HISTORY GRADE 11

UNIT FIVE
THE ETHIOPIAN REGION AND THE HORN OF AFRICA UP TO 1270
Peoples and Languages of the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa
• The Horn is consisted of Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea.
• The Horn is the origin of mankind.
• Ethiopia is the mosaic of peoples with socio-cultural diversity.
• The diversity of ethnic and linguistic groups in Ethiopia is the product of the socio-economic,
political and historical process.
Origin and Formation of Languages of the Horn
• Languages of the Horn have closer affinities.
• In classifying languages linguistics compare list of basic words from the large number of
languages.
• The same group (family) languages share certain vocabulary that trace back to common origin.
• Dialects are formed when people (who speak the language) move apart and distinct
languages are formed with related root words and similar grammatical system.
Peoples and Languages of Africa
• There are four super language families in Africa.
• In classifying African languages, linguists compared lists of basic words from a large number
of languages.
• They also compared similarities in the forms and functions of grammatical structures.
• Languages belonging to the same group share certain basic vocabulary—words known as
cognates—and grammatical features that trace back to a common origin.
• Linguists refer to this shared origin as the protolanguage or the ancestral language.
• There are more than one thousand languages in Africa that belong to four super
language family.
Niger-Congo Super Language Family
• Niger-Congo is the largest super language super family in Africa with large number of
speakers (300 t0 400 million).
• It is the most divergent language super family both in Africa and in the world.
Niger-Congo Super Language Family
• Benue Congo the largest language family of Niger-Congo in West central and south-eastern
Africa
• West Atlantic spoken in Africa’s Atlantic coast from Senegal to Chad
• Mande in south west Africa
• Voltaic in Mali Ghana, Tog Côte d’Ivoire, Benin, Nigeria and Burkina Faso.
Afro-Asiatic Super Language Family
• Cushitic .spoken in Ethiopia, Somalia Kenya Djibouti and Sudan
• Semitic spoken in the Middle East and north East Africa
• Omotic spoken only in Ethiopia
• Ancient Egypt Coptic language survived until the `4th century
• Berber non Arabs in North Africa
• Chadic spoken in West Central Africa

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Afro-Asiatic Super Language Family

• The speakers are about 200-300 million.
• Cushitic spoken in Ethiopia, Somalia Kenya Djibouti and Sudan
• Semitic spoken in the Middle East and north East Africa
• Omotic spoken only in Ethiopia
• Ancient Egypt Coptic language survived until the `4th century
• Berber non Arabs in North Africa
• Chadic spoken in West Central Africa
Nilo-Saharan Super Language Family
• Speakers are about 30 million people
• Chari-Nile Sahara central and eastern Africa
• Koman along the border of Ethiopia and Sudan
• Saharan in Sahara Desert
• Mebane in Chad
• Fur Darfur province of Sudan
• Songhay in West Africa mainly in Mali and Niger
Khoi-San Super Language Family
• Khoi-khoi (pastoralists) mainly southern part of Namib desert
• San (hunters) khalhari desert of Namibia and Botswana
• The white European settlers pushed them from their fertile places to the
Kalahari and Namib deserts.
• The white settlers called khoi-khoi as Hottento.
• The white settlers called San as Bushmen.

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Languages in Ethiopia and the Horn

• Among the four super families’ Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan are spoken in Ethiopia
and the Horn.
• Afro-Asiatic covered large areas in the Horn.
• Ancient Egypt, Berber and Chadic are spoken in northern, central and northeastern
Africa.
• Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic are spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Four Branches of Cushitic family in the Horn
• The majority of the peoples of the Horn are the speakers of Cushitic family.
I. North Cushitic (Beja) spoken in north west Eritrea and adjoining the district of Sudan.
II. Central Cushitic (Bilen, Agaw, Hamtang, Qimant and Awi) spoken in Ethiopia and the
Horn. They are also called Agaw languages since they have Agaw background.
• Belen is spoken in Bogos or Keren in Eritrea.
• Hamtang in Lasta, Wag in the Middle of Tekeze
• Qimant is spoken around Belaya mountain in Metekel.
• Awigna is spoken in Metekel and Agaw Midir.
East Cushitic
• It is the most diversified Cushitic and the largest in terms of area coverage.
• It is divided in to Lowland East Cushitic (LLEC) and Highland East Cushitic(HLEC).
• LLEC (Oromo, Afar, Somali Konso, Gidole, Erbore, Dessanach and Saho) spoken in the
vast eastern and southern lowlands of the region.it is also found in west central and north
eastern regions of the horn.
• HLEC (Hadiya, Kambata, Sidama, Gedeo, Alaba, Burji and Libido) live in S. Central
highlands of Ethiopia.
Omotic Language Family
• The Omotic language family (kafa, Wolayta, Gofa, Gamo, Yem, Sheko, Mocha, Dizzy,
Baskto, Ari, Oyida, Maji etc) spoken in the Omo Valley of South and S. Western Ethiopia.
• It is the most divergent language family in Ethiopia. But in ancient times it was assumed to have
been distributed throughout Ethiopia.
• For instance Shinasha in Benishangul and Southern Mao in Wellga are Omotic languages
Semitic (Ethio-Semitic)Language Family
• It is also called Ethio-Semitic to distinguish the Semitic languages of Ethiopia from Arabic
Hebrew and others mainly in the Middle East.
• The Ethio-Semitic language family is divided in to North and South Ethio-Semitic family.
• North Ethio-Semitic (Tigra, Tigrigna and Geeze).
• Geeze had long ceased as public spoken language.
North Ethio-Semitic Language Family
• Tigrigna is spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea
• Tigra is spoken only in Eritrea.
• Tigra is closest to Geeze than any other Semitic languages.

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South Ethio-Semitic languages

• It is the most diversified Semitic branch and yet not clearly classified.
• It is subdivided in to Outer S. Ethio-Semitic and Tranversal S.Ethio-Semitic.
• Outer S. Ethio-Semitic are Gafat (dead or extinct language) and spoken in C. W.
and Northern Guraghe (Sodo, Mihur, Misqan, Cheha etc ).
Transversal South Ethio-Semitic
• Amhara, Argoba, Harari and Silti
• Amharic is spoken in wello, N.Shewa, Gonder and Gojam.
• It is also spoken in Addis Ababa and most towns of the country.
• Argoba is spoken in Afar, Amhara and Harari regions.
• It is in danger of extinct.
• Silti is spoken in SNNPR.
Nilo-Saharan Super Language Family
• The majority live in Benishangul and Gambella regions in the Ethio-Sudan border lowlands
and valleys.
• The great majority of this super family live outside Ethiopia in the eastern Sahara, the
Upper Nile Valley and Lake Victoria in the east DRC.
• Some of them are found in West Africa.
Nilo-Saharan Super Language Family in Ethiopia and The Horn
A. Chari-Nile (Agnuak Nuer, Berta, mein, Mursi, Majenger, Surma Kunama and
Tirma) Sahara central and eastern Africa.
N.B. Kunama is spoken mainly in Eritrea and to some extent in Tigray.
B. Koman (Sese, Mao, Gumuz, Koma and Komo) along the border of Ethiopia and
Sudan
Nilo-Saharan Super Language Family outside Ethiopia
• Saharan :-in Sahara desert
• Mebane :- in Chad
• Fur :- Darfur province of Sudan
• Songhay :- in West Africa mainly in Mali and Niger
• An Italian scholar, Conti Rosini described Ethiopia as “Museum of peoples.”
The Axumite State
• Axum is the name of city, State and civilization.
• Punt and Damat were the preceding states in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Axum existed probably since the 2nd century B.C.
• The Periplus of Eritrwean Sea and The Christian Topography are documents
tells about Axum.
Punt
• Punt is the earliest historically known state in the Horn.
• Most evidences are found in ancient Egyptians Hieroglyphics.
• Wheat and barley are believed introduced from Egypt to the Horn with plowing land.
• Queen Hatshupsut (r. 1490-1468B.C.) sent expedition five ships for trade to the land of
Punt.

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• The expedition of Hatshepsut brought natural production like ivory, rhinoceros horn,
ebony, leopard skins and live monkey to Egypt.
• Incense and myrth were the most vital for ritual purposes.
• The Egyptians brought to Punt finished products like necklaces, axes, daggers, trinkets
and bracelets.
• The trade was conducted by sea and by land.
Location of Punt
• The Egyptians called the land south of Egypt as the Land of Punt.
• It was extended from Mitsiwwa (Massawa) to Cape Guardafui (the present
Somalia) and from the Blue Nile (west) to the Red Sea (east).
Da’amat
th
• Da’amat existed since 6 C.B.C. in northern Ethiopia with its capital Yeha Little to
the south of Axum.
• Da’amat had strong contact with South Arabia.
• Both used political and religious title of kings (Mukarib) and chief god Almoqah.
• Coloe, Matara, Hawlti. Melazo, kaskase and Adulis are important centers of
Da’amat’s population.
• Da’amat used Adulis port for trade.
The Axumite State
nd
• Axum existed since 2 C.B.C. with monarchial state structure.
• Inscriptions about Aksum are written in Sabean, Greek and Geeze.
• The Periplus of Eritrean Sea hand book by unknown Greek author written in 50 A.D.
• Adulisn was port of Axum, social and economic life of people, Trade of Axum, Greek
speaking of King Zoscalos of Axum and Greek as lingua franca of merchants in the
Red Sea.
The Expansion of Axum
• Axum controlled Beja lands (in the north) Kunama and Tekezzie river (in the west)
and Babel Mendeb (in the south east).
• The Adulis trade enabled Axum to build strong army and navy.
• Axum was in a continuous clash with Meroe due to trade rivalry.
• Axum controlled South Arabia in the early 3rd century
• Axum was one of the three powerful empires with Persia and Byzantine.
• In the 6th century the king of Himyarites persecuted in South Arabia.
• Emperor Justinian of Byzantine requested Kaleb or El-Esabna (r. 500-535) to avenge
the persecution.
• Kaleb controlled Yemen which remained subject to Ethiopia for 50 years.
• The Axumite trade was expanded to India and Ceylon.
• The expansion of Axum from Arabia was followed by conquest of Egypt by Muslim
Arabs in the 7th century.
• The destruction of Adulis in 702 A.D. by Muslim Arabs cut off Axum from the
outside world for about thousand years.

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Axumite State Structure Society and Economy

• The majority of population was comprised peasantry, artisans, merchants and slaves.
• Artisans produce tools.
• Slaves work on land.
• Axumite state was monarchial with absolute power of kings.
• Feudalism started in the time of Axum.
• Trade and agriculture was the base of economy.
• Compared with agriculture trade yielded much revenue for Axum.
• The ruling class controlled both import and export trade.
• Adulis port was the center of international trade which rendered shipping services.
• Merchants from India and China came to for trade in Adulis.
• The power of Aksum was based largely on trade. The Red Sea was an important
thoroughfare for trading vessels at the time.
• Coinage made the exchange of products and tax collection more convenient
facilitating Aksumite trade.
• The coins are therefore important to historians’ understanding of the history of Aksum,
providing royal names and chronology of events.
Items of Trade
• According to Periplus of Eritrean Sea
• Export items were ivory, gold, tortoise-shell, rhinoceros horn, hippopotamus skin,
slaves, live animals like ape and baboon.
• Imports came mainly from Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Mediterranean region and India.
• Import items were textiles, robes, dyed cloaks, many colors, glass ware, brass and bronze.
Axumite Coins
• Axumite kings minted (issued) coins made of gold, silver copper and bronze.
• The early coins were in Greek while the later in Geeze with the name and effigies of kings.
• The symbol of early coins was disc and crescent while the symbol of the later coins is cross
of Jesus Christ
• The earliest known Aksumite coins, from about 270, bear the name of King Endubis.
• Cosmos Indicopleusts in his The Christian Topography (published in the 6th century)
stated that Sasu (S.W. Ethiopia) was the source of gold for Axum.
• There was barter and silent trade (without verbal communication) of local people in the
S. west regions.
• Axum extended its territory on both sides of the Red Sea (Meroe and South Arabia or
Yemen).
Architecture in Axum
• Churches and palaces were built.
• Monolithic Obelisks were erected.
• The largest stale was 35 meter (broken).
• The 25-meter obelisk is returned from Rome after 60 years.
• The 24 meter is erected still now.
• Aksumite kings of the 3rd and 4th centuries conducted military campaigns on both sides
of the Red Sea and erected the large stone stelae for which Aksum is famous.

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Why the Axumite kings Erected Obelisks?

• There are different suggestions about the erection of obelisks.
• They erected for
I. Religious purpose (for their favorite gods).
II. Tomb of dead kings
III. The commemoration of their victory.
 The architectural style was totally indigenous.
 Aksumite kings of the 3rd and 4th centuries conducted military campaigns on both
sides of the Red Sea and erected the large stone stelae for which Aksum is famous.

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Christianity in Aksum
• There were local gods like Astar Mahrem Baher and Arwe.
• The Greek gods comprised Zeus, Ares and Poseidon.
• Almoqah was the South Arabian and local chief god.
• There were local and foreign Christians in Axum, Coloe and Adulis before the
conversion of Ezana.
The conversion of Ezana and the Expansion of Christianity
• Fremintos (Syrian monk) converted King Ezana (r. 320-350) in to Christianity.
• Alexanderian patriarich Atnatewos (328-273) appointed Fremenatos as Abuna Salama as
the first bishop of Ethiopia.
• The church and state were support each other.
• Ethiopia became dependent on Egypt for bishop for about 1600 years or until 1958.
The Nine Saints
• The nine Saints came from Syria due to persecution.
I. They expanded Christianity in the north far away from Aksum.
II. They founded churches and monasteries.
III. They translated religious books in to Geeze.
Geeze replaced Sabean as written language.
Geeze served as the literary language of Ethiopia until the second half of the 19th century.
The Career and Contribution of Yared
• Yared is the founder of Church education, Church Music and literature.
• He was born in Axum in 505 E.C.
• Yared was the author of books called Degwua, Tsome Degwua, Zimmarie
Mewase’et the Ethiopian hymnal and the composer of the Church music.
• He is also considered the founder of church education.
Numerical system of Axum
• The Axumite developed their own numerical system which written in figures based
on Greek letters.
• Each number has its own figure and it is the unique numerical system throughout the world.
Decline of Axum
• It is closely associated with the second military expedition of Kaleb.
• He was successful in his first expedition but failed in the second one.
• Axum lost south Arabia (himyar, Zafar, Nagran etc) in 572 A.D. by military
intervention of Persia.
• Alexandrian Patriarch Timothy III and Emperor Justinian of Byzantine called Kaleb
to ensure persecution in South Arabia.
• The Persian force drove out Axumite force in South Arabia and Axum lost South Arabia.

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Muslim Arabs Attacked Axum

• A major threat to Axum came from Muslim Arab. The spread of Islam in the 7th century
isolated Aksum, confining Aksumite influence to its immediate surroundings.
• Even if Mohammed exempted Axum from Jihad the Muslim Arabs destroyed Adulis port
in 702 A.D. to control the Red Sea Trade
• The destruction of Adulis port cut off Axum from the outside world for about thousands
years.
• The Agaws, Bejas and Felashas revolted up on Axumite State.
• The Baja pastoralists invaded Axum.
• The Axumite empire was reduced to a tiny state confined in Eritrea, Tigray and Lasta.
• The Agaw General Mera TekleHaymanot (Merara) dethroned Dil Na’ad (the last king of
Axum) in 1150 AD.
The Zagwe Kingdom
• The Zagwe (the Agaw) dynasty replaced Axum since 1150 A.D.
• Agaws are Cushitic speaking people.
• Mera (Mera Teklehaymanot) was the founder of Zagwe dynasty in Bugna, Lasta.
• Adafa or Roha (the later Lalibela) was its capital.
FaTerritory of Zagwe
• The former Axumite provinces in the north and the present northern Shewa in the south.
• Zagwe seemed to have pushed in to Lake Tana region in the west.
orEconomy of Zagwe
• Agriculture was the major economy of Zagwe.
• The peasantry was the bulk of population.
• Trade was the second base of economy of Zagwe.
• Dahlak on the Red Sea and Zeila were the two outlets for Zagwe trade.
the PSocio-Economic and Political System of Zagweower Se
• The Zagwe continued the traditions of Axum.
• Christianity was continued as state official religion.
• Geeze was maintained as language of Church and writing.
• The dynasty continued cordial relation with Muslim rulers of Egypt.
• Visiting the Holy Lands of Jerusalem was in its peak during this period.
Rulers of the Zagwe Kingdom
• Merara (Mera Teklehaymanot)
• Tatawdem
• Janseyyum
• Girmaseyyum
• Yimrhane Kirstos
• Harbe (G/Maryam)
• Lalibela
• Na’akuto La’ab
• Yitbarek

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Achievements of Zagwe
I. Building monolithic rock-hewn churches
• Lalibela (1190-1225) built eleven monolithic rock hewn churches.
• The churches of Lalibela had their origin in the architecture of the Axumite period.
• The rock hewn church of Dabra Damo is one example of the Axumite architecture.
II. Translation of books in to Geeze.
III. Peaceful relation with local and outside Muslim states.
Eleven Hewn Churches of Lalibela
• The rock hewn churches are located in three groups.
I. Bete Medhane Alem (height 14 meter), Bete Maryam, Bete Michael, Bete
Meskel, Bete Denagel and Bete Golgotha
II. Bete Amanuel, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Libanos, Bete Gebriel
III. Bete Giorgis. All this are inter connected subterranean passage or tunnel.
• Historical heritages reflect the of ancient people.
• The heritage become major source of tourism industry that generate income and foreign
currency and develop economy.
• It is used as important source of historical research.
Decline and Fall of Zagwe
• Power struggle (succession problem) among the Zagwe princes.
• More religious tendency of Zagwe rulers than political duties
• Opposition from the regions of Tigray and Amhara.
• Axum and Dabre Damo in Tigray and Haiq and Dabre Libanos in Amhara were the
centers of Anti-Zagwe propaganda.
• The opposition was based on legend of Menelik I (born from King Solomon of Israel
and Queen of Saba).
• The Zagwe rulers were illegitimate for this legend.
• Abune Takle Haymanot of Debre Libanos convinced the Zagwe king to cede the power
for the newly selected body.
• In 1270 Yekuno Amlak (the first king of Solomonic dynasty) defeated and killed
Yitbarek (the last ruler of the Zagwe dynasty).

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