SCIENCE

- Early Discovery of Light

- Electromagnetic Waves
- Properties Wave
- Types of Electromagnetic Waves
- Behavior of Light
- Ray Diagramming

 EARLY DISCOVERY OF LIGHT

Euclid of Alexandria (325 BC- 265 BC)

- He postulated that light “coming from the eye” travels in a straight line.
- He worked on the reflection of light.

Claudius Ptolemy (c. 100 CE – c. 170 CE)

- Famous for his geocentric model of the universe

- He studied the refraction of light and color phenomena.

James Bradley (1693-1762)

- He used the apparent change the position of stars as Earth revolves around the Sun to measure
the speed of light.
- The value he obtained was 3.0 × 10 8 m/ s.
- There were earlier attempts in measuring the speed of light by other scientists, including Galileo
Galilei and Ole Roemer but their methods did not yield any useful results. The current value is
at 299 910 000 m/s, which can still be approximated as 3.0 × 10 8 m/s.

 THE PARTICLE AND WAVE MODELS OF LIGHT

1. Particle model

- light is made of a stream of particles traveling in a straight path. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is
among the leading proponents of this model.
- Albert Einstein offered an explanation in 1905. He suggested that light, at least in some
instances, should be considered to be composed of small packets of energy or particles called
photons. He added that the energy of each particle was proportional to the frequency of the
electromagnetic radiation that it was a part of.

2. Wave model

- light is an energy-carrying disturbance or vibration similar to sound and water ripples.

- Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked on a mathematical theory of the wave nature of light.
Reflection is explained as the bouncing of light waves on a material it cannot pass through,
similar to the echo of sound and ocean waves bouncing on a steep cliff while refraction of light is
the slowing down of the waves as light moves to a different medium.
- The wave model also predicted that light is capable of interference, or waves amplifying or
cancelling each other.

The current consensus among scientists is that electromagnetic waves are both wave and particle;
both models are useful in different situations. For example, the wave model is useful in
developing radio wave transmission for telecommunications while the particle model is useful in
developing photovoltaic cells for generation of electricity.
  VISIBLE LIGHT AND THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)

- came up with the theory of electromagnetic wave. He proposed the idea that electric and magnetic
fields induce one another as they propagate. As an electromagnetic wave, it is believed to be
capable of traveling through the vacuum. Maxwell hypothesized that light is an electromagnetic
wave because its speed matched the known speed of light.

2. Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894)

- discovered radio waves by building devices that can produce and receive them. He determined
that radio waves also travel at 3.0 × 10 8 m/s, and exhibit wave properties similar to that of light.
This established that both radio waves and visible light are electromagnetic waves.

 WAVES

- is a disturbance in space and time that repeatedly and progressively propagates from one point to
another.
- Transverse waves are waves wherein the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and longitudinal waves are waves wherein the oscillation is parallel or in the same
direction as the propagation.

Transverse wave Longitudinal wave

Electromagnetic (EM) waves: waves that do not need a medium to propagate.

Mechanical Waves: are waves that require a medium to travel.

A medium in physics is a material that moves energy or light from one substance to another, or from one
location to another, or from one surface to another.

o PROPERTIES OF WAVE

Wavelength

- Symbol: Lambda (λ)

- Distance between 2 identical points of a wave
- Crest-crest & Trough-trough
Frequency

- Number of wave cycle per period

- Number of cycles per second

Period

- Refers to time it takes for a wave to complete one cycle.

o PARTS OF A WAVE

Amplitude- height of wave

Crest- peak of wave
Trough- lowest point of wave

o Period and Wavelength: directly proportional

o Frequency and Wavelength: inversely proportional

 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Radio waves

- Heinrich Hertz
- Longest wavelength and lowest frequency and less energy
- Television, Radio broadcasts, Communication Applications, Mobile Phones

2. Microwaves

- James Clerk Maxwell

- RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging

- Satellite Communications, Radar Signals, Medical Treatments,

3. Infrared

- They are called “infrared” because their frequency is just below that of red light (infra means
below)
 - William Herschel
- Heat Sensors, Thermal Imaging, Night Vision Equipment

4. Visible Light

- Can only be seen by our naked eye

- The sequence of colors of visible light from longest- shortest (ROYGBIV)
- LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
- Fiber Optic Communications

5. Ultraviolet

- Johann Wilhelm Ritter

- Major source is the sun
- Kinds of UV: UVA- Earth’s surface, UVB- Filtered in the Stratosphere, UVC- Absorbed
by the atmosphere.
- Popularly known as black light that used to detect forged bank notes
- Used in forensic investigations
- Sterilize medical equipment and purify water
- Pest control devices and fly traps
- Glow in the dark effect in theaters

6. X-Ray

- “Roentgen Ray”
- Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
- Can be classified as either soft or hard
- Soft X-Rays: penetrate soft substances like flesh and bones.
- Hard X-Rays: more penetrating and are mainly used in industries.
- Also produced by the SUN and produced when accelerated electrons hit a metal and
some medical equipment.

7. Gamma Rays

- Given off by radioactive materials like cobalt and cesium

- Paul Villard
- Astronomical objects are sources of gamma rays

o EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Based on its energy, electromagnetic radiation may be ionizing or non-ionizing. An ionizing

radiation has sufficient energy to induce ionization. Ionization is the process of removing electrons from
neutral atoms. Exposure to high- level ionizing radiation may cause either an immediate or a delayed
effect. An immediate effect can be death or radiation burns. Ionizing radiation can produce molecular
changes that can lead to damage in biological tissues, including effects on DNA.

Microwaves are known to cause cataracts so we should not form the habit of pressing our face
against a microwave oven to see if the food is cooked already. Overexposure to infrared waves can lead to
burns and pain. Excessive exposure to visible light, especially in the blue region, can cause eye damage.
Lasers can cause blindness. Exposure to sudden bursts of intense light, such as those from flashbulbs in a
camera, can lead to flash blindness that can last for seconds up to a few minutes. Too much exposure to
ultraviolet rays burns our skin and produces the so- called sun tan. UV rays can also cause skin cancer.
Ultraviolet rays can damage the retina; so be sure that your sunglasses are UV protected. These are some
of the negative effects of electromagnetic radiation to humans. The probability of experiencing these
effects depends on how much radiation we are exposed to and for how long.

o ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The greenhouse effect resulting from the increased concentration of greenhouse gases as a result of
human activity is called enhanced effect. It is also known as anthropogenic greenhouse effect. The more
greenhouse gases there are in the atmosphere, the greater the amount of trapped infrared waves and the
greater the rise in temperature

With the thinning of the ozone layer, high levels of UV rays can penetrate the Earth. It can also disrupt
the organisms that depend on them. Plankton sinks deeper into the water when exposed to too much UV.
This decreases the amount of visible light plankton receives, thereby hindering photosynthesis and
growth. Interference from electronics and AM radio can disrupt the internal magnetic compasses of
migratory birds.

 BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT

HOW DOES LIGHT BEHAVE?

- Light travels in straight line path called ray. A ray is a line with an arrowhead at the end
of it.
- Fermat’s Principle of Least Time- light takes the shortest and most efficient path
available.
- Geometric optics- study dealing with the path of light as it strikes at a medium which
involves straight-line rays at various angles.
- THE FERMAT’S PRINCIPLE OF LEAST TIME governs the Law of Light.
- The Law of Reflection states that the incident and reflected rays lie in the same plane
with the normal and that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.

 The ray that strikes the surface is called incident ray.

 The ray that rebounds from the surface is called reflected ray.
 A line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called normal.

o TWO TYPES OF REFLECTION:

1) Spectacular Reflection- is a reflection from smooth surfaces. Ex: undisturbed water
2) Diffuse Reflection- rough surface/ more common than specular. Ex: Wavy water surface

Image Formation by Plane Mirrors

L- ocation: distance of image and object is equal

O-rientation: Erect/ Upright/Inverted/Laterally Inverse
S- ize: same size of image and object
T-ype: Virtual (not real) behind mirror
  Curved Mirrors
- Curved reflecting surface
- It may be convex (bulging outward) or concave (recessed inward).
PARTS:
1. Principal Axis- imaginary line passing through the center of the sphere at the exact center
of the mirror.
2. Vertex- principal axis meets the mirror
3. Center of Curvature- point in the center of the sphere from which the mirror was sliced.
4. Focal point- halfway between the vertex and center of curvature.
5. Focal Length- the distance between the vertex and the focal point.

 Ray Diagramming
- Technique to find where an image will be located when an object is placed in front of a
MIRROR.
-

Convex Mirror:
L- closer/ nearer/ behind mirror
O- Erect/ Vertically Upright
S- smaller
T- virtual (not real)

STEPS:

1) A reference ray starting from the object going parallel to the principal axis is drawn. It
reflects through the focal point, F, after it hits the mirror. This is called the principal ray.

2) The second reference ray goes through F and then goes parallel to the principal axis after
hitting the mirror. This is called the focal ray.

3) The third reference ray goes through C then goes back along with itself through C. This is
called the central ray.
  Concave Mirror
- its reflecting surface is on the inner surface of the sphere so that the center of mirror sinks
away from the viewer.
- Can produce both real and virtual images depending on where the object is placed in
front of it.
- The intersection point is where the image will form.
-

 REFRACTION
- “Bending of Light”
- Occurs due to the differences in density between two media.
- When waves are refracted, they change their speed as they pass across the boundary
between the two media.
- The refracted ray changes angle as it enters a different media.

WHY DOES LIGHT BEND?

- Because of the characteristic of the medium/ media that it passes through.
- Denser material: light travels slower
- Lighter material: light will be faster
- Angle of incidence Θi ≠ Angle of refraction Θ
- The greater the refractive index of substance, the greater the light’s refraction.