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Practical manual of fruit production

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 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR
FRUIT PRODUCTION
(FRTS-111)

PARSHANT BAKSHI
V.K.WALI

FRUIT SCIENCE SECTION

Faculty of Agriculture

Sher-e-Kashmir
University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu
 PREFACE

This practical manual is of immense importance for the students because the required information
is compiled in detail and consequently more time can be diverted for practical purpose. The practicals of
horticultural fields are always fascinating as they provide an opportunity to the students to apply
scientific principles and aesthetics of art in few horticultural operations such as potting and repotting,
training and pruning of plants and layout of the orchards. These practical skills acquired by the students
would be helpful to them in their professional career.
The “Practical manual on Fruit Production" (FRTS-111) contains elaborate information on the
field exercises. The exercises included in this manual are framed in the light of revised prescribed
syllabus.
The tools and implements of horticultural use, potting, depotting and repotting, nomenclature and
identification of fruit plants, classification of fruits are the important exercises of this course and students
will study them in detail. The students would be trained in seed bed preparation, laying out of the orchard
by various systems. The practical exercise on plant lifting, packing, aftercare and planting in the orchard
will be very useful. Detailed exercises on various aspects of propagation viz., cutting, layering, budding
and grafting have been included in this manual. Training and pruning of fruit plants, method of irrigation
in fruit crops, method of fertilizer application and preparation of growth regulators for propagation are
highly skilled job and the students will be trained practically.
It is hoped that “Practical manual on Fruit Production” will be very useful to the under-graduate
students as a teaching aid. The information included in this manual is considered to be utmost value to
the students of Fruit Science, nurserymen, fruit growers, subject matter specialists and extension workers
in the field of fruit production. The contributions made by Dr. Ravi Kher, Prof. of Fruit Science, Dr.
Mahital Jamwal and Dr. Arti Sharma during the preparation of its first edition, are greatly acknowledged.
I am also thankful to my colleagues Dr. Akash Sharma and Mr. Amit Jasrotia for their support during the
compilation of this work.
The authors are highly thankful to Prof. Ajay Koul, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, SKUAST-
Jammu, for giving us an opportunity for the preparation of this practical manual.
At last, we are also thankful to BalaJi Publications, Jammu for publishing this manual.

Parshant Bakshi
st
Jammu, 1 January, 2011 V.K.Wali

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 2 Bakshi & Wali

 Contents

Ex.No. Title of Exercise Page

1. Tools and implements for horticultural crops 4-7

2. Containers, potting mixtures, potting, depotting 8-10

and repotting
3. Nomenclature and identification of fruit plants 11-14
4. Classification of fruits 15-18
5. Description and identification of important fruit varieties 19-27

6. Seed bed preparation, sowing and transplanting 28-29

of seedlings
7 Layout of an orchard 30-32
8. Lifting, packing, aftercare and planting of fruit plant 33-34
9. Propagation of fruit plants 35-47

10. Training and pruning 48-52

11. Methods of irrigation in fruit crops 53-56
12. Methods of fertilizer application in fruit crops 57-58
13. Preparation of growth regulators for propagation 59-60

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 3 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-1

Tools and implements for horticultural crops

In order to carry out various cultural operations in the nursery as well as in the orchards, various
tools and implements are required from time to time. Some tools are simple and are used for simple
operations. However, special equipments are required for specific operations. Some of the tools and
implements required for different operations in horticultural crops are described below:

 Crow bar
It is mainly used for digging the pits. It is an iron rod with one end pointed and other as a wedge
shaped.
 Dibber
It is used for making a hole in the soil into which seed, seedling, cutting or
planting of strawberry runners.
 Drill hoe
A long handled hoe with triangular blade for taking out seed drills, but it also
have short-handled versions.
 Fruit gatherer
A mechanical device used for gathering fruit from tall trees without damage, consisting of a pair
of clippers on a long pole with a bag or similar bag or similar receptacle fixed just below the clipper head
to catch the fruit.
 Garden fork
It is an important tool mainly used for breaking of soil
clods during preparation of nursery beds or fields.
 Garden rakes
Garden rake is a toothed rake used for collecting stones
and bricks bits from the bed, scarifying the grass surface and
gathering the fallen leaves.
 Grafting machines
In many developed countries of the world, these machines are commercially used for the
preparation of scion sticks and bud-wood for budding and grafting operations.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 4 Bakshi & Wali

 Khurpi
It is used for various cultural operations in the nursery but mainly for
removal of weeds and loosening of soil for proper aeration. It has a sharp edge
triangular blade fitted with a wooden handle.
 Knife
Two types of knives are required for propagation work viz. budding and grafting. A grafting
knife, in general, has a straight 7.5 cm long blade and a strong long handle. The
budding knife on the other hand may have a straight or a bit curved blade of
shorter length. It also has a spatula at the end of a handle, which is used for
lifting the bark during the budding operation. Sometimes a knife having two
parallel blades is also used. It is required for lifting or removing the patch of a
bud from the bud wood.

 Kudali
Kudali is used for digging of pits or digging of soil. It has a metal
blade attached to a wooden handle. It is operated manually and considered
very important nursery tool.

 Ladder
It is required for various propagation operations like cutting of bud-
wood, training of vigorous plants and top working of old and declining
plants. In general, step ladder or straight ladders or hook ladders are used for
such operations in the propagation field.

 Long arm pruner

The pruning shears attached to a long handle and operated by a remotely
controlled lever mechanism.

 Looping shear
A long handled shear with short stout blades for pruning or lopping
branches up to about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in thickness.

 Mattock
It is a type of pick used for heavy work. One end of the blade is
pointed as with a normal pickaxe, while the other is flattened like a chisel.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 5 Bakshi & Wali

 Multi-dibber
A piece of board fitted with numerous small projections, dowels of
pegs used for making several small holes in a seed bed. It can be used for
seed sowing, pricking out seedlings, cuttings etc.
 Pruning saws

The different types of saws are required for various operations

involved in propagation of horticultural plants. The commonly used saws
are crescent saws, tapered saws and straight saws. All of these have long
and widely set teeth to facilitate pruning or cutting of green wood. In
general, a small saw is required for cutting the hard branches of the stock
plant and sometimes the same saw can be used for pruning also.

 Pruning shears
The different types of shears like hand shear, lopping shears, tree trimmers etc. are needed in a
garden. Pruning, shears should not be very expensive but these should be made up of good steel.
Similarly, these should make a smooth and clean cut with least injury to the plant.

 Secateurs
It is considered as the most important tool for a propagator or a
nursery man. Secateur is used for excising scions, lopping off the rootstock,
removing the undesirable sprouts/shoots from the stock, preparation of scion
sticks and for pruning operation. Its blade should be of a good quality because
poor quality blades may not give smooth cuts to the stock and scion.

 Sickle
It is used for cutting standing grass, weeds, fodder and harvesting
crop.

 Shovel
Shovel is used when seedlings of fruits plants are to be lifted from
the nursery and planted in the field without much injury to the roots.

 Spade
It is used for digging pits, making irrigation or drainage channels and also
for earthing up the rootstock.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 6 Bakshi & Wali

 Sprayer
It is useful for spraying insecticides, fungicides or herbicides. It is also
used for foliar application of fertilizers.

 Water cans
These cans are used for irrigation of seeds in the nursery beds as well
as for young plants in the pots. These are made up of galvanized iron sheet
and sometimes these are also made up of plastic. These cans are fitted with a
nozzle which is useful for equal distribution of water over the germinating
seedlings.

 Weeding fork
It is widely used for soil loosening as well as in weeding. It consists
of a long handle with a blade having teeth. It is drawn manually with the help
of handle to collect the weeds.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 7 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-2

Containers, potting mixtures, potting, de-potting and repotting

Plants should be moved into larger containers as they grow. Unless more space is provided for
the plant's roots, they can become pot-bound. That is, the roots of the plant become cramped and form a
tightly packed mass that inhibits growth.
How do you know if a plant needs repotted?
 The most obvious sign is when you can see roots on the surface of the soil or emerging from the
drainage hole in the bottom of the pot.
 If the plant seems to stop growing or has slowed growth, it has likely become pot-bound. If it's a
small plant, turn the pot on its side and ease the plant out of its container. Take a look at its roots.
Are they coiled in the bottom of the pot? If so, it's definitely time to repot.
 Offsets produced by plants can become crowded in the pot and need to be separated and propagated
in their own containers.
When to repot a plant
 If your plant just came home from the garden center, let it adjust to its new environment for a couple
of weeks before repotting it. Plants are in shock until they get used to new light, temperature, and
humidity conditions. If you want to cover up a plain plastic container, put it in a cachepot.
 Young, actively growing plants should to be moved into slightly larger pots with fresh potting mix
once a year. Repotting house plants that are large, such as ficus, or slow-growing plants can be done
every two years or when they seem to outgrow their pots or look top-heavy. If a plant is thriving, you
can assume it is happy in its pot.
 It's a good idea to repot a plant at the beginning of a period of active growth, usually in spring.
Repotting house plants that bloom in winter should be done in early fall, after their dormant period.

Pots of different sizes

How to choose a container

 The new pot should not be more than 2 inches wider at the rim -- or 2 inches deeper -- than the old
pot. A much larger pot gives the too much space for the roots to grow. The top of the plant won't

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 8 Bakshi & Wali

 grow until its roots begin to fill the container. A too-large container will also hold too much water
and can cause root rot. Also, while choosing a pot, be sure that the container has a drainage holes to
allow excess water to escape.
 Scrub used pots between plantings to remove any diseases. You can disinfect a pot by soaking it in a
solution of one part chlorine bleach to nine parts water. Rinse well with clear water. If you're using a
new terra cotta pot, soak it in water for a few hours before you plant in it. New terra cotta is so dry
that it will rob moisture from the soil leaving the plant thirsty.

How to repot a plant

 To remove the plant from its original pot, turn it on its side and ease the plant gently from the pot. If
the plant won't budge, you may have to tap the bottom of the pot on a hard surface to loosen it or,
slide a trowel or knife around the inside of the pot, taking care not to damage the rootball.
 If the roots are coiled around the bottom, use your fingers to pull them straight. Prune the roots
before repotting. Pruning will stimulate new root growth and help the plant to establish in its new
container.
 Partly fill the new container with potting mix. Center the plant in its container, then fill the sides of
the plant with additional mix. Tamp it down with your fingers, especially around the sides of the pot.
 Water thoroughly to moisten roots and to settle potting mix. Add more mix if needed.

After-repotting house plants care Tips

Repotting house plants is stressful for them and they need time to recuperate. Here are a few tips to help
plants adjust:
 Do not expose it to direct sun right away because sun can be too harsh on a weakened plant.
 Keep the soil evenly moist, but not soggy. If you notice that the leaves are limp, the plant is not
getting enough water. If the edges of the leaves turn brown, it's getting too much water.
 High humidity sometimes helps a newly repotted plant recover.
 Never fertilize a newly repotted plant. Its roots have likely been cut and can suffer from fertilizer
burn. Wait at least a month before fertilizing when its root system is better established.

Potting mixtures, containers and repotting

A loamy soil with a mixture of organic and mineral materials (50% space and 50% matter), to
ensure optimum plant growth and necessary nutrition. The main ingredients in potting soil are sphagnum
peat moss, vermiculite or perlite and aged compost products. Sphagnum peat moss is responsible for
holding water in the soil. Perlite separates the fibers in the peat moss so the soil is more porous.
Vermiculite has the same function but holds more water than perlite. Compost adds nutrients to the soil
and the best quality compost is made from aged forest products. Potting mixes are sometimes referred to

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 9 Bakshi & Wali

as „soilless,‟ meaning that they do not contain the type of dirt you would find in your yard or garden. The
best soil for most house plants contains 2 parts loam, 1 part composted organic matter and 1 part coarse,
clean sand plus 1 tablespoon powdered phosphate rock and granite dust (greensand or potash) each to
each mixture for each pot. This replaces the need to use chemicals or manure tea in potted plants.

Charcoal added to either mix keeps the soil sweet and improves drainage. Scoop up a handful of the soil
mix and squeeze. If it holds together until touching causes it to crumble easily, you know you have the
right amount of moisture in the soil. When reusing soil, you must first pasteurize it in a tray in a heated
oven at 180º F for 30 minutes. Allow to cool before use. If pasteurized soil becomes too dry when
heated, place in a plastic bag, add enough water to moisten the soil. Do not soak. Then try the hand test
again.
Plastic pots are lighter in weight than clay pots. However, the clay pots allow the soil and roots
to breathe. Water evaporates easier in a clay pot. If you use plastic containers for your plants, you will
need to water and feed less. Make certain all your pots have drainage holes in the bottoms. Because these
pots will be used in your home, always use plastic or glass saucers and pads to prevent moisture damage
to your furniture.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 10 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-3

Nomenclature and identification of fruit plants

A system or scheme of naming plants is known as nomenclature. Binominal is a universal
custom, whereby a plant is given two-word name; one designating the genus or group into which it falls
and the other distinguishing a particular plant from other plants in the group. This two-word or bi-
nominal appellation both classifies and names the plant. The name of the author is also associated with
the name of the plant.

Nomenclature of Fruit Plants

S. No. English Name Common Name Botanical Name Family

Phyllanthus officinalis
1. Aonla Amla Euphorbiaceae
Gaerth
2. Almond Badam Prunus dulcis Mill Rosaceae
3. Apple Seb Malus pumila Mill Rosaceae
4. Apple (Crab apple) Chhota seb Malus baccata Borgen, Rosaceae
5. Apricot Khurmani Prunus armeniaca L. Rosaceae
6. Atemoya Lakshman phal Annona atemoya Hort. Annonaceae
7. Avocado Avocado Persea americana Mill. Lauraceae
8. Bael Bil Aegle marmelos Correa. Rutaceae
9. Banana Kela (edible fruit) Musa sapientum L. Musaceae
Kela (Plantain cooking
10. Banana Musa paradisiaca L Musaceae
type)
11. Bardados cherry Barbados cherry Malpighia glabra L. Malpighiaceae
12. Black berry Brambles Rubus canadensis L. Rosaceae
13. Breadfruit Valayeti phanas Artocarpus artilis Fos. Moraceae
14. Bullock's heart Ram phal Annona reticulata L Annonaceae
15. Calamondin China sangtra Citrus madurensis Lour. Rutaceae
16. Carambola Kamrakh Averrhoa carambola L. Oxalidaceae
17. Cashew nut Kaju Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae
18. Cattley guava Strawberry guava Psidium cattleianum L. Myrtaceae
19. Cherimoya Hanuman phal Annona cherimola Mill. Annonaceae
20. Cherry (Sour) Sour cherry Prunus cerasus L. Rosaceae
21. Cherry (Sweet) Sweet cherry Prunus avium L. Rosaceae
22. Chestnut Chestnut Castanea sativa Mill. Fagaceae
23. Chinese jujube Ber Zizyphus jujube Lamk. Rhamnaceae

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 11 Bakshi & Wali

 24. Citron Turange Citrus medica L. Rutaceae
25. Cleopatra Billi kichili Citrus reshni Tanaka Rutaceae
26. Coconut Khopa or Nariyal Cocos nucifera L. Palmaceae
27. Custard apple Sita phal Annona squamosa L Annonaceae
28. Date Khajoor Phoenix dactylifera L. Palmaceae
29. Date (Wild) Khajoor Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Palmaceae
30. Durian Civet fruit Durio zibethinus L Bombacaceae
31. Feijoa Pineapple guava Feijoa sellowiana Berg. Myrtaceae
32. Fig Anjeer Ficus carica L. Moraceae
33. Filbert nut Fibert nut Corylus maxima Mill. Betulaceae
Citrus pennivesiculata
34. Gajanimma Gajanimma Rutaceae
Tanaka.
35. Gooseberry Kiwi fruit Actinidia deliciosa Dilleniaceae
36. Grape (American) Angoor Vitis labrusca Bailey Vitaceae
37. Grape (European) Angoor Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae
38. Guava Amrood Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae
Citrus maderaspatana
39. Gunter sour orange Kichili Rutaceae
Tanaka.
40. Hazel nut Bhatia badam Corylus avellana Mill. Betulaceae
41. Indian jujube Ber Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Rhamnaceae
42. Jackfruit Katehal Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae
Lam.
43. Jambolan Jamun Syzygium cuminii Skeels Myrtaceae
44. Japanese summer Japani grapefruit Citrus natsudaidai Hayat. Rutaceae
grape fruit
45. Kainth Kainth Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. Rosaceae
46. Kair Kareer Capparis apphylla Roxb. Capparidaceae
47. Karonda Karonda Carissa carandas L. Apocynaceae
48. Kharna khatta Kharna khatta Citrus karna Raf. Rutaceae
49. Khirnee Khirnee Mimusops hexandra Sapotaceae
Dubarb.
50. Kumquat (oval) Japani narangi Fortunella margarita Rutaceae
Swingle
51. Kumquat (round) Japani narangi Fortunella japonica Rutaceae
Swingle
52. Lasoda Lasoora Cordia myxa Roxb. Boraginaceae
53. Lemon Baramasi lemon Citrus limon Burm. Rutaceae

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 12 Bakshi & Wali

 54. Lemon Galgal Citrus limon Burm. Rutaceae
55. Litchi Litchi Litchi chinensis Sonn. Sapindaceae
56. Loquat Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. Rosaceae
57. Macadamia nut Macadamia nut Macadamia ternifolia Protenaceae
Muell.
58. Mandarin Sangtra Citrus reticulata Blanco. Rutaceae
59. Mandarin (Satsuma) Sangtra Citrus unshiu Marc. Rutaceae
60. Mango Amb. Mangifera indica L Anacardiaceae
61. Mangosteen Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana L. Guttiferae
62. Monkey jack Barhal Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Moraceae
63. Mulberry (Black) Shehtoot Morus nigra L. Moraceae
Mulberry (White) Shehtoot Morus alba L. Moraceae
64. Olive Zaitoon Olea europaea L. Oleaceae
65. Papaya Papita Carica papaya L Caricaceae
66. Passion fruit Passion fruit Passiflora edulis Sims. Passifloraceae
67. Peach Aru Prunus persica L. Rosaceae
68. Pear (European) Nashpati Pyrus communis L. Rosaceae
69. Pear (Sand pear) Sand pear Pyrus pyrifolia L. Rosaceae
70. Pecan nut Pecan nut Carya illinoinensis Koch. Juglandaceae
71. Pectinifera Pectinifera Citrus pectinifera Tanaka Rutaceae
72. Persimmon Japani phal Diospyros kaki L. Ebenaceae
73. Phalsa Phalsa Grewia asiatica D.C. Tiliaceae
74. Pilu Pilu Salvadora oleioides Decae. Salvadoraceae
75. Pineapple Arianas Ananas comosus Merr. Bromeliaceae
76. Pistachio nut Pista Pistacia vera L. Anacardiaceae
77. Plum (English) Alubokhara Prunus bokhariensis Rosaceae
Schneid.
78. Plum (European) Alucha Prunus domestica L. Rosaceae
79. Plum (Japanese) Alucha Prunus salicina Lind\. Rosaceae
80. Pomegranate Anar Punica granatum L. Punicaceae
81. Pomelo Grapefruit Citrus paradisi Macf. Rutaceae
82. Pummelo Chakotra Citrus maxima Osbeck Rutaceae
83. Quince Beedana Cydonia oblonga Mill. Rosaceae
84. Rambutan Rambutan Naphelium jappaceum Sapindaceae
85. Rangpur lime Sylhet lime Citrus limonia Osbeck Rutaceae
86. Raspberry Rasbhari Rubus idaeus L. Rosaceae
87. Rose apple Gulab jamun Eugenia jambos L. Myrtaceae

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 13 Bakshi & Wali

 88. Rough lemon Jatti khatti Citrus jambhiri Lush Rutaceae
89. Sapota Chiku Achras sapota L. Sapotaceae
90. Sour lime Nimbu Citrus aurantifolia Swingle Rutaceae
91. Sour orange Khatta Citrus aurantium L. Rutaceae
92. Strawberry Strawberry Fragaria chiloensis Duch Rosaceae
93. Suranam cherry Pitanga Eugenia uniflora L. Myrtaceae
94. Sweet lime Mitha Citrus limettioides Swingle Rutaceae
95. Sweet orange Malta Citrus sinensis L. Rutaceae
96. Tahiti lime Tahiti nimbu Citrus latifolia Tanaka Rutaceae
97. Tamarind Imli Tamarindus indica L Leguminosae
98. Trifoliate orange Tinpattia Poncirus trifoliata L. Rutaceae
(deciduous orange)
99. Walnut Akhrot Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae.
100. Wood apple Hathi seb Feronia limonia L. Rutaceae

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 14 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-4

Classification of fruits
In botanist term, the definition of fruit is, “a fruit is a reproductive structure of an angiosperm
which develops from the ovary and accessory tissue, which surrounds and protects the seed”. The fruits
are important in seed dispersal.
Fruits can be classified into following types
A. Classification of fruits based on fruit morphology
1. Simple fruits
A single ripened ovary from a single flower. The fruits of most angiosperms are simple fruits.
The major types of simple fruits are:
A. Fleshy fruits: All or most of the ovary wall (pericarp) is soft or fleshy at maturity.

 Berry: The entire pericarp of such fruits is fleshy, although skin is sometimes tough; may be one or
many seeded. e.g. grape, tomato, papaya, pomegranate, sapota, persimmon, guava, banana and avocado.
The latter two fruits are often termed baccate (berry-like). The banana fruit is a seedless, parthenocarpic
berry developing without pollination and fertilization. In pomegranate, the edible part is the fleshy layer
(aril) around each seed.
 Pepo: Berry with a hard, thick rind; typical fruit of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae). e.g.
watermelon, cucumber, squash, and pumpkin.
 Hesperidium: A berry with a leathery rind and parchment-like partitions between sections; typical
fruit of the citrus family (Rutaceae). e.g. orange, lemon, grapefruit, tangelo and kumquat.
 Drupe: The exocarp is a thin skin; mesocarp is thick and fleshy is the edible portion and endocarp is
hard and stony. e.g. peach, plum, nectarine, apricot, cherry, olive, mango, ber and almond.
 Pome: Ovary or core surrounded by edible, fleshy receptacle tissue (hypanthium or fleshy floral
tube) that is really not apart of the pericarp. The actual ovary or core is usually not eaten, at least by most
humans. This is typical fruit of certain members of the rose family (Rosaceae), including apple, pear,
quince and loquat.

B. Dry Fruits: Pericarp dry at maturity.

1. Dehiscent Dry Fruits

Pericarp splits open along definite seams.
 Legume: An elongate “bean pod” splitting along two seams; typical fruit of the third largest plant
family, the legume family (Leguminosaceae or Fabaceae). The pod represents one folded modified leaf

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 15 Bakshi & Wali

or carpel that is fused along the edges. e.g. black locust, redbud, acacia, coral tree, orchid tree, wisteria
and many more genera.
 Silique: A slender, dry, dehiscent fruit that superficially resemble a legume, except the mustard
silique is composed of two carpels with a partition or septum down the center (i.e. between the two
carpels or valves. This is the typical fruit of the mustard family (Cruciferae or Brassicaceae). e.g. field
mustard, turnip and cabbage (Brassica species).

 Capsule: Seed pod splits open in various ways and usually along several definite seams. Capsules
typically split open into well-defined sections or carpels which represent modified leaves. This is a very
common dry fruit found in many different plant families. e.g. Catalpa, Jacaranda, Pittosporum, Aesculus,
Agave, Yucca, Eucalyptus, devil's claw (Proboscidea), floss silk tree (Chorisia), kapok tree (Ceiba) and
castor bean (Ricinus communis).

 Follicle: A single ripened ovary (representing a single modified leaf or carpel) that splits open along
one seam. The follicle may occur singly (as in milkweed) or in clusters: two in oleander, 2-5 in peony, 3
in larkspur, 5 in columbine and 4-5 in bottle tree (Sterculia or Brachychiton). The cone-like fruit of the
magnolia tree is an aggregate of many small follicles, each containing a single bright red seed.

2. Indehiscent Dry Fruits

Pericarp does not split open. These fruits usually contain only one or two seeds.
 Achene: Very small, one-seeded fruit, usually produced in clusters. At maturity the pericarp is dry
and free from the internal seed, except at the placental attachment. Examples of this type of fruit include
the sunflower (Helianthus), buttercup (Ranunculus) and sycamore (Platanus).
 Grain or Caryopsis: A very small, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the actual seed coat is
completely fused to the ovary wall or pericarp. The outer pericarp layer or husk is referred to as the bran,
while the inner, seed layer is called the germ. e.g. Corn (maize), wheat, rice, rye, barley, oats, Johnson
grass, Bermuda grass and many more species.
 Schizocarp: A small dry fruit composed of two or more sections that break apart; however, each
section or carpel (also called a mericarp) remains indehiscent and contains a single seed. e.g. Carrot
(Daucus), celery (Apium) and sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare).
 Nut: Larger, one-seeded fruit with very hard pericarp, usually enclosed in a husk or cup-like
involucre. e.g. chestnut, walnut, hazelnut, macadamia nut.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 16 Bakshi & Wali

B. Classification of fruits based on climatic adaptability
The fruit plants are also classified on the basis of tolerance to temperature extremes or
hardiness. This type of classification is very important from horticultural point of view. This
helps the grower to select the fruit plants for a particular region.
 Temperate Fruits
Temperate plants are only grown in the place, where winter is distinctly cold, require an
exposure of specific chilling temperature for certain growth period without which they do not
flower. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher elevation as they can
withstand frost e.g. apple, almond, peach, pear.
 Tropical fruits
These plants are generally evergreen and extremely sensitive to cold. These plants require
warm and moist climate but are capable of withstanding dry weather in some cases e.g. mango,
banana, papaya, sapota. The plants are generally grown in climatic conditions prevailing in the
region between the tropics of Cancer (23027′N latitude) and the tropic of Capricorn (23027′N
latitude).
 Subtropical fruits
The fruits grown under a climatic condition between temperate and tropical are known as
subtropical fruit crops. They may be deciduous or evergreen. These plants are usually able to
withstand low temperature but not frost. They are also quite adaptive to fluctuations of light and
dark period during day and night.

C. Classification of fruits based on rate of respiration during ripening

 Climacteric fruits
In some fruits, rate of respiration will undergo a sharp rise and fall during ripening. This
phenomenon is called climacteric rise and the fruits are called climacteric fruits. e.g. avocado,
banana, mango, sapota etc.
 Non-climacteric fruits
Some fruits maintain continuous rate of respiration and are called non-climacteric fruits.
e.g. citrus, grapes.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 17 Bakshi & Wali

D. Classification of fruits based on drought tolerance
i. Highly tolerant: Ber, bael, aonla, wood apple, karonda, custard apple, date palm, phalsa,
pomegranate, fig.
ii. Moderately tolerant: Mango, jamun, tamarind, grapefruit, lemon, guava, grape.
iii.Sensitive: Banana, orange, sapota, litchi, avocado, jackfruit, apple, pummelo, papaya,
pineapple.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 18 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-5

Description and identification of important fruit varieties

1. MANGO
(i) Dashehari
Dashehari is a variety of mango grown in different parts of the North India and Pakistan.
In 18th century, the Dashehari mango first appeared in the gardens of Nawab of Lucknow. Since
then numbers of Dashehari plants have been produced and planted throughout India. People
from village Dashehari near Malihabad, Uttar Pradesh believe that they have the mother plant of
Dashehari mango which gave this variety of mango same name. This mid-season mango variety
ripens in 1st week of July. The fruits medium sized with pleasant flavour, sweet and fibrous
pulp. Its keeping quality is good.
(ii) Langra
Langra is a variety of mango grown in different parts of the world. It has originated as a
superior chance seedling near Banaras, Uttar Pradesh, India. Size medium to large, ovate, base
round to slightly flatten, shoulders equal. Beak minute but distinct, sinus slight to absence, skin
green and thin, flesh fibreless, yellowish brown in color, scented, highly melting, very sweet and
very juicy and very tangy. Weight of an average fruit is about ¼ kg. Fruit quality very good,
bearing heavy. Mid-season variety, ripens in 2nd week of July.
(iii) Mallika

„Mallika‟ is a hybrid between 'Neelum' and 'Dashehari', and is considered among the
best of the new generation of Indian dessert mangoes. The tree is semi-dwarf and moderately
vigorous. Fruit is normally ready to harvest from June to July. The bright yellow fruit are a
flattened oblong shape, with a rounded base and an irregular, non-waxy skin. Flesh is a deep
orange, with an intensely sweet, rich and highly aromatic flavour.
(iv) Amrapalli
It is a dwarf variety of mango developed as a result of hybridization between Dashehari
x Neelum. It is regular bearer, cluster bearing, small sized fruits, good keeping quality.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 19 Bakshi & Wali

(v) Bombay green (Malda)
The trees are vigorous in growth and form open canopies. Fruits are medium sized
having strong and pleasant flavour. The fruit remains mostly green, with little red blush. The
flesh is dark orange and completely fibreless. It has a flavor described as being rich and spicy.

2. PAPAYA
(i) Co-1
It is selection from cultivar Ranchi. The plant is dwarf in habit, producing the first fruit
within 60-75 cm from the ground level. It is dioecious. Fruit is medium-sized, spherical, has
smooth greenish-yellow skin, flesh orange-yellow, soft, firm. It is moderately juicy with good
keeping-quality. Co-1 is valued for eating fresh;
(ii) Co-2
Plant is dioecious and dwarf, the first fruits being borne 90 cm from the ground. Co-2 is
grown for table use and papain extraction. The fruits are of medium size- (1½ -2 ½ kg), with
yellow, sweet flesh.
(iii) Pusa Delicious
This is a gynodioecious line with medium-tall plants, starts yielding 8 months after
planting and has good quality fruits (100-130 Brix). The fruit is medium-sized (1-2 kg) with deep
orange flesh having excellent flavour. It is grown as a table purpose variety, medium size, high-
yielding, flesh deep-orange, of excellent flavour, female and hermaphrodite plants.
(iv) Pusa Dwarf
It is a dioecious variety with dwarf plants and medium-sized (1-2 kg) oval fruits. The
plant starts bearing from 25 to 30 cm above ground level and is comparatively drought hardy.
This variety is very suitable for high-density planting. Fruits are oval in shape and of medium
size. Plant is dwarf; begins bearing fruit at 10 to 12 inch (25-30 cm) above the ground. It is in
much demand for home and commercial culture.
(v) Coorg Honey Dew
Popularly known as “Madhubindu” and is cultivated for table as well as processing
purpose. The variety bears greenish-yellow oblong-shaped fruits with orange thick flesh and
good flavour. The variety can be maintained pure by growing in isolation. Due to its excellent
fruit quality it fetches good market value.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 20 Bakshi & Wali

(vi) Washington
It is a table purpose variety. Fruits are round to ovate, medium-large in size with few
seeds. When ripe, skin attains a bright yellow colour. The average weight of fruit ranges from
1.5-2.0 kg. Male and female plants are separate.

3. POMEGRANATE
(i) Dholka
It is a large, yellow-red, with patches of dark-pink and purple at base, or all-over
greenish-white; thick rind, fleshy, purplish-white or white, sweet, pulp; hard seeds. The plant is
evergreen, non-suckering, and desirable for commercial purposes in Delhi.
(ii) Muscat White
It is a large, creamy-white tinged with pink; thin rind; fleshy, cream-coloured, sweet
pulp; seeds medium-hard. It bears well and is desirable for commercial planting in Delhi.
(iii) Ganesh
A selection from Alandi and was released for commercial cultivation in 1936 and
renamed as Ganesh in 1970. Its fruits are medium-sized, with yellow, smooth surface and red
tinge. The seeds are soft with pinkish aril. The juice tastes sweet.
(iv) Kandhari
Fruit large-sized, rind deep red, fleshy testa, blood-red or deep pink with sweet, slightly
acidic juice and hard seeds
(v) Muskat
Red Fruits small to medium-sized, rind medium thick, fleshy aril with moderately sweet
juice, seeds not very hard, poor yielder

4. PEAR
(i) Patharnakh
It is a variety of Pyrus pyrifolia. This is the most popular variety because of heavy
bearing and good keeping quality. The fruit is medium round and green in colour with
prominent dots. Its flesh is gritty, crisp and juicy, ripens in the last week of July. Its fruit is
tough, firm and can stand transportation very well for long distances without any spoilage. It is a
heavy yielding variety with an average yield of 150 kg fruit per tree.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 21 Bakshi & Wali

(ii) Baggugosha
It is a variety of Pyrus communis. Its tree is upright, vigorous and has irregular bearing
habit. It is small, greenish, yellow fruits with tape rang stem end. The flesh is sweet and
somewhat gritty. It ripened in August and has average yield of 60 kg per tree.
(iii) LeConte

A hybrid between Pyrus communis x Pyrus pyrifolia, LeConte is a variety having low
chilling requirement. Tree is medium in growth; up right and become spreading in fully mature
trees. It fruits are small to medium in size .it ripens by the end of July and yields about 60-80 kg
fruit per tree.

5. APPLE
(i) Red Delicious
Large, brilliant red, sometimes streaked with green, elongated shape with five distinctive knobs
at its base, juicy, sweet, no distinguishable tartness, recommended for hand-eating but not for cooking,
available from September through April. This cultivar is well adapted to temperate areas, does less well
in warm temperate areas. This tough skinned, juicy, rather coarse textured apple is so well known and it
needs no description. These apples are very readily available from the food markets.
(ii) Maharaji
A large-sized apple with bright red colour on a green base with conspicuous dots. Flesh
is crisp, very juicy, acidic and aromatic. The variety sweetens in storage and has an excellent
keeping quality. The fruit matures in late week of October. It is also a cooking and dessert
variety.
(iii) Lal Ambri
It is cross between Red Delicious and Ambri. Lawrence describes it as “the most
popular apple in Jammu, a sweet fruit ripening in October and keeping its condition for a long
time and finding favour with the natives of India for its sweetness and its handsome
appearance”. Lal Ambri is indigenous to Jammu and continues to enjoy superiority by virtue of
its crisp, sweet flesh and excellent aroma. The fruit is blushed red, striped, medium-sized and
oblong to conical in shape with longer storage life. It matures in the last week of September to
first week of October. It is an excellent dessert variety.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 22 Bakshi & Wali

6. GUAVA
(i) Allahabad Safeda
This variety has dwarf tree with a compact, globose, round crown and drooping
branches. Tree height is 4.5-6.0 metre, growth upright to spreading, branches heavy with dense
foliage, tendency to produce long shoots. Leaves large slightly folded, elliptical to ovate oblong,
apex and base obtuse with entire margin. Fruit medium, roundish and slightly depressed at both
ends, surface smooth, glossy, skin colour straw yellow, pulp soft to melting, with white, flavour
very pleasant taste, very sweet, fruit quality excellent, with 10-12% TSS. The fruit yield may
vary 120-140 kg per tree.
(ii) Lucknow- 49
It is a selection from “Allahabad Safeda”. The tree is dwarf height, 6-7 metre growth
upright spreading, somewhat flattened top, dense foliage, branching. It is medium-large with
cream-white, thick flesh, few seeds; acid-sweet; good quality; pulp crispy, soft, with 10-12%
TSS, heavy bearer; high in pectin and good for jelly; halves good for canning. Fruit yield may
vary from 125-150 kg per tree.

7. CHERRY
(i) Early Purple Black Heart
The tree is vigorous. Fruits are large, round and heart shaped. Skin is thick, fine red and
blended with purple black. Pulp is fine and good. It ripens by the end of May and rated as good
table variety.
(ii) Bigarreau Napoleon
This variety is large-sized and attractive with cream-red colour. The flesh is firm and
juicy but slightly acidic. A good keeper; excellent for canning, and dessert purposes.
(iii) Guigne Pourpera Pecoce
It is a medium-sized, light red coloured and quite fleshy. The flesh is juicy and sweet
with acidic tinge. This cultivar comes first in the market in May. A good dessert variety
(iv) Bigarreau Noir
A large sized and red coloured; its skin is firm and flesh is sweet and juicy. A good
dessert variety.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 23 Bakshi & Wali

8. CITRUS

(i) Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)

 Kinnow

It is hybrid between King and Willow leaf. Its fruits are medium to globose to oblate.
Skin golden yellow when fully ripe. It ripen in December- January. The small orange fruits have
more seeds per wedge in comparison to other citrus fruits. The seeds of kinnow are naturally
diploid or tetraploid. Seedless triploid varieties have been developed, but these are still
undergoing testing whether the fruit is healthy for consumption.
 Local Sangtra
A small to medium tree of upright, irregular growth habit and relatively few thorns.
Leaves medium in size, lanceolate in form, with prominent midrib and long narrowly winged
petioles. Flowers medium small. Fruits depressed globose or subglobose, with thin, loose peel.
Easily separating from the segments, seeds small pointed with cotyledons green. Base short
necked and furrowed. Flavour fairs, juice abundant, slightly acidic and ripens in December-
January.

(ii) Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis)

 Mosambi
Fruits small to medium, sub globose. The fruit surface smooth with longitudinal furrows.
Apex marked with a circular ring. The colour of the flesh is pale yellow or whitish. Juice has
low acidity. Ripens in November.
 Pine apple
Fruits medium to large, round to slightly oblate and deep orange. Juice abundant acidity
and sweetness well blended, flavour excellent. Seeds 12-15. Ripens in December.
 Malta blood red
The blood orange is a variety of red with crimson, blood-coloured flesh. The fruit is
medium to large, roundish to slightly oblong in shape. Its rind is thin, deep orange, light and
glossy than an average orange; its skin is usually pitted, but can be smooth. The distinctive dark
flesh colour is due to the presence of anthocyanins, a family of pigments common to many
flowers and fruit, but uncommon in citrus fruits. It contains 8-10 seeds and ripens in December.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 24 Bakshi & Wali

 Valencia
This is one of the sweet oranges used for juice extraction. It is a late-season fruit, and
therefore a popular variety when the navel oranges are out of season. Fruits are medium, slightly
oval. Skin deep golden yellow, juice abundant, sub-acid taste. Flavour rich, seeds 2-6 ripens
during February-March.
 Jaffa
Fruits are medium to large, round to oblate red. Both the acidity and sweetness are well
blended. Flavour rich, seeds are 8-10 and ripens during December.

(iii) Lemon (Citrus limon)

 Eureka
Fruit medium, oblong, apex nibbled. Skin lemon yellow, smooth. Juice abundant clear,
strongly acidic with excellent flavour. Seeds are rarely present. Ripens in August-September.
 Baramasi
Its trees of are vigorous, spreading and thornless. The growth and flower are purple. The
trees flower and fruits throughout the year. The fruit is lemon yellow, round, tapering towards
the base, apex is round. The skin is smooth and thin. Fruit is very juicy and seedless, contain 7%
acidity. This variety is more suitable than Eureka for growing in the irrigated arid region of
Jammu.
 Galgal
Its trees are vigorous. Fruits are medium in size; oval in shape peel is smooth, glossy,
medium thick and yellow at maturity. Its juice has 5.2 % and 5-8 seeds per fruit. It matures in
last week of November in North-India and gives 80-100 kg fruit per tree.

(iv) Grapefruit (Citrus paradisii)

 Marsh Seedless
Fruit medium to large, oblate-roundish in shape. Skin lightly yellow smooth. Acidity and
sweetness medium seeds 2-6. Ripens in December.
 Duncan
Fruit large, oblate in shape. Skin pale light yellow, flesh pink. Acidic blended with
sweetness, bitterness well marked. Seeds 40-50 and ripens in November-December.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 25 Bakshi & Wali

 Foster
Fruit medium to long, oblate in shape, skin pale yellow flesh pink. Acidity and
sweetness with blended, bitterness well marked. Seeds 40-50. Ripens in November-December.

(v) Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides)

 Local
A medium sized tree with spreading habit of growth. Leaves medium sized, pale green
in colour and characteristically somewhat rolled, leaf margin serrate tip notched, big thorns
present generally in size, globose to ellipsoid.

(vi) Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia)

 Kaghzi
It is a citrus species with a small to medium tree with numerous small but stiff and sharp
spines, globose fruit, 2.5-5.0 cm in diameter that is yellow when ripe but usually picked green
commercially. It is smaller seedier, has a higher acidity, a strong aroma, and a thinner rind than
that of the Persian lime (Citrus x latifolia). It is valued for its unique flavour compared to other
limes, with the key lime usually having a more tart and bitter flavour. Peel very thin flesh
greenish and highly acidic.

9. Ber

(i) Nazuk
It is medium to small, elliptic-oblong; pulp slimy, fairly juicy; of good, sweet flavour,
nearly without astringency. A mid season moderate bearer of poor keeping quality with TSS
17.4 per cent.
(ii) Sanaur-2
This is selection from Sanaur, a small town near Patiala, which is known as for its ber
cultivation. It is a mid season variety, ripens during second fortnight of March under north
Indian condition. The fruits are large and oblong with a roundish apex. On ripening, fruits
obtain a light yellow colour with TSS of 18-19 percent, It is also a prolific bearer yielding about
150 kg fruits per tree and has been found fairly resistant to powdery mildew disease.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 26 Bakshi & Wali

10. Grape

(i) Perlette
This variety is a hybrid of Scolokertek Hiralynoje-26 x Sultanina Marble developed by
Dr. H.P.Olmo in 1936. This is an early maturing seedless grape variety whose bunches are
medium to large in size, conical, compact and attractive. Its berry is whitish green, medium in
size, spherical, ripens upto start of 4th week of June. Its T.S.S and acidity ranges from 16 to 18
per cent and 0.5 to 0.7 per cent, respectively. It gives an average yield from 32 to 35 tonnes per
hectare. It is a table variety but can also be used for wine making with good success.
(ii) Anab-e-Shahi
This variety was introduced by A.B.Khan in Hyderabad from middle-east in 1890. Its
bunches are very attractive, medium large to large (400 to 600 g), medium long, cylindrical to
long conical neither shouldered nor winged. Its berries are seeded, greenish-yellow when ripe
and amber when fully ripe. It ripens from 1st week of June to mid July in North India. T.S.S
ranges from 14 to 16 per cent, acidity from 0.5 to 0.6 per cent, juice from 65 to 75 per cent, very
light cropper in Kniffin but very prolific bearer in bower system.
(iii) Thompson Seedless
This variety was originated in Asia minor and is believed to be grown in every
viticultural country of the world. Its bunches are long, medium large, conical to cylindrical,
shouldered, well filled to compact. Its berries are small, seedless with yellowish green to golden
yellow when fully ripe.
(iv) Flame Seedless
This variety is a descendant of three cross breed, the Cardinal and Red Seedless, Red
Malaga and Tifahfi, and the Muscat of Alexandria and Thompson Seedless. The clusters are
medium in size with small, bright red, crisp seedless berries. It is an excellent table grape variety
which ripens a week later than Perlette. Its juice is light yellow in colour having 18 per cent
T.S.S and 0.7 per cent acidity.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 27 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-6

Seed-bed preparation, sowing and transplanting of seedlings

a) Seed-bed preparation and sowing of seeds
The soil of the nursery should be friable, well drained and fertile to produce vigorous seedlings. It
should be well pulverized before the seed-beds are prepared. The source of irrigation should be near the
nursery site. Each seed bed should be raised 15 to 20 cm above the general level of the plot to facilitate
drainage.

Inputs: Spade, khurpa, measuring tape, rope, sand, farm yard manure.
Procedure
Seed-beds usually 1.20 to 1.50 metre wide and 2 to 2.5 metre long,
alternated with 50 to 60 cm wide irrigation furrows, are prepared with the
help of the hand tools. Later, these furows are also used to do hoeing. The
seeds are sown in lines across the length of the seed bed at a distance of
Measuring tape
10 to 15 cm and 2-3 cm deep. About 1.25 cm thick layer of sand is spread
over the seeds to prevent crust formation. The seed beds are watered daily
with hand cane to keep them moist and to encourage germination of seed.
The seed beds should be covered with dry grass or sarkanda so as to pre-
serve moisture. It takes 2 to 3 weeks for the seeds to germinate and
thereafter the grass/sarkanda is removed.
Rope
b) Transplanting of seedlings
When the seedlings are big enough for transplanting, they are dug out and planted in the nursery
beds for proper development of the roots. It is essential that only the seedlings of uniform vigour and
height be selected for this purpose; for that ensures their genetic uniformity. Before transplanting the
seed-bed-stock to the nursery rows, the soil is prepared thoroughly.
Inputs: Khurpa, spade, rope, tape.
Procedure
At the time of transplanting, dwarf and the exceptionally vigorous seedlings should be
rogued out. The seedlings which have badly crooked roots should also be rejected at this stage.
The usual method for transplanting of the seedlings is to prepare the beds and mark the lines (30
x 30 cm apart) by walking over the rope stretched across the field. After every two rows, 45-60
cm space is left to facilitate easy movement of the workers for hoeing, weeding, propagation

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 28 Bakshi & Wali

and for lifting the plants. A light irrigation is then given and when the soil comes in a workable
condition, the tap root is inserted in the hole made by a pointed iron or wooden peg. At this time
care should be taken to prevent the doubling of the roots in the hole. If necessary, the roots may
be pruned back slightly before planting to avoid doubling. The soil around the seedling is
thoroughly pressed and settled with khurpa. The seedlings are allowed to grow in the nursery
beds for about a year giving necessary cultural operations.
The seedling of an evergreen fruit plants are transplanted in February-March and August-
September, while of the deciduous fruit plants in dormant conditions i.e. January-February.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 29 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-7

Layout of an orchard

Layout is done to locate the actual position of the trees, roads, water channels and buildings in the
orchard. The mistakes committed in the initial stage of orchard establishment can cause loss throughout
the life of an orchard, and it is very difficult or even impossible to correct them later. It is, therefore,
essential that the layout of an orchard should be carefully planned and executed to facilitate proper care
of the orchard. A well considered layout plan should be followed for planting an orchard. The plan
should provide optimum number of trees per unit area consistent with sufficient space for the proper
development of each tree and convenience in various orchard operations such as interculture, spray and
harvesting.
Inputs: Rope, poles, pegs, cross sraff, measuring tape and planting board are required for laying out an
orchard.
The following layout plans are usually used for planting a fruit orchard:
Square, Rectangular, Hexagonal, Triangular, Quincunx, and Contour. Out of these, the square, hexagonal
and quincunx are most commonly used in Jammu province.
 Number of plants per hectares
These can be calculated according to different methods of layout using the following formulas:
i) Square and rectangular system

Area (sq. m)
Number of fruit plants =
Row to row distance (m) x plant to plant distance (m)
ii) Quincunx
Number of plants in square system plus (+) one row less and one plant less in each row than the
square system.
iii) Triangular
Number of plants in square system minus (-) one plant less in every second row.
iv) Hexagonal
Number of plants in a square system plus (+) 15 per cent more than the square system.

 Planting systems
a. Square system
In this system, the distance form plant to plant and row to row is the
same. The plants are at right angle to each other; every unit of four plants
forming a square. This is the most common system followed for planting

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 30 Bakshi & Wali

orchards and is easy to layout. This facilitates interculture in two directions after the orchard is planted.
For actual layout in the field, one boundary line is chosen and along with this line a base line is fixed.
Then first line is made at the half of the proposed distance parallel to the base line. Constructing a right
angle triangle in a ratio of 3:4:5 draws a second line. The lines of trees are drawn perpendicular to the
base line. It is so fixed that the lines meeting it are parallel to the field. Now the position of trees on base
line is marked with pegs. From these pegs perpendicular lines, should be marked with the help of cross
bars. The plant positions can best be marked on all the four sides and finally in the field by running
strings length and breadth wise and by putting pegs at the crosses.

b. Rectangular system
In this system, the distance from plant to plant and row to row is not the same.
The trees are planted in straight parallel rows. This too is a very good system, easy
to understand, layout and allows interculture in two directions.
c. Hexagonal system
In this system, the trees are planted in each corner of an equilateral
triangle. It is, therefore, also known as equilateral triangle system. Here six
trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the centre. It is employed where
the land is expensive, thus accommodating 15 per cent more plants per unit
area than the square system. The trees in this system, however, have a
tendency to crowd after a few years. The cultivation can be carried in all the
three directions.
d. Triangular system
The trees in this system are planted as in the square system except that those in the even numbered
rows are midway between instead of opposite to those in the odd rows. In this system, however, every
second row will accommodate one plant less than in the square system though rows are equidistance.
e. Quincunx system
It is laid out exactly like square system except that a fifth temporary
tree known as the „filler‟ is planted in the centre of every unit of four permanent
plants. The filler is uprooted when the permanent trees start bearing. They yield
some crop before the permanent trees come into bearing. The fillers make cross
cultivation difficult. Many times the grower often delays their removal and this
adversely affects the performance of permanent plantation. This system
accommodates about 10% more plants than the square.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 31 Bakshi & Wali

f. Contour system .
It is followed in the hills where slopes are steep. Trees are planted along a uniform slope and
usually at right angle to the slope with the view of reducing the loss of top soil due to soil erosion. Its
planting is done as in the square system. The markings should be done from the lowest level to the top.

 Method of layout
For laying out an orchard, according to square system, a base line is first established and the
positions of the trees are marked along this line putting wooden stakes in the ground. Another base line
at right angle to the first base line, is then marked alongwith the other edge of the field with the help of a
carpenter square or a cross staff. The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape. One
end of this tape is fixed at 3 metre distance from the corner along the first line and the tape is then
stretched along the second base line for a distance of 4 metre. The diagonal distance between these two
points should be 5 metre. The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the
second lines. All the four rows are thus established and staked.
Three men, one putting the pegs in the field and other two correcting alignment, while moving
along the base line, can easily layout the whole field. For laying out of an orchard according to the
triangular system, a base line is set on one side of the field as in the square system. Large triangle with a
ring in each corner (made of heavy wire or chain) is used. The sides of this triangle are equal to the
distance to be kept of the plants in the orchard. Two of these rings are placed on the stakes of the base
line. The position of the third ring indicates the position of the plant in the second row. This row then is
used as a base line. The whole area is laid out in a similar manner.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 32 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-8

Lifting, packing, after care and planting of fruit plant

Lifting and packing of nursery plants are very important operations especially for evergreen fruit
plants. These operations require extra care when the nursery stock is to be shipped to distant place. Every
care must be taken to prevent injury to roots and to keep as many feeder roots intact as possible.
Inputs: Khurpa, spade, sarkanda, secateur and raffia fibre.
Procedure
The nursery beds should be irrigated lightly a couple of days before the actual lifting. This
facilitates easy removal of plants. A long khurpa (plant lifter) is used for digging the earth ball of
evergreen fruit plants. Depending upon the size of the nursery plant, an earth ball is carved out of the
soil. If the plant has a very deep tap root, it should be gently severed at the bottom of the earth ball.

After lifting the plants, a little scrapping of the earth ball is done to reduce it to a suitable size. The
exposed roots should be removed to avoid drying and desiccation. Some of the small branches and leaves
should also be trimmed and thinned out to avoid excessive transpiration and to keep a proper top and root
balance. The earth balls are then wrapped firmly with sarkanda or rice straw with the help of the raffia
fibre.
The deciduous plants do not need any earth ball and are lifted from the nursery with bare roots.
They can be lifted with the help of a spade by digging deep trenches (30 to 60 cm) on both sides of he
beds at a convenient distance. The soil sticking to the roots should be removed by shaking the plants
gently. Trimming of the exceptionally longer roots is done to avoid injury during transportation. These
plants are then tied in bundles of suitable sizes for easy handling.
After care of young fruit plants
The young plants should be handled carefully when they arrive at the orchard site, especially when
they are purchased from a distant nursery.
Inputs: Khurpa, spade, secateur.

Procedure

On the arrival of the plants, it is essential to carefully inspect them. The varieties, number and
grade of plants should be checked. The weak, diseased and the plants with poor stock-scion combination
should be discarded.
The evergreen plants are usually received with balls of earth. In case they are received before the
pits are dug, they should be placed under shade and leaves and roots be kept moist by sprinkling water. If

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 33 Bakshi & Wali

the deciduous nursery stock received is to be planted within 48 hours, it should be stored in a cool place
under shade. In case there is a delay in planting, the plants should be heaped, preferably on the north side
of the building or on a slope away from the sun, in order to retard development of the buds. This can be
done by digging a trench or furrow deep enough to accommodate the roots. The bundles should be
opened and the plants placed in the furrow in a slanting position. The roots should be covered with soil,
no air pockets are left at the base.
Planting the orchard
The evergreen fruit plants are planted in February-March and August-September and the
deciduous (bare rooted) fruit plants in January. The plants are planted in the orchard when the soil in the
pits comes in workable condition. The actual position of plants in the pits is located with the help of a
planting board. The two side notches of the planting board are placed over the guide pegs and the central
position of the pit is marked with the help of central notch. A small hole is dug to accommodate the earth
ball (evergreen) and the roots (deciduous) of fruit plants. The hole is then filled with the soil and pressed
thoroughly and newly planted plant watered immediately. This operation should preferably be done in
the evening.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 34 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-9

Propagation of fruit plants

Fruit plant propagation is an art of multiplication of fruit plants by both sexual and
asexual methods. Sexually propagated plants are raised through seeds and such plants are called
seedlings.
A. Sexual propagation
The multiplication of plants by seed is known as sexual propagation.
Fruit crops like papaya, phalsa, kagzi lime and jamun are usually propagated
by seeds. In citrus and mango, seeds are also used to raise rootstock
seedlings. This method being the easiest and cheapest is generally employed
on a commercial scale in these fruit crops. In mango and citrus, nucellar
seedlings can be used to raise true-to-type plants. Seed propagation is essential for breeding new
plant type and conserving genepools. For raising of a plant by seed, a thorough knowledge of
seed viability, its storage, time of sowing, factors responsible for germination and care of
germinated seedling is essential. The condition in which the seed can germinate immediately
upon the absorption of water in the absence of any internal germination barrier, the embryo (or
seed) is said to be quiescent, while those seeds which fail to germinate even though the embryo
is alive, moisture is absorbed and favourable condition are provided are known as dormant
seeds.
In most of the fruit crops, there may be natural or chemical dormancy. The dormancy in
seeds of ber, guava and walnut is due to the presence of hard seed coat which inhibits
penetration of water and oxygen required for germination. Presence of chemical inhibitors
(abscisic acid) is responsible for dormancy in seeds of most of temperate fruits (apple, pear,
peach and walnut). Besides ABA, higher concentration of pectin, gum, tannin and amino acids
are also responsible for dormancy in seeds of temperate fruits.
The dormancy of seed due to hard seed coat can be overcome by softening it. It can
easily be done either by scarification, stratification or by use of chemicals and hormones.
 Scarification
It is the process of breaking, scratching, altering or softening the seed covering to make
it permeable to water and gases. It can be achieved mechanically, or by hot water and acid. In
mechanical scarification, cracking of seed with hammer, rubbing with sand paper or cutting with

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 35 Bakshi & Wali

a file without injury to embryo is generally employed to break the dormancy (ber, peach,
walnut). Impermeable seed coat of guava can be softened by hot water scarification. Seeds are
placed in hot water at 77-1000C. They are immediately removed from hot water and allowed to
soak gradually in cool water for 12-24 hours.
Acid scarification consists of treating guava seeds with concentrated sulphuric acid for 3
minutes, ber for 5-6 hours and strawberry seeds with 0.25 per cent nitric acid or hydrogen
peroxide results in higher germination.
 Stratification
It is the method of handling of dormant seeds, in which, the imbibed seeds are subjected
to a period of chilling to after ripen the embryo. This term originated as the nurserymen used to
place seeds in stratified layers interspaced with a moist medium such as soil or sand out of door
or in pits during winter. The term moist chilling has been used as synonym to stratification.
Stratification can be achieved by refrigeration of dormant seed. Dormant seeds of temperate
fruits like apple, cherry, pear and apricot are generally placed in layers of sand in a box at a
temperature of 10-50C. Depending upon the seed type, treatment time varies from 1-5 months
for breaking dormancy of seeds. The seed dormancy due to presence of growth inhibitors can be
broken by placing the seeds in running water. It results in leaching of inhibitors. The freshly
extracted seeds of strawberry and grape if placed in running water for 7-12 days result in
increased germination.
 Use of hormones
The seed dormancy can also be overcome by the treatment of growth regulators. Treatment of
seeds of apple, cherry, peach, strawberry and hazelnut with 100-500 ppm of GA3 for 24-48
hours improves germination and better growth of seedlings. Ethrel (5,000 ppm) treated seeds of
guava and strawberry also show better germination and growth of seedlings. Treatment of apple
and peach seeds with 10-20 ppm solution of benzyl adenine (BA) is effective for higher seed
germination.
 Chemical treatments
Many freshly harvested dormant seeds usually respond to soaking in potassium nitrate
solution. This technique is largely used in seed testing laboratories where seeds are placed in
petri-dishes containing 0.2% solution of potassium nitrate. The seeds of peach and grape, treated
with 5,000 ppm (5 g/litre) of thiourea show enhancement in their germination.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 36 Bakshi & Wali

B. Asexual /Vegetative propagation
There are different propagation methods, which can be used for commercial multiplication of
various fruit plants. These include cutting, layering, budding and grafting.
a. Cutting ,

Cutting is a method by which plants are propagated by the use of vegetative parts which when
placed under favourable conditions develop into complete plants. This process is used in plants which
root easily, thus the multiplication of plants is quite quick and economical. The fruit trees such as grapes,
pomegranate, lemon, sweet lime, plum and fig are extensively propagated by cuttings.
Types of cutting: Cutting may be made from many plant parts depending upon the species. Roots, stems
or leaves are used for making cuttings in various plant species but stem cuttings are almost exclusively
employed for propagation of fruit trees.
 Stem cutting: There are two types of stem cuttings.
i. Softwood cuttings
This method is only rarely used for fruit plant propagation.
Sometimes a particular plant is propagated for experimental purposes by this
method. The tissue selected for soft-wood cutting is non-lignified terminal
portion of the shoot. Eight to ten cm long cuttings are made when it is in
active growth. The basal leaves are removed while the terminal leaves are
kept on the cutting. It should be ensured that there is a bud just above the,
basal cut. These cuttings are planted in a greenhouse in wooden flats. One of
the most important factor for the success of the softwood cuttings under Jammu conditions is the
maintenance of high humidity in the propagation chamber. There should be frequent sprinkling of water
on the cuttings and these should not be allowed to wilt.
Rooting medium should be such that it supplied enough water to the cuttings and should also be
well drained to supply oxygen to rooting cuttings. Vermiculite of the particle size ranging from 2-3 mm
in diameter is an excellent rooting medium.

Mist propagation

A self-controlled intermitant mist propagation units are now available in the market for soft-
wood cuttings. Installation of such a unit in greenhouse keeps the humidity very high and does not let the
cuttings wilt. This enhances the degree of success of the soft-wood cuttings.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 37 Bakshi & Wali

Potting of rooted cuttings
When sufficient roots have developed on the cuttings, they are singly potted in small containers
and may be kept in the open for further growth.
ii. Hardwood cuttings
The hardwood cuttings are the common method of
propagation, which are prepared from fully mature tissues. The shoots
of about one year old or more can easily be used for preparing
hardwood cuttings. Hardwood cuttings are taken from the trees when
the tissues are fully mature. In case of deciduous plants such as
grapes, plum and fig, the cuttings are made when they are dormant.
The cuttings of the evergreen trees such as lemon and sweet lime are
prepared either during the .rainy season (August-September) or in the
Round Angular
spring (February –March). cuttings cuttings

Preparation of cuttings
The cuttings 15-20 cm in length and having at least three buds are made from the canes or shoots
which are about a pencil's thickness. The lower cut is given in a slanting manner just below a bud while
the upper cut is given at a right angle, 5-7 cm above a bud. After the cuttings are made, they should not
be allowed to dry. The cuttings are usually tied in small bundles and buried in moist soil or sand for a
few days for callusing of the wounds.
Time and method of planting
The dormant cuttings are planted 15-20 cm apart in the field a few days before they start growth
in spring. The lower end should be placed in the soil taking care that it does not get damaged. The soil is
then regularly watered to keep it moist. The nursery where the cuttings have been planted should be kept
free of weeds. Necessary plant protection measures should also be taken to keep the young plants free
from diseases and insects pests.

Chemical treatments

Growth regulators like indoleacetic acid (IAA), indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthalene acetic
acid (NAA) encourage the formation of roots on the cuttings. The basal portions of the cuttings are
soaked in a dilute solution (50-500 ppm) of any of the above growth regulators for 24 hours. Another
method is to dip the basal portions of the cutting in a concentrated solution (500-10,000 ppm) of the
growth regulators for 5-10 seconds.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 38 Bakshi & Wali

b. Layering
Layering is used for the propagation of many fruit plants, especially those which do not graft
easily or root readily from the cuttings. In layering, the roots are induced on the shoots, while they are
still attached to the mother plant. In this way, much larger and mature plants can be obtained as
compared with other methods of vegetative propagation.
Types of Layering
i. Simple Layering
In some fruit trees such as lemon or lime a branch is drawn to the soil. This is then fastened
firmly with a wooden hook. An upward slicing cut is given almost half way on the lower side of the
branch to encourage rooting. This portion is covered with moist soil, keeping the terminal portion of the
branch uncovered. The soil is regularly watered to keep it moist. Within a few weeks, the roots are
formed and the new plant is severed from the mother plant and potted.
ii. Mound and Trench Layering
These methods are used for the propagation of rootstocks for some temperate fruit trees such as
apple, pear and cherry. In the case of mound layering, the parent plants are first established in the nursery
and are cut down to ground level every year when they are dormant. The stubs or the stools are earthed
up so that the new shoots coming out in spring are about 1/3 to ½ covered with moist soil. These shoots
develop roots at their basal ends. These are then detached from the mother plants when they become
dormant and are planted in the nursery row for grafting or budding with the desired scion. In trench
layering, shallow trenches are dug along the row of mother plants. Their branches are bent down and
buried 5-7 cm deep with moist soil. More soil up to 15 cm, is added as the new shoots grow. The shoots
develop roots and are separated from the mother plants when they become dormant. The new plants are
then put in the nursery for budding or grafting.
iii. Air Layering or Marcottage
As name refers, in this method the layering is done in air. To
be more precise the rooting is done on the shoot itself when it is still
attached to the mother plant. In this method one year old, healthy and
straight shoot is selected and ring of bark measuring about 2.5 cm just
below a bud is removed. Moist sphagnum moss is placed around this
portion and is wrapped with a polythene strip. It is light in weight, and
has a very high water holding capacity. If sphagnum moss is not
available, any other material, which can retain moisture for long period
of time, can be used for this purpose. The polythene covering does not
allow the moisture to come out but permit gas exchange. Moreover, the layers need not be watered

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 39 Bakshi & Wali

afterwards, which saves a considerable labour. This method of layering is also known as goottee method.
This can be practiced during February–March and July-August in guava, litchi, sapota, loquat etc. After a
few weeks the roots are developed which are visible through the polythene covering. Then a half way cut
should be given to the rooted layers on the parent branch at least 15 days prior to their permanent
removal from the mother plant. At the time of separation, a few leaves or small shoot is retained. It is
also advisable to plant these rooted layers in nursery for close attention than to plant them directly in
field. These layers can be planted in the fields during the following year in February or September–
October.

The growth regulators, commercial or self-prepared may also be applied before wrapping the
ringed portion with the moss to encourage rooting. As soon as, the .roots are visible through the
polythene wrap, the plants are detached from the parent tree and potted or planted in the nursery.

Time of Layering: Layering may be done in spring or during the rainy season.

c. Budding and grafting

Budding and grafting are horticultural techniques used to join parts from two or more plants so
that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting, the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the
root system (rootstock) of another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and grown
on another. Although, budding is considered a modern art and science, grafting is not new. Since, these
are asexual or vegetative methods of propagation, the new plant that grows from the scion or bud will be
exactly like the plant it came from. These methods of plant reproduction are usually chosen because
cuttings from the desired plant root poorly (or not at all). These methods give the plant a certain
characteristic of the rootstock -for example, hardiness, drought tolerance, or disease resistance. Since
both methods require extensive knowledge of nursery crop species and their compatibility, grafting and
budding are two techniques that are usually practiced only by more experienced nursery operators.

Reasons for budding and grafting

Budding and grafting may increase the productivity of certain horticultural crops because they make
it possible to do the following things:
 Benefit from interstocks: An interstock can be particularly valuable when the scion and rootstock
are incompatible. In such cases, an interstock that is compatible with both rootstock and scion is used.
An interstock could increase the disease resistance or cold hardiness of the scion. Plants also may be
double worked to impart dwarfness or influence flowering and fruiting of a scion.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 40 Bakshi & Wali

 Change varieties or cultivars: An older established orchard of fruiting trees may become obsolete
as newer varieties or cultivars are developed. The newer varieties may offer improved insect or disease
resistance, better drought tolerance, or higher yields. As long as, the scion is compatible with the
rootstock, the older orchard may be top worked using the improved variety or cultivar.
 Optimize cross-pollination and pollination: Certain fruit trees are not self-pollinating; they require
pollination by a second fruit tree, usually of another variety. This process is known as cross-pollination.
Portions of a tree or entire trees may be pollinated with the second variety to ensure fruit set. For
example, some hollies are dioecious, meaning that a given plant has either male or female flowers but
not both. To ensure good fruit set on the female (pistillate) plant, a male (staminate) plant must be
growing nearby. Where this is not possible, the chances that cross-pollination will occur can be increased
by grafting a scion from a male plant onto the female plant.
 Perpetuate clones: Clones of numerous species of conifers cannot be economically reproduced from
vegetative cuttings because the percentage of cuttings that root successfully is low. Many can be grafted,
however, onto seedling rootstocks.
 Take advantage of particular rootstocks: Compared to the selected scion, certain rootstocks have
superior growth habits, disease and insect resistance, and drought tolerance. For example, when used as
rootstock for commercial apple varieties, the French crabapple (Malus sylvestris, Mill.) can increase
resistance to crown gall and hairy root. Malling-VIII and Malling-IX are used as dwarfing rootstocks for
apple trees when full-sized trees are not desired.
 Repair damaged plants: Large trees or specimen plants can be damaged easily at or slightly above
the soil line. The damage may be caused by maintenance equipment or by disease, rodents, or winter
storms. The damage can often be repaired by planting several seedlings of the same species around the
injured tree and grafting them above the injury. This procedure is referred to as inarching, approach
grafting, or bridge grafting.
 Increase the growth rate of seedlings: The seedling progeny of many fruit and nut breeding
programs, if left to develop naturally, may require 8 to 12 years to become fruitful. However, if these
progeny are grafted onto established plants, the time required for them to flower and fruit is reduced
dramatically. Another way to increase the growth rate of seedlings is to graft more than one seedling
onto a mature plant.
 Index viruses: Many plants carry viruses, although the symptoms may not always be obvious or
even visible. The presence or absence of the virus in the suspect plant can be confirmed by grafting
scions from the plant onto another plant that is highly susceptible and will display prominent symptoms.

Budding is a method in which only one bud is inserted in the rootstock. This method is very easy
and fast. This method saves budwood as compared to grafting. As soon as the bark starts slipping both on

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 41 Bakshi & Wali

the stock and scion, this is considered to be the optimum time for budding. This shows that the cambium,
which is the tissue responsible for union, is active. This method is generally employed during spring and
rainy season. The common methods of budding are T-budding, patch budding, and chip budding.
Budding is a grafting technique in which a single bud from the desired scion is used rather than an entire
scion containing many buds. Most budding is done just before or during the growing season. However,
some species may be budded during the winter while they are dormant.
Preparing the Rootstock
Rootstock can be grown in the field where it will be budded, or dormant liners can be
transplanted into the field and then allowed to grow under moderate fertility until they reach the desired
3/16- to 7/16-inch caliper. Since budding is generally done less than 4 inches above the soil surface,
leaves and side branches must be removed from this portion of the rootstock to create a clean, smooth
working area. To avoid quickly dulling the knife, remove any soil from the rootstock where the cut will
be made just before actual budding takes place. The stem can be cleaned by brushing or rubbing it gently
by hand or with a piece of soft cloth.
Preparing the Budwood
Collect scion or budwood early in the day, while temperatures are cool and the plants are still
fully turgid. The best vegetative buds usually come from the inside canopy of the tree on the current
season's growth. Mature buds are most desirable; discard terminal and younger buds because they are
often not mature. To keep budwood from drying out, getting hot, or freezing, place it into plastic bags or
wrap it in moist burlap as it is collected. Then move to a shaded or sheltered area to prepare the buds.
Place budwood of only one variety in each labeled bag. Bud sticks are usually prepared in a cool, shaded
area. Remove the leaves but keep the petioles (leaf stem) intact to serve as handles when inserting a bud
into the rootstock. Then cut the sticks to a convenient length, leaving three to six buds per stick. Bud
sticks that will not be used immediately should be bundled, labeled, and stored in moisture retaining
containers such as plastic bags or waxed cardboard boxes and kept cool (320to 450F). The longer
budwood is stored, the less likely it is to "take." Generally, budwood stored for more than a few days
should be discarded. When budwood is taken to the field, equal precautions against drying should be
taken. Storing budwood in a picnic cooler with ice will help to keep it cool and moist. Individual bundles
of scions carried by budders are often wrapped in moist burlap or kept in dark (not clear) plastic.
Budding Techniques
i. T-Budding
T-budding is most commonly used for summer budding of apples, crabapples, peaches, and
pears. T-budding must be one when the bark will „slip‟. Slipping means that, when cut, the bark easily
lifts or peels in one uniform layer from the underlying wood without tearing. The exact time when this

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 42 Bakshi & Wali

condition occurs depends on soil moisture, temperature, and time of year. It varies with species and
variety. Dry or excessively hot or cold weather can shorten the period when bark slips. Irrigation can be
valuable in extending the T-budding season. Since budding is usually done during the warm summer
months, two other precautions are commonly taken to ensure success. First, buds should not be added
when the air temperature exceeds 900F. Second, buds should be inserted on the cooler north or east sides
of stems.
Preparing the Stock: Budding knives usually have a curved tip, making it
easier to cut a T-shaped slit. First, insert the point of the knife and use a single
motion to cut the top of the T. Then without removing the point of the knife,
twist it perpendicularly to the original cut and rock the blade horizontally
down the stem to make the vertical slit of the T. If bark is slipping properly, a slight twist of
the knife at the end of this cut will pop open the flaps of the cut and make it easier to insert
the bud. In practice, the top of the T is usually slanted slightly.
This same type of cut can be made using two separate strokes, one vertical and one
horizontal, and then using the back of the budding knife tip to pry up the flaps slightly. Although much
slower, this technique may be easier.
Removing buds from the budstick: The bud to be inserted is often just
a shield of bark with a bud attached or a very thin layer of wood with both
the bark shield and bud attached. Various techniques can be used to make
these cuts, but the shape of the cut remains the same. Begin the first scion
cut about ½ inch below the bud and draw the knife upward just under the
bark to a point at least ¼ inch above the bud. Grasp the petiole from the detached leaf between the thumb
and forefinger of the free hand. Make the second cut by rotating the knife blade straight across the
horizontal axis of the budstick and about ¼ inch above the desired bud. This cut should be deep enough
to remove the bud, its shield of bark, and a thin sliver of wood.

A variation often used with dogwood is to slant the first upward cut so that it goes about halfway
through the budstick. Then make the top cut and bend the budstick by applying gentle but constant finger
pressure behind the bud. The bark should lift and peel off to the side, yielding bark and bud but no wood.
Caution: Straight lifting rather than the sideward motion will separate the bud from the bark rather than
keeping it intact. Shields removed this way are useless.

Inserting the Bud: Insert the bud shield into the T flaps of the stock and slide it
down to ensure that it makes intimate contact with the rootstock.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 43 Bakshi & Wali

Securing the Bud: Pull the cut together by winding a 4- or 5-inchlong budding rubber
around the stem to hold the flaps tightly over the bud shield and prevent drying. Secure
the budding rubber by overlapping all windings and tucking the end under the last turn.
Do not cover the bud. In most fruit trees it is performed either in the spring (March-
April) or in rainy season (July-September) period. This is the most common method of propagation of
citrus plants.
ii. Inverted ‘T’ budding
This is another method of budding which is commonly used at places where rainfall is heavy. In
this case, the horizontal cut is first made at the desired height on the stock and the vertical cut is given at
top rather than below as in the case of T-budding. It is generally seen that the insertion of the bud shield
is much easier and faster in inverted „T‟ compared to straight „T‟ budding.
iii. Chip Budding
Chip budding is a technique that may be used whenever mature buds are available. Because the
bark does not have to „slip‟, the chip-budding season is longer than the T-budding season. The species
whose bark does not slip easily without tearing may be propagated more successfully by chip budding
than by T-budding.
Preparing the stock and the scion bud: Although all the basics in handling
budwood and stock are the same for chip budding and T-budding, the cuts made
in chip budding differ radically. The first cut on both stock and scion is made at
a 450 to 600 downward angle to a depth of about 1/8 inch. After making this cut
on a smooth part of the rootstock, start the second cut about 3/4 inch higher and
draw the knife down to meet the first cut. (The exact spacing between the cuts
varies with species and the size of the buds.) Then remove the chip. Cuts on both
the scion (to remove the bud) and the rootstock (to insert the bud) should be
exactly the same. Although the exact location is not essential, the bud is usually
positioned one-third of the way down from the beginning of the cut. If the bud
shield is significantly narrower than the rootstock cut, line up one side exactly.

Securing the bud: Wrapping is extremely important in chip budding. If all

exposed edges of the cut are not covered, the bud will dry out before it can take.
Chip budding has become more popular over the past 5 years because of the
availability of thin polyethylene tape as a wrapping material. This tape is
wrapped to overlap all of the injury, including the bud, and forms a miniature
plastic greenhouse over the healing graft.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 44 Bakshi & Wali

Budding Aftercare

Although budding rubbers and polyethylene tape reportedly decompose and need not be removed,
studies show that unless they are taken off, binding or girdling of fast growing plants like Bradford pear
may occur within a month. Summer buds should take in two to three weeks. On species budded in early
summer, it may be desirable for the buds to break and grow during the same season. In this case, either
remove the stock tops entirely or break them over within a few weeks of budding to encourage the scion
buds to break. Once the buds have broken, completely remove the stock above the bud.

iv. Patch Budding

This type of budding is quite successful in guava and it gives 60
to70 percent success during May and June. Freshly cut angular bud-
wood from current season‟s growth should be used as scion. A
rectangular or square patch or piece of bark about 1.0-1.5 cm broad and
2.5 cm long is removed from the rootstock (as shown in figure) at about
15 to 20 cm from ground level. A similar patch with a bud on it is
removed from the bud stick taking care not to split the bark beneath the
bud. This patch is then transferred to rootstock and fixed smoothly at its
new position and tied immediately with polythene strip. To have better
a. Removal of patch from
success, a patch having two buds is used as scion instead of a single bud. Thisrootstock;
method b. taking similar size
patch from scion and c. fixing
is termed as improved patch budding method.

Grafting is another method of vegetative propagation, where two plant parts are joined together
in such a manner that they unite and continue their growth as one plant. In this method, the scion twig
has more than two buds on it. It is commonly done in pear, peach, plum, almond, mango etc. In
temperate fruits like peach, plum and almond grafting is done when the plants are dormant, while in
mango it is done when the trees are in active growth. The important methods of grafting used in fruit
crops under Jammu conditions are tongue grafting, cleft grafting, approach grafting, side grafting and
veneer grafting.
i. Tongue Grafting
It is an improved method over whip grafting. This method
gives greater surface for root-stock and scion come into contact with
each other to make a strong union. In this method scion is prepared in
the same manner as in whip grafting but another vertical cut on the
rootstock and scion (1.25 – 2.0 cm) in length are given in tongue shape a. Stock and scion b. grafting union wrapped with polythene

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 45 Bakshi & Wali

in such a way as to perfect interlocking. After matching the cambium layer of rootstock and scion unite
them together with the application of wax on the joint before wrapping with polythene strip. After
completing the union between stock and scion, the rootstock is cut just above the graft union. This
method is practiced in mango during late rainy season.
ii. Cleft grafting
This is also known as wedge grafting. This method is
useful in the nursery where the rootstock is quite thicker than scion
and tongue grafting cannot be employed successfully. The stock up
to 8 cm in thickness can be grafted with this method. The rootstock
to be grafted is cut smoothly with a secateur or saw. It is then split
in the middle down to about 4 cm. The bud stick having 3 to 4 buds
is trimmed like a wedge at the lower end with outer side slightly
broader than the inner side. The lower bud on the scion should be
located just well in to the stock making sure that the cambium
layers of both the stock and scion are perfectly matched. Cleft a. Preparation of scion & rootstock; b. grafting and
tying with polythene strip
grafting is done during dormant period.
iii. Approach Grafting
This method of grafting is termed approach grafting, as
the rootstock is approached to the scion, while it is still
attached to the mother plant. Alternatively the mother plants
are trained to be low headed and the stock is sown under their
canopy. Last week of July or the first week of August is the
best period for approach grafting. In this method the diameter
of rootstock and scion should be approximately the same. A
slice of bark along with a thin piece of wood about 4 cm long is
removed from matching portions of both the stock and the scion. They are then brought together making
sure that their cambium layers make contact at least on one side. These grafts are then tied firmly with
polythene strip or any other tying material. The stock and scion plants are watered regularly to hasten the
union. The union is complete in about 2 to 3 months. A cut is then given to the scion shoot about half
way through its thickness. If the shoot does not show any sign of wilting for a week or so it is completely
detached from the mother plant. In case the scion starts wilting it shows that the union is not complete. In
such cases the scions are detached from the mother plants after some days when the union is complete.
The method is commonly followed in mango. This method is also called inarching.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 46 Bakshi & Wali

iv. Side Grafting : A three sided rectangular cut about 4 x 1.25 cm is made on the rootstock at a height
of about 15-20 cm from the ground level and the bark of the demarcated portion is lifted away (Plate 8)
from the rootstock. A matching cut is also made on the base of the scion to expose cambium. The scion
should be prepared well before the actual grafting is done. The healthy scion shoots from the last mature
flush are selected for this purpose. The selected
scion shoots should have plump terminal buds.
After the selection of the scion shoots, remove the
leaf blades, leaving petioles intact. In about 7 to 10
days the petioles shall drop and terminal buds
become swollen. At this stage the scion stick
should be detached from the mother tree and
grafted on the stock. The prepared scion is inserted
under the bark flap of the rootstock so that the a. Preparation of rootstock; b. preparation of scion and c.
exposed cambia of the two components are in grafting and tying with polythene

close contact with each other. The bark flap of the rootstock is resorted in its position. The graft union is
then tied firmly with polythene strip. After the completion of the grafting operation, a part of the top of
rootstock is removed to encourage growth of the scion. When the scion has sprouted and its leaves turned
green, the root stock portion above the graft union should be cut away. Side grafting can be carried out
successfully from March to October; but success during the May and October is rather low. This method
of propagation is commonly used in mango.
v. Veneer Grafting
In this method, a shallow downward cut of about 4 cm long
is given on the rootstock at a height of about 15-20 cm from the
ground level. At the base of this cut, a second short downward and
inward cut is made to join the first cut, so as to remove a piece of
wood and bark. The scion is prepared exactly as in side grafting. The
cuts on the rootstock and scion shoot should be of the same length
and width so that the cambial layers of both components match each
other. Then, the prepared scion is inserted into the rootstock and tied
security with polythene strip. After the union is complete the stock is
a. Preparation of rootstock; b. preparation
cut back, leaving time for doing veneer grafting. of scion and c. grafting and tying with
polythene

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 47 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-10

Training and pruning

Training: Training is done primarily to train or shapen the tree so that it has well distributed strong
scaffold branches capable of bearing heavy crops over the years without breakage of limbs. Training
starts from planting a tree. Fruit trees are trained so that the least amount of shading occurs inside the tree
canopy. A tree that is pyramidal in shape exposes a greater percentage of total leaf surface to adequate
sunlight.
Pruning: Pruning is done to remove a portion of the tree to improve its shape, to influence its growth,
flowering and fruiting and to improve the fruit quality. Pruning also open up the tree form for sunlight,
air and ease of chemical spraying resulting in regular production of good quality fruits.

Objectives of training:
1. To develop a strong tree structure that can support heavy crops without limb breakage.
2. To facilitate more crop load
3. To bring a young tree into production at an early age.

Training and pruning of important fruit crops

1. Apple
For apple, there are two commonly used
training systems. The best one to use depends upon
mature tree size. The open centre training sys tem is
more traditional and is used for very large trees. This
system controls tree height, but at the expense of light
inside the tree canopy. Full sized open centre trees are
becoming less and less common. The central leader
training system is ideal for semi dwarf trees. The cone
shape of this tree allows more light to reach the inside
of the canopy. To achieve the cone shape, the upper
limbs must be shorter than the lower limbs. They
cause heavy shading of the lower limbs, when they are
too long. Another important aspect of this system is the wide spacing between the upper and lower limbs.
They should be separated by a space of at least 90 cm.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 48 Bakshi & Wali

Pruning correctly improves the fruit quality and
increases the value of the crop. A pruned tree has
more apples with a greater degree of red colour
and larger fruit size. Pruned trees are also easier to
manage. A pruned tree has a more open canopy
allowing sprays to contact all parts, so better
disease control is achieved. It also reduces tree
size and the density of canopy making it easier to
reach the fruit. Apple trees are full sun loving
plants as they need a lot of light to form fruit buds
and to set fruits. Semi-dwarf trees, because of
their large size, can have parts of canopy that are
heavily shaded. Full shade is bad for fruit
production. Pruning increases flowering and A. Central leader B. Open centre

enhances red colour because it eliminates same in the shade. The un-pruned tree has a greater proportion
of canopy not getting enough light. The un-pruned trees even though larger, are not more productive than
smaller pruned trees.

2. Peaches

Open centre system of training involves pruning techniques that result in the development of 3-4
scaffold branches arising near each other on the trunk. All the scaffold branches should be pruned to
encourage equal size in development, equal spacing around the trunk and where possible scaffold
branches arising at 18-24 inches from the ground. All kind of trees can be trained to open centre system,
but this system is especially adaptable to peach trees, however, the steps can be applied to other fruits as
well. In peach and other trees trained to this system, the primary scaffold branches produce wide angled
crotches with the trunk. These trees possess a high degree of winter hardiness in the framework.
Preferred crotch angles are 60 and 900.

The peach trees bear fruits on the last season‟s growth. If the peach tree is not pruned the bearing area
goes on extending away from the tree centre. The tree becomes leggy, and the center of the tree becomes
barren. The peaches are therefore pruned a little heavier than pear to renew the bearing wood every year.
Numerous small cuts are made and dormant shoots are removed. This type of pruning also helps in
thinning the crop and allowing more light to penetrate the tree, thus enhancing the fruit quality. After
every 4-5 years, bigger branches should also be headed back to 1.25 to 2 metres. This would encourage

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 49 Bakshi & Wali

the formation of new fruiting wood on the tree. Such renewal should be completed by heading back all
the scaffold branches in the dormant season i.e. December-January. The pruning cuts < 2.5 cm in
diameter heal themselves, but there is a danger of infection in case of bigger cuts. These should be
covered with Bordeaux paste. Pruning should be done when the trees are dormant.

3. Pear
Pear trees in our state are not well trained and are left to
themselves with the result that the trees become unproductive,
crowded and unmanageable. The pear trees should be properly
trained for obtaining good yield of better quality fruit over a
long period of time. The training of pear trees start right at the
planting time. The trees should be trained according to the
Modified central leader system. Experience has shown that this
is the best system as the trees trained to this system have strong
framework and are comparatively low headed as compared with
those trained by the Central leader system and are easy to
manage. In modified central leader system the tree canopy is
managed in such a way so as to receive maximum light intensity
and variation for better growth and quality of fruit by combining
the advantages of central leader and open centre system. Modified Central leader system
Material: Secateur, pruning saw, ladder, Bordeaux paste.
Procedure: One-year-old dormant plants (whips) are obtained from the nursery and are planted in the
field. At the planting time, they are headed back 1-1.25 m from the ground level. This plant would
develop many shoots during the next growing season. Next year, during February, 4-6 lateral branches
should be selected which are located all around the trunk, and the remaining shoots be removed. The
lowest branch on the stem should be not less than half a meter from the ground level. These laterals will
make the permanent framework of the tree. They are allowed to grow along with a central leader in such
a way that one does not outgrow and depress others. In such a case the shoots are headed back so that the
remaining branches catch up with it.
The pruning during the next 3 or 4 years should only be of corrective type. It means that only the criss-
crossing, diseased and dead branches be removed. Thus, the tree develops secondary and tertiary
branches and build a strong framework for future cropping.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 50 Bakshi & Wali

Modifying the leader:
The central leader is modified in the fifth year by cutting it to a lateral. No more pruning is needed at this
stage.
Pruning of young trees: Pruning of fruit trees is done keeping in view their fruiting habits. Pear, like
apples, bears fruit on shoots of limited growth called the spurs. These spurs make only a few millimeters
growth every year and remain productive for 12-15 years. In pear, therefore, pruning of bearing trees for
the first 10-12 years is very light. Only those branches are removed which grow towards the centre or are
drooping. Diseased and dead branches should also be removed. If the pruning is severe at this stage, it
will be at the cost of fruiting.
Pruning of old trees: The productivity of the spurs is greatly reduced after bearing fruits for 12-15 years
and the fruiting wood should, therefore, be renewed. This is done by heading back all the main scaffold
branches to 30 cm in one year when the plants are dormant in January. The tree again develops new
fruiting spurs and start bearing fruit after 2-3 years and continue for another decade.

The pruning cuts less than 2.5 cm in diameter heal themselves but there is danger of infection in
case of bigger cuts. These should, should, therefore be covered with Bordeaux paste. Pruning should be
done when the trees are dormant. Early February is the best period for pruning pear.

4. Guava

In guava initial training is necessary for the development of strong framework and at 60-90 cm
from the ground level, the trunk should be cleaned and allowed for 4-5 scaffold branches spaced at 20-25
cm in different directions. The flowers and fruits in this fruit are borne on current season shoots,
therefore to encourage new shoots after harvesting, a light pruning give good results for the next season.
In high density planting, regular pruning is required for canopy management and suppression of shading
effect.

5. Grape
Grape is one fruit which greatly
responds to training and pruning. Training of
grapevine is done to develop a strong and
permanent framework. The pruning on the other
hand is done to distribute the bearing wood over
Before
the vine and to regulate the crops. To have
After
productive grape vines, that produce quality
fruit, the vines must be trained and pruned to a definite system. Buds on one-year-old dormant wood

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 51 Bakshi & Wali

produces next year shoots on which fruit clusters or bunches develop. Each shoot produces 0 to 4 or 5
bunches. There are many training systems of grapes which have its own advantages and disadvantages.
The choice of training system depends upon the bearing habit and vigour of a cultivar. Perlette, which is
medium vigorous cultivar performed well in Jammu province and should be trained on Head or Kniffin
system. Of all the systems of grape training currently used in Jammu region, Head system is the cheapest
and easiest to maintain. Both the Kniffin and Telephone systems are comparatively more expensive to
establish but Bower is the costliest. The severity of pruning depends upon the bearing habit of a cultivar.
There are two systems of pruning: Spur pruning and Cane pruning. Those cultivars which bear at the
basal portion of the cane are spur pruned, each spur having four buds, e.g. Perlette, while those cultivars
which away from the basal portion such as Thompson seedless are cane pruned leaving 8-10 buds.

6. Ber
Trees are trained to develop a strong framework during the first 2-3 years after planting. During
this period, ber trees should be trained to develop a strong framework. After that old growth is beheaded
during March keeping 1-2 nodes above the graft union to induce vigorous new growth. One upright
growing vigorous shoot is retained to develop into main trunk which is kept clean of secondary branches
up to 30cm height from the ground level. On the main trunk, 3 or 4 well-spaced and favourably located
main branches are allowed above when it is headed back. During the second year, these main branches
are also clipped retaining 3-4 secondary branches on each of them. This process is continued to develop
tertiary branches. Upward growing shoots are retained at each stage to develop an upright tree stature.
Not more than one upright growing shoot is retained at a node so that narrow crotches are avoided. This
basic frame of the tree is maintained by removing of water sprouts as and when they emerge. Correction
in the framework is done at the time of annual pruning.
Annual pruning in ber is essential to induce maximum number of new healthy shoots which
would bear good quality fruits. It is also essential to remove the undesirable, weak, intercrossing,
diseased and broken branches to avoid crowding and to encourage healthy growth for maximum fruit
bearing. Pruning is done during the hot and dry season when the tree sheds leaves and enters into
dormancy. In Jammu, pruning should be completed by the last week of May. Severity of pruning also
differs at different locations. In general, light pruning, at about 25 buds, is the best. However, pruning
could be done at 15-20 buds under more moderate climatic conditions. All the secondary shoots should
be completely removed. To avoid the occurrence of long unfruitful basal portions of branches as a result
of light pruning for several years, half the past season‟s shoots are pruned to 20 buds and the remaining
half to the basal 1 or 2 nodes. Spraying of 3% thiourea or potassium nitrate once in 2 days before pruning
induces bud sprouting from maximum number of nodes.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 52 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-11

Methods of irrigation in fruit crops

Irrigation is one of the most important components of the orchards and it should be need based.
The low or excess irrigation as well as the inappropriate irrigation interval can result in inappropriate
growth of citrus plants and hence results in low yield of poor quality fruit. Moreover, underground water
table is constantly depleting by the existing cropping pattern and creating sacristy of water resources,
hence, irrigation is becoming a critical input as the bulk of annual rainfall is restricted primarily in the
monsoon season i.e. July to September. It is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is used to
assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils
in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in
crop production, which include protecting plants against frost and helping in preventing soil
consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rainfed or dryland
farming. The various methods of irrigation which can be employed for irrigating orchards are as under:

i) Flood system

In flood irrigation system, orchards are irrigated by

flooding of the border strips which are connected to water
source by a water channel. Water distributed by this method
is not uniform and large amount of water is required to
obtain the desired results. This method not only results in
wastage of irrigation water but also invites fungal diseases
like Phytophthora foot and root rot. Many farmers sow wheat
as a intercrop in citrus orchard during the rabi season using
the same border strip for irrigating both wheat and kinnow plants. Consequently, irrigation to the wheat
is withheld from mid March until harvesting and threshing of wheat. This system induces water stress in
the plants as the plants need lot of water for survival and growth during these hot and dry period and
eventually several plants may die. So, the irrigation channels should be separately made for both fruit
and intercrop.

ii) Basin system

To avoid water loss, basin system should be used during initial few years of orchard
establishment. In this system a circular basin, a little wider than the tree canopy is made around the

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 53 Bakshi & Wali

young plant and this basin is linked with one another through
straight channel. There is less wastage of water and weed growth
would remain checked. Since the water passing through the
channel remains in contact with the tree trunk, so there will be
more risk of bark diseases. Nevertheless, in this system the inter
space left between these channels can be used successfully for
cultivation of intercrops like moong, mash, gram, lentil and wheat-
guar.

iii) Modified basin system

In bearing orchards, to reduce risk of water transmissible

disease, modified basin method should be used invariably over the
flood irrigation. This method involves modification of basin method
and in this system water supplying channel runs between the tree rows
and basin of individual trees are independently linked through small
sub-channels. However there are few disadvantages of this system like
intercropping is not possible and it involves more effort to supply water to individual tree. Under field
conditions it has also been seen that some innovative farmers are making combined basin for groups of 3
to 4 plants in a row to reduce the hassle during irrigation operation.

iv) Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is also known as „trickle irrigation‟ involves dripping water onto the soil at very
low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter
plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water
is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which
the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation,
which involves wetting the whole soil profile. With drip
irrigation water, applications are more frequent (usually every 1-
3 days) than with other methods and this provides a very
favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish. Under water scarcity conditions,
drip irrigation method should be used as it is an efficient means of irrigation and 2 to 3 times more
economical than conventional system. The drip system supplies water to meet the daily requirement of
fruit crop at low pressure. Thus, it maintains an optimum moisture and nutrient in the wetted root zone
for greater water and nutrient efficiency. This method of irrigation has great potential in salt affected

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 54 Bakshi & Wali

soils of arid region, where a small amount of good quality canal water can be stored in reservoirs and
subsequently used for irrigation by using sand filters. Similarly, in kandi region of state where the
topography is undulated and water is very scares and deep drip irrigation system can be used in meeting
the daily water requirement of the orchards. Due to less spread of plants under the drip irrigation, closer
plant spacing is the best method for drip irrigated orchards. This method can be the most water-efficient
method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. In modern
agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also
the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.

Suitable crops

Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops (soft fruit), tree and vine crops where one or more
emitters can be provided for each plant. Generally only high value crops are considered because of the
high capital costs of installing a drip system.

Suitable slopes

This is adaptable to any farmable slope. Normally the crop would be planted along contour lines
and the water supply pipes (laterals) would be laid along the contour also. This is done to minimize
changes in emitter discharge as a result of land elevation changes.

Suitable soils

Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils. On clay soils water must be applied slowly to avoid
surface water ponding and runoff. On sandy soils, higher emitter discharge rates will be needed to ensure
adequate lateral wetting of the soil.

Suitable irrigation water

One of the main problems with drip irrigation is blockage of the emitters. All emitters have very
small waterways ranging from 0.2-2.0 mm in diameter and these can become blocked if the water is not
clean. Thus, it is essential for irrigation water to be free of sediments. If this is not so, then filtration of
the irrigation water will be needed. Blockage may also occur if the water contains algae, fertilizer
deposits and dissolved chemicals which precipitate such as calcium and iron. Filtration may remove
some of the materials but the problem may be complex to solve and requires an experienced engineer or
consultation with the equipment dealer. This system is particularly suitable for water of poor quality
(saline water). Dripping water to individual plants also means that the method can be very efficient in
water use. For this reason it is most suitable when water is scarce.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 55 Bakshi & Wali

Drip System Layout

A typical drip irrigation consists of the following components:

 Pump unit
 Control head
 Main and submain lines
 Laterals
 Emitters or drippers.

The pump unit takes water from the

source and provides the right pressure
for delivery into the pipe system. The
control head consists of valves to
control the discharge and pressure in the
entire system. It may also have filters to
clear the water. Common types of filter
include screen filters and graded sand
filters which remove fine material
suspended in the water. Some control
head units contain a fertilizer or nutrient
tank. These slowly add a measured dose
of fertilizer into the water during irrigation. This is one of the major advantages of drip irrigation over
other methods. The mainlines, sub-mains and laterals supply water from the control head into the fields.
They are usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried below ground because they
easily degrade when exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes are usually 13-32 mm diameter. The
emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral to the plants. They
are usually spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more emitters used for a single plant such as a
tree. For row crops, more closely spaced emitters may be used to wet a strip of soil. Many different
emitter designs have been produced in recent years. The basis of design is to produce an emitter which
will provide a specified constant discharge which does not vary much with pressure changes, and does
not block easily.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 56 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-12

Methods of fertilizer application in fruit crops

The method of fertilizer application should be appropriate taking into consideration the age of
trees, their root extensibility, type of orchard management, kind and amount of fertilizers to be applied.
The various methods are as follows:
i. Broadcasting
It consists of spreading the fertilizers uniformly over the entire field. This is applicable in full
bearing or closely bearing orchards.
ii. Band\ Strip placement
This placement can be made either in bands or trenches around the trees or fertilizers are drilled
or injected into the soil. This method is commonly used when fertilizers in small quantities to young
trees and when P and K fertilizers need to be incorporated into the root zone or in case of plants with
poorly developed root systems.
iii. Foliar application
The spraying entails applications either with manually operated or with power sprays. Generally
foliar sprays include micronutrients application or nutrient which cannot easily be supplied through soils.
This is followed as a means of fertilizer application in fruit trees, which must be sprayed at regular
intervals to affect the growth and fruit quality. Foliar application has been found to be more successful
on lighter soils than on heavier soils that are high in organic matter. Foliar spraying can be used to apply
nutrients like nitrogen or supplementary trace elements such as iron, magnesium, boron and calcium.
Foliar applications are most effective during early growth. The use of surfactants or spreaders, such as
soap solutions, can enhance nutrient uptake through leaf tissue. To avoid leaf burn, nutrient sprays
should not be applied during hot weather. Never apply pesticides and nutrients together. The fertilizer
may also be applied either as injections to tree trunks or as dabs to cover the pruning wounds as is done
in grapes. Application of concentrated fertilizers should not be applied too close to the trunks. Each
fertilizer application should be followed by copious irrigation.

Fertilizer application through the irrigation system (Fertigation)

Uniform water application is essential when an irrigation system is used for fertilizer application.
Sprinkler operating pressure uniformity can be checked by inserting a pressure gauge in the nozzle. The
minimum pressure should be 30 lb/sq in. (200 kPa). Pressure from nozzle to nozzle should not vary more
than 20%. Fertilizers that can be spread by irrigation include ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate,

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 57 Bakshi & Wali

calcium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, muriate of potash, urea and borax. Do not use irrigation to apply
phosphoric acid (a corrosive element), anhydrous ammonia (solutions will be lost to the air), or super
phosphate and lime (cannot be dissolved in water). To apply, fertilizer is dissolved in a drum, then
introduced into the irrigation line through a valve-either by suction or by pressure over a 10 to 15 minute
period. After the application is completed, continue irrigating for 30 minutes. To avoid burning the
foliage, the system must be run until the plants are rinsed with water free of fertilizers. Do not fertilize at
the beginning of irrigation because nutrients may be leached out of the root zone by water applied after
the fertilizer injection.
 Application of fertilizers
In order to obtain maximum benefits and to minimize possibilities of any adverse effects it is
important that fertilization should be done at appropriate time in suitable manner
 Time of application
In North India, where summer and winter seasons are well marked, there are definite periods of
growth and dormancy or rest for fruit trees. From February to April the fruit trees have the highest
requirements of nutrients for vegetation, flowering and fruit setting. To be effective, the nutrients must
be readily available at a time when these are needed the most. The best time of applying N-fertilizers is
about two weeks prior to the initiation of growth and flowering. If the quantity is small, the application
can be made in a single dose. However, if it is large, split the quantity in two equal doses i.e. one before
the initiation of growth and second after fruit set. The P-fertilizers should be applied along the nitrogen
fertilizers. The K-fertilizers should be applied in spring or in some fruit trees about 4-5 weeks prior to
fruit maturity as it improves fruit quality. The time of application of micro-nutrients depends upon the
kind of fruit tree and the severity of deficiency. If the deficiency is mild, one spray in April may be
enough, but if it is acute 4-5 repeated sprays at monthly intervals may be needed to correct the
deficiency. Usually the sprays are more effective than soil applications. However, in soils with neutral
pH, soil application may be attempted either with pure chemicals or with chelated compounds. The time
of soil application is same as for other fertilizers.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 58 Bakshi & Wali

 Exercise-13

Preparation of growth regulators for propagation

Growth regulator is a broad term and all growth regulating compounds either endogenously or
exogenously produced comes under this category. In relation to plants, terms like hormones or phyto-
hormones are synonymous to each other. Plant hormones are organic compounds, other than nutrients,
produced by plants, which in low concentrations regulate plant physiological processes. The horticulture
industry is indirectly dependent on plant growth regulators as these are exclusively used for different
purposes in all stages of the plant growth for desired manipulations viz., treatment of seeds for enhancing
their germination, rooting, flowering, fruiting, yield, ripening and as postharvest treatments for better
shelf-life. For the propagation of cuttings and layers, treatments of different growth regulators are used
for inducing roots in them. These are applied as powders, solutions or pastes. Most of the hormones are
not easily dissolved in water. Thus, it is necessary to dissolve them first in a suitable solvent. The growth
regulators are required in a very minute quantity, therefore, precise weighing is of utmost importance and
any mistake can be harmful for the plant. The different preparations of growth regulators are as follows:

 Powders
The required quantity of the hormone is weighed precisely with the help of sensitive balance for
the preparation of hormonal powders. It is dissolved in ½ litre ethanol, methanol or acetone in a beaker.
This material is poured into one kilogram of talc taken in mortar and mixed thoroughly with a glass rod.
After mixing, the mixture is kept open in air for few hours. The alcohol will evaporate soon, after which,
the dried talc is ground to a fine powder. This fine powder should be kept in air tight containers to avoid
moistening and can be used as and when required.
 Solutions
For the preparation of hormonal solutions, the required quantity of hormone is weighed
accurately in a physical or electronic balance. It is then dissolved in few drops of acetone or alcohol. The
final volume is made with distilled water after the complete dilution of contents. The pH of the solution
should be neutral. In case, the pH of the solution would be high or less, it may not serve the purpose,
rather it would affect the process adversely. The pH of the solution can be adjusted with the help of 0.1 N
HCl or 0.1 N KOH. All the hormonal solutions should preferably be prepared fresh and can be stored at
low temperature in a refrigerator for some time but stored preparations may loose their properties and
become inactive.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 59 Bakshi & Wali

  Pastes
The required quantity of the hormone is weighed and dissolved completely in few drops of
alcohol. The required quantity of the lanolin (a product similar to grease and have greenish-yellow in
colour) is also weighed and heated slightly in a beaker under gentle flame. When, the lanolin is slightly
liquidified, the dissolved hormone is poured in it. The contents are dissolved thoroughly with constant
stirring with a glass rod. The contents are then allowed to cool down. The paste is thus ready for use.
Precautions to be taken
 A proper solvent like acetone or alcohol etc should be used so as to dissolve the growth regulators.
 At once, a minute quantity of hormone is used. So, don‟t buy more than what is required.
 Check the date of expiry of the hormone.
 The weighing of growth regulators should be done precisely and accurately on an electronic balance.
 These hormones are photo-sensitive and photo-degradation occur if exposed to light. Thus, these
should be stored in dark or amber coloured bottles.
 The solutions should always be made fresh.

Practical Manual (FRTS-111) 60 Bakshi & Wali

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