Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 65

i+r = 2j (5.27)

In this case, the total number of unknowns will be equal to the

total number of equations available (at joints).
The conditions for determinacy are as follows:

i. If i + r = 2j, the truss is stable and internally

determinate.
ii. If i + r > 2j, the truss is stable but internally
FIGURE 5.11 Wall yielding due to thermal stress. indeterminate.
iii. If i + r < 2j, the truss is unstable.
5.3 STATICALLY DETERMINATE MEMBERS
A structure will have determinacy and indeterminacy only if
A structure is regarded as the assembly of a number of com- the structure is stable.
ponents, such as walls, beams, slabs, columns, foundations,
etc., that stay in balance. It is usually categorized in two cat-
egories as determinate and indeterminate or redundant struc-
5.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
tures. Determinate structures are assessed using fundamental ELASTIC CONSTANTS
equilibrium equations. Examples of determinate structures Elastic constants represent the stress–strain relationship
include cantilever beams, simply supported beams, overhang- within the elastic limit. The modulus of elasticity or Young
ing beams, three hinged arches, etc. modulus (E), Bulk modulus (K), and Modulus of rigidity or
shear modulus (N, C, or G) are the various kinds of elastic
5.3.1 DETERMINACY AND STABILITY constants. Young’s modulus E is the slope of the stress–strain
curve in uniaxial tension. Lateral to longitudinal strain in
A speci ed structure is regarded to be externally determinate uniaxial tensile stress is regarded as Poisson’s ratio (υ). It is
when the total number of reaction components is equal to the therefore dimensionless and typically ranges from 0.2 to 0.49
available number of equilibrium equations. In other words, and for most metals is around 0.3. The bulk modulus assesses
determinacy is ascertained as: the solid resistance to changes in volume even without any
massive variation in shape or form. It is usually large (bigger
r = 3n, statically determinate (5.26a) than E). The shear modulus assesses its resistance to shear
deformations preserving volume and is characterized as the
r > 3n, statically determinate (5.26b) relationship between shear stress and shear strain. Generally,
its value is rather smaller than E. The relationship between the
where n is the total parts of structural members and r is the total elasticity modulus (E), the shear modulus (G), and the Poisson
unknown number of reactive force and moment components. ratio is as follows:

E
5.3.2 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS G= (5.28)
2 1+
A structure is regarded to be statically indeterminate when
the number of independent equations of equilibrium is less The bulk modulus of elasticity K
than the internal resisting forces or the reactive forces over a
cross section. E
K= = (5.29)
Examples of indeterminate structures include xed beams, 3 1− 2 ∆V V
continuous beams, xed arches, two hinged arches, portals,
multistorey frames, etc. where V = the volume and ΔV = the volume change. The ratio
ΔV/V = volumetric strain and is expressed as
5.3.3 TRUSS STRUCTURES ∆V 3 1− 2
= = (5.30)
A truss is a structure consisting of bars or links, presumed to V K E
be linked to the joints by frictionless pins and organized in
such a way that the area only within the limits of the struc- 5.5 PRINCIPAL PLANES AND
ture is segmented by the bars into geometric gures that are
PRINCIPAL STRESSES
normally triangles. Internal determinacy is a kind of indeter-
minacy associated with trusses. The overall shape of a truss The maximum and minimum normal stresses which can
is a triangle. If j is the estimated number of joints, i is the occur in a material are called the principal stresses. The
estimated number of links, and r is the minimal number of major principal stress is the maximum normal stress, whereas
external determinacy/stability reactions required, the minimum normal stress is referred to as minor principal
66 Practical Civil Engineering

stress. The planes upon which normal stress reaches its maxi-
mum and minimum value are, respectively, known as major
and minor principal planes. Shear stress on principal planes
is zero.

5.5.1 PRINCIPAL AXIS

The principal axis is the axis in which the inertial moment
is maximum or minimum and the inertial product is zero.
The principal plane is a stress property, whereas the principal
axis is a moment of inertia property. There is no relationship
between the principal axis and the principal plane.
FIGURE 5.13 Principal stresses, σ1 and σ 2, at principal angle, θp.

5.5.2 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM NORMAL STRESS

The rotation of the stress condition of a stress element can
give stresses to any angle shown in Figure 5.12. The angle
at which the maximum (or minimum) normal stress is devel-
oped can be obtained as follows:
Equation for the stress transformation in x or y direction is

x + y x − y
n = + cos 2 + xy sin 2 (5.31a)
2 2
where σn is the normal stress acting on the inclined plane. To
maximize (or minimize) the stress, the derivative of σn with
respect to the rotation angle θ is equated to zero and the incli-
nation angle is computed from Equation 5.31b.

2 xy
Maximum shear stresses, τmax, at angle, θτ−max.
tan 2 p = (5.31b) FIGURE 5.14
x − y

The angle θp as shown in Figure 5.13 can be replaced back

into the rotation stress equation to get the original maximum 5.5.3 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
and minimum stress values. These stresses are regarded as the Shear stress will have a maximum value at a given angle
principal stresses, σ1 and σ 2, which are generally expressed as, θτ − max as shown in Figure 5.14. If τn is the shear stress acting
on the inclined plane,
2
+ −
= x y
±  x y  + 2
(5.32)
1,2
2  2  xy
x − y
n =− sin 2 + xy cos 2 (5.33)
2
Shear stress, τn, will become zero if the stress element is
rotated by θp. Maximum shear stress is computed as:

2
−
=  x y  + 2
(5.34)
max
 2  xy

5.6 MOHR’S CIRCLE METHOD

The Mohr circle is a two-dimensional pictorial portrayal of
the Cauchy stress tensor transformation law. The stress ele-
ments acting on a rotated coordinate system that acts on a
different plane passing through a point can be visually exhib-
ited and can be determined using the Mohr circle. The mag-
nitudes of normal stress ( n ) as abscissa and that of shear
stress as ordinate, ( n) of each point on the circle, acting on
FIGURE 5.12 Rotating stresses from x–y coordinate system to the rotated coordinate system are shown in Figure 5.15. This
new xʹ–yʹ coordinate system. can also be demonstrated as, when the axes represent the
Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 67

where

2
1
R =  −  + 2
(5.36(i))

x y xy
2
and

1
avg = x + y (5.36(ii))
2
This represents the equation of a circle (the Mohr circle) in
the form
2
x−a 2 + y−b = r2 (5.37)

with radius r = R centered at a point with coordinates

a,  b = avg , 0 in the n ,  n system.
In the convention on physical-space signs, normal stresses
acting outside the action plane are regarded positive (tension)
and normal stresses acting inside the action plane are deemed
FIGURE 5.15 Mohr’s circles for a three-dimensional state of negative (compression). Shear stresses in the positive direc-
stress. tion of an axis acting on the positive faces of the material
element are perceived positive. Shear stresses on the negative
principal axes of stresses, the Mohr’s circle is the locus of faces of the material element are also termed positive in the
points that at all inclinations truly represent the stress state negative direction of the axis
on individual planes.
5.7 COMBINED STRESSES
5.6.1 EQUATION OF THE MOHR CIRCLE
5.7.1 STRESSES DEVELOPED THROUGH AXIAL LOAD
A two-dimensional in nitesimal material element around a
COMBINATIONS AND BENDING MOMENTS
material point P, as shown in Figure 5.16, with a unit area in
the direction parallel to the y-z plane, can be regarded to gen- The simple stress developed when a member is axially loaded
erate the Mohr circle equations for the two-dimensional cases
of plane stress and plane strain shown in Equations 5.35–5.37. P
= (5.38)
A
2 2
 1  + 1
 n − x + y

2
n =  x − y
 +

2
xy (5.35) The stress for a lateral load (bending) member is given by
2 2
My
2 = (5.39)
n − avg + 2
n = R2 (5.36) I
The stresses in quoted equations are normal for the cross sec-
tion of the member. The resulting stress behaving on the sec-
tion due to the combined action of the axial load P and the
bending moment M is determined by the arithmetical sum of
the direct stress and the exural stress. The stress equation is
usually written in the form:

P My
=± ± (5.40)
A I

5.7.2 DIRECT SHEAR IN ASSOCIATION WITH TORSION

If a shaft with a circular cross section is exposed to a torque
at any point, the shearing stress due to the applied torque is
administered by

FIGURE 5.16 Stress components in a plane passing through a con- Tr

= (5.41)
tinuum point under plane stress conditions. J
68 Practical Civil Engineering

When a direct shear force acts on a beam of any section at any 5.8.2 DUCTILITY
point, the shear stress is exerted by
Ductility of the material can be described as its ability to
V undergo large deformations before failure. Ductile materials
= A′y′ (5.42) exhibit the phenomenon of yielding. Ductility is measured by
Ib
the length, elongation percentage, and the tension test area
The consequent shearing stress due to direct shear and torsion reduction percentage.
is given as follows by the algebraic sum:

Tr V 5.8.3 ELASTICITY
= ± A′y′ (5.43)
J Ib It is a property of the material, in which the stresses devel-
The positive or negative signs in Equation 5.43 depends on the oped due to the applied load will disappear when the load is
shearing stresses that act along the same line of action or in removed.
opposite directions.
5.8.4 HARDNESS
5.7.3 STRESSES PRODUCED DUE TO COMBINED Hardness of a material refers to its resistance to scratching,
ACTION OF BENDING AND TORSION abrasion, or indentation.
When a shaft is bent and twisted, it is optimal to convey the Initial tangent modulus is the tangent line slope at the start
subsequent direct and shear stresses as the moment and the of the stress–strain chart as can be seen in Figure 5.18.
torque applied. If a bending moment M and torque T act on
a rod together, the stresses on a component at the top of the 5.8.5 MALLEABILITY
rod are as shown in Figure 5.17. Those on the lower surface,
except compressive, are the same. It is a property of the material by which it can be rolled or
beaten up into thin sheets.
My M
The normal stress, = = π (5.44a)
I d3 5.8.6 MODULUS OF RESILIENCE
32
The resilience module is characterized as the total energy
Tr T that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanently
The shear stress, = = π (5.44b)
J d3 distorting the system. It is measured by the integration of
16 the stress–strain curve within the elastic limit. In uniaxial
For solid shaft, tension,
2
1  (5.45a) y
Maximum principal stress, = + 2
+4 2
Ur = (5.46)
2 
x x max
2E

1 where Ur = resilience modulus, σy = yield strength, and E = the

Maximum shear stress, = 2
x +4 2
max (5.45b) Young’s modulus of elasticity.
2

5.8 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

AND THEIR MEASURING PARAMETERS
5.8.1 BRITTLENESS
It is a material property which indicates instant failure with-
out signi cant deformations. A broken material does not yield
and fails without the actual structure being noti ed.

FIGURE 5.17 Combined stresses due to bending and torsion. FIGURE 5.18 Slope of stress–strain curve.
Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis 69

5.8.7 PLASTICITY 5.9.1 TRANSVERSE LOADING

It is a property of the material, in which the material under- Forces extended perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a
goes permanent change in shape without failure under the member are named as cross loads. It bends and de ects the
applied load. member from its previous position. It in turn will lead to the
development of internal tensile and compressive strains along
with the change in the curvature of the member.
5.8.8 PROOF RESILIENCE
Proof resistance is characterized as the total energy absorb-
5.9.2 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM (SFD) AND
able within in the elastic limit without permanent distortion.
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM (BMD)

5.8.9 RELATIVE DENSITY SFD and BMD are two analytical tools that are used in struc-
tural analysis. They are used as an aid in structural design.
Relative density is the ratio of material density to water At a certain point in the structural element, they give the
density. real value of shear force and bending moment. In order to
design a structural member (its type, size, and material) for
5.8.10 RESILIENCE a speci ed set of loads by preventing any structural failure,
these diagrams can be conveniently used. The de ection of
Resilience implies the capacity of a material to absorb energy a beam either using moment area method or the conjugate
when it is elastically deformed and release energy when it is beam method can be calculated by diagrams of shear force
unloaded. and bending moment.

5.8.11 SECANT MODULUS 5.9.3 SIGN CONVENTION

Secant module is the stress-to-strain ratio in a stress-strain When the external forces acting on the beam usually tend
diagram at any point in the curve. It is the line slope from its to shear off the beam at that point, as shown in Figure 5.19,
origin to any point on a curve of stress–strain as shown in it is said that the shear is positive at any given point. At
Figure 5.18. any point in a beam, the bending moment is also positive
when the external forces acting on the beam generally tend
to bend the beam at that point as shown in Figure 5.20.
5.8.12 SPECIFIC MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
If the tendency of the bending moment is to bend so that
Speci c modulus of elasticity is the ratio of modulus of it generates convexity over the center line, this bending
elasticity to relative density of a material. moment is termed as hogging bending moment, as seen in
Figure 5.21. It is quite possible that the bending moment
at a section may bend the member at the section so as to
5.8.13 STIFFNESS
produce concavity above the center line. Such a bending
The capacity of a material to prevent the deformations is
called stiffness. Modulus of elasticity, secant modulus, etc.,
are the measures of stiffness.

5.8.14 TENACITY
It refers to the resistance of rupture of a material due to tearing.

5.8.15 TOUGHNESS
Toughness is characterized as the capacity of a material to FIGURE 5.19 Normal positive shear force convention.
absorb energy and deform without fracturing plastically.

5.9 SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

MOMENTS
Beams are usually long cuboid members. The applied loads
are generally perpendicular to the axis of beam. Bending and
shearing are produced due to the transverse loading in the
beam. Axial forces are produced in the beam only when the
loads are not perpendicular to the beam. FIGURE 5.20 Normal bending moment convention.
70 Practical Civil Engineering

5.9.5 RELATION BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR,

AND BENDING MOMENT
The rate of change in the bending moment, M, relative
to the distance, x, is equal to the shear force, or the slope
of the moment diagram at that point is the shear shown in
Figure 5.36. The rate of change of the shear force, V, is equal
to the shear force with respect to the distance, or the slope of
FIGURE 5.21 Hogging bending. the moment diagram at that point is the shear at that point as
shown in Figure 5.36.

dV
= Load (5.47)
dx

5.10 BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS

At a segment of a beam, the bending moment appears to bend
or de ect the beam, and the internal stress resists bending.
FIGURE 5.22 Sagging bending. The bending process deters when each cross section estab-
lishes full resistance to the bending moment. This resistance
is called bending stress by the internal stresses, and the rel-
moment is called a sagging bending moment as shown in evant theory is called the theory of bending.
Figure 5.22.

5.10.1 ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING

5.9.4 SFD AND BMD FOR DIFFERENT CANTILEVER
The assumptions made in the simple bending hypothesis are
AND SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
as follows:
Table 5.1 shows the loading diagram, shear force, and BMDs
for the cantilever, simply supported, and overhanging types • The beam material is absolutely perfectly homoge-
of beams for various loading patterns at different loading neous (of the same type throughout) and isotropic (in
positions. all directions of the same elastic properties).

TABLE 5.1
SFD and BMD for Various Cases of Loading on Beams
Loading Diagram
SFD
Type of Beam Type of Load Position of Load BMD
Cantilever beam having A concentrated load W At the free end
length ‘l’

(Continued)