requires only one surface of the part for grasping 2. Applies a uniform pressure distribution on the surface of the part Relatively light-weight gripper. 3. Applicable to a variety of different materials. 5-3-2 Magnetic Grippers Magnetic grippers can be a very feasible means of handling ferrous materials The stainless steel plate in Example 5.3 would not be an appropriate application for a magnetic gripper because 18-8 stainless steel is not attracted by a magnet Other steels, however, including certain types of stainless steel, would be suitable candidates for this means of handling, especially when the materials are handled in sheet or plate form. In general, magnetic grippers offer the following advantages in robotic-handling applications: 1. Pick up times are very fast. 2. Variations in part size can be tolerated. The gripper does not have to be designed for one particular workpart. 3. They have the ability to handle metal parts with holes (not possible with vacuum grippers), 4. They require only one surface for gripping. Disadvantages with magnetic grippers include the residual magnetism remaining in the workpiece which may cause a problem in subsequent handling, and the possible side slippage and other errors which limit the precision of this means of handling Another potential disadvantage of a magnetic gripper is the problem of picking up only one sheet from a stack. The magnetic attraction tends to penetrate beyond the top sheet in the stack, resulting in the possibility that more than a single sheet will be lifted by the magnet. This problem can be confronted in several ways, First, magnetic grippers can be designed to limit the effective penetration to the desired depth, which ‘would correspond to the thickness of the top sheet. Second, the stacking device used to hold the sheets can be designed to separate the sheets for pick up by the robot. One: such type of stacking device is called a *fanner,’ and it makes use of a magnetic field to induce a charge, in the ferrous sheets in the stack. Each sheet toward the top ofqe Industrial Robotic om to possess the same polarity and the stack is given @ magnetic charge, enusing the repel each other The sheet most affected is the one at the top of the stack, It tends tg rise above the remainder of the stack, thus facilitating, pick up by the robot gripper Magnetic grippers ean be divided into two categories, those using electromagnets and those using permanent magnets, Electromagnetic grippers are easier to contro) 111 an appropriate controller unit. As with any other robotic-pripping device, the pan must be released at the end of the handling, eycte This is easier fo accomplish with an electromagnet than with a permanent magnet When the part is to be released, the controller unit reverses the polarity at a reduced power level before switching off the electromagnet. This procedure acts to cancel the residual magnetism in the workpiece and ensures a positive release of the part Permanent magnets have the advantage of not requiring an external power ie the magnet, However, there is a loss of control that accompanies Dut require a source of de power souree to oper advantage, For example, when the part is to be released at the end of the handling cycle, some means of separating the part from the magnet must be provided. The device which accomplishes this is called a stripper or stripping device Its function is to mechanically detach the part from the magnet. One possible stripper design is illustrated in Fig, 5.15 this apparent clati Robot arm Air cylinder actuation HO) yc s [Stripper push-off pin 7 Permanent Steel plate magnet Fig. 5.15 Stripper device operated by air cylinders used with a permanent magnet gripper Permanent magnets are often considered for handling tasks in hazardous environments requiring explosion proof apparatus. The fact that no electrical circuit is needed to ‘operate the magnet reduces the danger of sparks which might cause ignition in such an environment. 5-3-3 Adhesive Grippers Gripper designs in which an adhesive substance performs the grasping action can be used to handle fabrics and other lightweight materials, The requirements on the items to be handled are that they must be gripped on one side only and that other forms of grasping such as a vacuum or magnet are not appropriate. One of the potential limitations of an adhesive gripper is that the adhesive substance loses its tackiness on repeated usage. Consequently, its reliability as a gripping device is diminished with each successive operation cycle. To overcome this limitation, the adhesive material is loaded in the form of a continuous ribbon into a feeding mechanism that is attached to the robot wrist, The feedi i ina mann ; s ling mechanism operates in similar to 4 typewriter ribbon mechanism. sl roche satelRobot ond Effectors 1) -4 Hooks, Scoops, and Other Miscellaneous Devices A variety of other devices can be used to grip parts or materials in robotics applications. Hooks ean be used as end effectors to handle containers of parts and to load and unload parts hanging from overhead conveyors. Obviously, the items to be handled by a hook must have some sort of handle to enable the hook to hold it Scoops and ladles can be used to handle certain materials in liquid or powder form. Chemicals in liquid or powder form, food materials, granular substances, and molten metals are all examples of materials that call be handled by a robot using this method of holding, One of its limitations is that the amount of material being scooped by the robot is sometimes difficult to control, Spillage during the handling cycle is also a problem. Other types of grippers include inflatable devices, in which an inflatable bladder or diaphragm is expanded to grasp the object. The inflatable bladder is fabricated out of rubber or other elastic material which makes it appropriate for gripping fragile objects The gripper applies a uniform grasping, pressure against the surface of the object rather than a concentrated force typical of'a mechanical gripper. An example of the inflatable bladder type gripper is shown in Fig, 5.16, Part (a) of the figure shows the bladder fully expanded, Part (b) shows the bladder used to grasp the inside diameter ofa bottle. Expandable bladder Cup-shaped container (a) (b) Fig. 5.16 Expansion bladder used to grasp inside of a cup-shaped container Research and development is being carried out with the objective of designing a universal gripper capable of grasping and handling a variety of objects with differing geometries. If sucha universal device could be developed and marketed at a relatively Jow cost, it would save the time and expense of designing a specific end effector for each new robot application, Most of the gripper models under consideration are patterned after the human hand which tums out to possess considerable versatility, ‘A gripping device with the number of joints and axes of controlled motion as the hhuman hand is mechanically very complex. Accordingly, these research end effectors typically have only three fingers rather than five. This reduces the complexity of the hand without a significant loss of functionality, One possible design of the universal hand is illustrated in Fig, 5.17. In Chap. 19, we explore the research and development directions in end effector design.Gy Industrial Robotics Fig. $.17. The Stanford/JPL three-fingered anthropomorphic hand. (Photo. courtesy Salisbury Roboties, Ine.) 5-4 TOOLS AS END EFFECTORS In many applications, the robot is required to manipulate a tool rather than a workpart Ina limited number of these applications, the end effector is a gripper that is designed to grasp and handle the tool. The reason for using a gripper in these applications is that there may be more than one tool to be used by the robot in the work cycle. The use of a gripper permits the tools to be exchanged during the cycle, and thus facilitates this multitool handling function, References 8 and 9 examine the design problems involved in a tool exchange mechanism. In most of the robot applications in which a tool is manipulated, the tool is attached directly to the robot wrist. In these cases the tool is the end effector. Some examples of tools used as end effectors in robot applications include: 1. Spot-welding tools 2. Arc-welding torch 3. Spray-painting nozzle 4. Rotating spindles for operations such as: (a) drilling (b) routing (c) wire brushing (d) grinding 5. Liquid cement applicators for assembly 6. Heating torches 7. Water jet cutting tool In each case, the robot must control the actuation of the tool, For example, the robot must coordinate the actuation of the spot-welding operation as part of its workRobot end Effectors y cycle. This 1s controlled much in the same manner as the opening and closing of a mechanical gripper. We will discuss the interface between the robot and its end effector in the following section. Design and application considerations of most of the robot tools listed above will be considered in Chaps. 14 and 15 of the book 5-5 THE ROBOT/END EFFECTOR INTERFACE An important aspect of the end effector applications engineering involves the interfacing of the end effector with the robot. This interface must accomplish at least some of the following functions: 1. Physical support of the end effector during the work cycle must be provided. Power to actuate the end effector must be supplied through the interface Control signals to actuate the end effector must be provided. This is often accomplished by controlling the actuating power. Feedback signals must sometimes be transmitted back through the interface to the robot controller. In addition, certain other general-design objectives should be met. These include high reliability of the interface, protection against the environment, and overload protection in case of disturbances and unexpected events during the work cycle 5-5-1 Physical Support of the End Effector The physical support of the end effector is achieved by the mechanical connection between the end effector and the robot wrist. This mechanical connection often consists of a faceplate at the end of the wrist to which the end effector is bolted. In other cases, a more complicated wrist socket is used. Ideally, there should be three characteristics taken into consideration in the design of the mechanical connection strength, compliance, and overload protection. The strength of the mechanical connection refers to its ability to withstand the forces associated with the operation of the end effector. These forces include the weight of the end effector, the weight of the objects being held by the end effector if it is a gripper, acceleration and deceleration forces, and any applied forces during the work cycle (e.g., thrust forces during a drilling operation). The wrist socket must provide sufficient strength and rigidity to support the end effector against these various forces. The second consideration in the design of the mechanical connection is compliance. Compliance refers to the wrist socket’s ability to yield elastically when subjected to a force. In effect, it is the opposite of rigidity. In some applications, it is desirable to design the mechanical interface so that it will yield during the work cycle. A good example of this is found in robot assembly work. Certain assembly operations require the insertion of an object into a hole where there is very little clearance between the hole and the object to be inserted. If an attempt is made to insert the object off center, it is likely that the object will bind against the sides of the hole, Human assembly workers can make adjustments in the position of the object as itenters the hole using hand-eye coordination and their sense of “touch,” Robots have difficulty with this kind of insertion task because of limitations on their accuracy.@ Industrial Robotics To overcome these limitations, remote center compliance (RCC) devices have been, designed to provide high lateral compliance for centering the object relative to th hole in response to sideways forces encountered during insertion. We will discuss th RCC device in Chap. 15 on assembly and inspection applications The third factor which must be considered relative to the mechanical interface between the robot wrist nd the end effector is overload protection. An overload results when some unexpected event happens to the end effector such as a part becoming stuck in 4 die, or a tool getting caught ina moving conveyor. Whatever the cause, the consequences involve possible damage to the end effector or maybe even the robot itself. Overloag protection is intended to eliminate or reduce this potential damage. The protection can be provided either by means of a breakaway feature in the wrist socket or by using sensors to indicate that an unustial event has occurred so as to somehow take preventive action to reduce further overloading of the end effector. A breakaway feature is a mechanical device that will either break or yield when subjected to a high force. Such a device is generally designed to accomplish its breakaway function when the force loading exceeds a certain specific level. A shear pin is an example of a device that is designed to fail if subjected to a shear force above a certain value. It is relatively inexpensive and its purpose as a component in the mechanical interface is to be sacrificed in order to save the end effector and the robot. The disadvantage of a device that breaks is that it must be replaced and this generally involves downtime and the attention of a human operator. Some mechanical devices are designed to yield or give under unexpected load rather than fail. Examples of these devices include spring-loaded detents and other mechanisms used to hold structural components in place during normal operation. When abnormal conditions are encountered, these mechanisms snap out of position to release the structural components. Although more complicated than shear pins and other similar devices that fail, their advantage is that they can be reused and in some cases reset by the robot without human assistance. Sensors are sometimes used either as an alternative to a breakaway device or in conjunction with such a device. The purpose of the sensors in this context is to signal the robot controller that an unusual event is occurring in the operation of the end effector and that some sort of evasive action should be taken to avoid or reduce damage. Of course, the kinds of unusual events must be anticipated in advance so that the robot controller can be programmed to respond in the appropriate way. For example, if the robot is working in a cell with a moving conveyor, and the end effector becomes caught in a part that is fastened to the conveyor, the most appropriate response might be simply to stop the conveyor and call for help. In other cases, the robot might be programmed to perform motions that would remove the end effector from the cause of the unusual force loading. 5-5-2 Power and Signal Transmission End effectors require power to operate, They also require control signals to regulate their operation. The principal methods of transmitting power and control signals to the end effector are: 1. Pneumatic 2. ElectricRobot ond Etfectors 133) 3. Hydraulic 4 Mechanical The method of providing the power to the end effector must be compatible With the capabilities of the robot system. For example, it makes sense to use a pneumatically operated gripper if the robot has incorporated into its arm design the acility to transmit air pressure to the end effector. The control signals to regulate the end effector are often provided simply by controlling the transmission of the ing power, The operation of a pneumatic gripper is generally accomplished in manner. Air pressure is supplied to either open the gripper or to dose it. In some applications, greater control is required to operate the end effector. For example, the gripper might possess a range of open/close positions and there is the need to exereise control over these positions. In more complicated cases, feedback signals from sensors in the end effector are required to operate the device. These feedback signals might indicate how much force is being applied to the object held in the gripper, or they might show whether an arc-welding operation was following the seam properly. In the paragraphs below, we will explore the four methods of power and signal transmission to the end effector. Pneumatic power using shop air pressure is one of the most common methods of operating mechanical grippers. Actuation of the gripper is controlled by regulating the incoming air pressure. A piston device is typically used to actuate the gripper. Two air lines feed into opposite ends of the piston, one to open the gripper and the other to close it. This arrangement can be accomplished with a single shop air line by providing a pneumatic valve to switch the air pressure from one line to the other. A schematic diagram of a piston is illustrated in Fig. 5.18. When air pressure enters the left portion of the piston chamber the piston ram is extended, and when air is forced into the opposite end of the chamber, the piston ram is retracted. The force supplied by the piston on the extension stroke is equal to the air pressure multiplied by the area of the piston diameter, Because of the diameter of the piston ram, the force supplied by the piston on the retraction stroke is less than on the extension stroke. These piston forces can be calculated as follows: +2 Fexten = Pa > (54) 4 Freaoa = = (Dp - D?) 65) Pneumatic

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