PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL

2 PAVEMENT DESIGN COMPONENTS

2.1 Overview
Environment, the subgrade, and traffic significantly impact pavement design. Because these
components vary over time and by location, however, they cannot be fully controlled. Careful study
and characterization of these factors are critical for pavement design.

This chapter addresses both environment and traffic. Refer to Chapter 3, Pavement Material
Characterization, for information about the subgrade. This manual includes details about the required
input and data collection needed for designs using the empirical method and the M-E method.

Two major environmental factors that influence pavement are water and temperature. Temperature
affects the properties of the asphalt layer. Water affects the performance and stiffness of the
unbound base, subbase, and subgrade layers. Water can infiltrate from the surface as a result of
rainfall or from high-ground water tables.

Traffic is another major uncontrolled factor that impacts pavement design. Mathematically, traffic is
represented in terms of applied loads on pavement structures. Vehicle classification, loads, and
traffic studies are crucial for designing adequate pavement cross sections. This chapter explains
both the traffic details that are required for M-E design and the equivalent axle load calculations that
empirical design requires.

2.2 Environment
Environment includes many variables, including temperature, rainfall, sunshine, humidity, and wind.
These factors impact a road’s performance and condition over time. Changing temperatures can
change the properties of materials in hot mix asphalt (HMA); higher temperatures result in a softer
asphalt mixture for the same binder type. Wet soils have a lower strength (less stiffness) than dry
soils. A good design accounts for known and anticipated environmental influences.

2.2.1 Environmental factors for empirical design

According to the 1993 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (4), designers following
the empirical method consider environmental factors only regarding how changes in moisture impact
the subgrade layer modulus. This method uses the resilient modulus (Mr), or stiffness, to characterize
the subgrade material layer. Designers can determine the Mr either through laboratory testing
(AASHTO T-274) or backcalculation of the modulus values using deflection data. They can also
correlate soil properties, such as moisture content and plasticity index, to determine the modulus.
Refer to Chapter 3, Pavement Material Characterization, for details.

Designers can perform Mr testing to consider seasonal variations in the subgrade modulus. By
developing a relationship between moisture changes and the Mr, then comparing this relationship
with the in-situ moisture content, they can determine the corresponding modulus. Designers can
apply Equation 2-1 to determine a relative damage factor (Uf) that accounts for seasonal variations.

Uf = 1.18 * 108 * Mr-2.32

Equation 2-1: Relative damage

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Where: Uf= Relative damage

Mr = Subgrade resilient modulus (psi).

Designers can also graphically determine a relative damage factor (Uf) that accounts for seasonal
variations, as shown in Figure 2-1. Using this method, a designer determines the subgrade resilient
modulus for each seasonal period and calculates the relative damage for the same period.

Figure 2-1: Relative damage calculation

A seasonal period can be a single month or up to several months, depending on how much these
factors change for different periods. When all the seasonal figures are available, a designer
calculates the average relative damage and applies this average to back-calculate the corresponding
modulus of the subgrade.

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2.2.2 Environmental factors for mechanistic-empirical design

The M-E design methodology incorporates the environmental effect on pavement through two
significant factors, moisture and temperature. The following sections provide guidance on how to
consider effect of moisture and temperature on pavement design, based on information in the
Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology, Part 2: Pavement Structural Design (6).

2.2.2.1 Moisture content

Moisture content has a significant effect on the stiffness (strength) of unbound layers and the
subgrade. According to Austroads, moisture in the pavement structure can result from seepage,
fluctuations of ground water tables, and infiltration of water through the surface. Accordingly,
designers must study several factors, including rainfall, the permeability of surface layers, the depths
of ground water tables, vegetation, and pavement drainage.

According to UAE National Centre of Meteorology and Seismology (7), the average value for rainfall
in Abu Dhabi Emirate and the Western Region is 56.3 mm, based on cumulative annual rainfall for
28 different weather stations in the area. Figure 2-2 shows a contour of the cumulative annual rainfall,
in mm.

Figure 2-2: Abu Dhabi cumulative annual rainfall

Table 2-1 provides details about annual rainfall in Abu Dhabi, as reflected by the rainfall values for
the 28 weather locations.

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Table 2-1: Abu Dhabi cumulative annual rainfall

Cumulative Cumulative
Station Annual Rainfall Station Annual Rainfall
(mm) (mm)
Madinat Zayed 40.8 Abu Dhabi 60.7
AL Gheweifat 47.5 Al Wathbah 78.1
Al jazeera BG 27.3 Al Khazna 82.9
Mukhariz 31.6 Al Rowdah 51.9
Owtaid 61.7 Al Arad 69.3
Mezaira 26.6 Unknown 80.5
Hamim 33.9 Jabal Hafeet 95.3
Um Azimul 42.5 Um Ghafa 44.1
Bu Hamrah 32.3 Khatam Al Shadah 121.6
Al Qlaa 29.0 Al Ain 43.9
Sir Bani Yas 47.5 Al Qattara 20.3
Rezeen 69.9 Al Foah 128.0
Al Quaa 44.1 Raknah 75.9
Abu Abyad 45.2 Sweihan 44.6

2.2.2.2 Temperature
Changes in temperature mainly affect the asphalt layer. Asphalt becomes stiff and brittle at low
temperatures. Higher temperatures accelerate the aging of the asphalt materials, causing the asphalt
mixture to become stiffer with time. Refer to Chapter 3, Pavement Material Characterization, for an
asphalt layer modulus calculation, which accounts for temperature effects.

Considering temperature effects is also important when selecting the binder for a road design.
Typically, designers follow the binder performance grade in the Superpave mix design system to
select the binder. Given Abu Dhabi Emirate’s relatively insignificant temperature changes, however,
designers can select the same binder grade for all road designs for the region.

According to Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology, Part 2: Pavement Structural Design (6),
designers consider the effects of temperature on the asphalt layer modulus by estimating the
weighted mean annual pavement temperature (WMAPT). To estimate the WMAPT, perform the
following steps:

1. Obtain the monthly average daily maximum air temperature and the annual monthly daily
minimum air temperature.
2. Calculate the monthly average air temperatures by averaging the maximum and minimum air
temperatures.
3. Using Equation 2-2 and the monthly average air temperature, calculate the temperature
weighting factors (WF) for each month.
4. For each site, average the 12 WFs obtained in step 3.
5. Using the average WF from step 4, apply Equation 2-3 to estimate the weighted mean annual
air temperature (WMAAT) for each site.
6. Using the WMAAT, apply Equation 2-4 to estimate the WMAPT for each site.

The following equations are based on the Shell International Petroleum Company’s Pavement
Design Manual: Asphalt pavement and overlays for road traffic, 1978 (8).

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2
WF=10(-1.224+0.06508*Tair-0.000145*Tair)

Equation 2-2: Temperature weight factor

2
WMAAT=19.66+16.91*log(WF+0.3117*(logሺሺWFሻሻ)

Equation 2-3: Weighted mean annual air temperature

WMAPT= -12.4+ 6.32*WMAATΤLn(WMAAT)

Equation 2-4: Weighted mean annual pavement temperature

According to UAE National Center of Meteorology and Seismology (7), temperature changes in Abu
Dhabi Emirate are generally not significant, based on maximum and minimum air temperatures
recorded at 30 different weather stations in the area. Figure 2-3 shows the mean annual air
temperature in the Abu Dhabi Emirate.

Figure 2-3: Abu Dhabi mean annual air temperature

Table 2-2 provides details about annual air temperatures in Abu Dhabi, based on the data gathered
at 30 area weather stations. The WMAPT values in this table are based on the steps provided above.
The WAMPT values are based on the calculation in Equation 2-4 WMAPT values in the region range
from 45.0° C to 38.7° C, with an average value of 43.5° C. The average value is representative for
the entire Abu Dhabi Emirate.

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Table 2-2: Weighted mean temperatures

Station WMAAT (oC) WMAPT (oC)

Madinat Zayed 30.5 44.0
AL Gheweifat 30.2 43.7
Al jazeera BG 30.6 44.1
Mukhariz 30.8 44.4
Owtaid 30.8 44.3
Mezaira 31.1 44.8
Hamim 30.0 43.3
Um Azimul 31.3 45.1
Bu Hamrah 30.1 43.4
Al Qlaa 29.6 42.9
Sir Bani Yas 30.9 44.6
Rezeen 29.5 42.7
Al Quaa 30.1 43.5
Abu Abyad 30.4 43.8
Al Aryam 30.3 43.7
Abu Dhabi 30.6 44.2
Al Wathbah 30.0 43.4
Al Khazna 29.8 43.1
Damsa 29.5 42.7
Al Rowdah 30.3 43.8
Al Arad 29.5 42.7
Unknown 30.5 44.0
Jabal Hafeet 26.5 38.7
Um Ghafa 31.1 44.7
Khatam Al Shadah 30.3 43.7
Al Ain 31.1 44.8
Al Qattara 31.0 44.7
Al Foah 29.9 43.2
Raknah 28.2 40.9
Sweihan 30.2 43.6
AVERAGE 30.2 43.5

2.3 Traffic analysis procedures

Traffic analysis factors detailed in this section apply to both flexible and rigid pavements on heavily
trafficked roadways. For design guidelines for lightly trafficked roads, refer to Chapter 6, Low-volume
Roads. Traffic analysis for pavement design involves the application of data collected from traffic
surveys to estimate equivalent single axle loads (ESALs), which are the standard measure for traffic
load forecasts for empirical and M-E pavement design methods.

2.3.1 Design life

One of the important factors that determine pavement structure thickness requirements is the design
life (DL) of the pavement. A road’s DL corresponds to a total number of truck loads (the wear
equivalent to that caused by the passing of one truck), which directly impact the thickness of a
pavement structure. A road’s DL is the duration over which the pavement is expected to function

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properly without major rehabilitation or reconstruction that is why it might be referred to as analysis
period.

Engineers select a road’s DL based on the pavement’s intended function. Typically, flexible
pavements have a DL of 20 years, while rigid pavements have a DL of 30 years. For temporary
pavements, such as detours, however, DLs range from six months to a maximum of two years.
Designers can propose DLs that exceed 20 years for pavement structures for important roads or for
roads that will require less frequent maintenance. DMAT must approve such proposed DL increases
before further pavement design activities can proceed.

2.3.2 Vehicle classification

Pavement must be designed to carry the loads applied on it by the vehicles using the roadway.
Although vehicles vary in their configuration, loads, and number of passes, designers must classify
vehicles in a uniform way by grouping them according to their configurations and expected
permissible loads. Based on these groups, a designer can determine the number of axle passes that
will accumulate over time.

Figure 2-4 shows vehicle classifications for pavement designs, as defined in the USA Federal
Highway Administration’s (FHWA) Guide to LTPP Traffic Data Collection and Processing (9). These
classifications are as follows:

1. Motorcycle
2. Passenger cars
3. Other two-axle, four-tire single units
4. Buses
5. Two-axle, six-tire single units
6. Three-axle single units
7. Four or more axle single units
8. Four or less axle single trailers
9. Five-axle single trailers
10. Six or more axle single trailers
11. Five or less axle multi-trailer
12. Six-axle multi-trailer
13. Seven or more axle multi-trailer

Vehicles in classes 4 to 13 (buses to multi-trailer vehicles with seven or more axles) are the most
critical vehicles for pavement design. Motorcycles and passenger cars cause insignificant pavement
damage.

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Figure 2-4: FHWA vehicle classification

2.3.3 Axle group configuration

According to Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology, Part 2: Pavement Structural Design (6),
vehicles damage pavement based on how many axles they have, how their axles are grouped
together, and the total mass of their axle group loads. The different axle groups are shown
schematically in Figure 2-5 and are described as follows:

1. Single axle with single tire

2. Single axle with dual tires
3. Tandem axle with single tire
4. Tandem axle with dual tires
5. Tridem axle with dual tires
6. Quad axle with dual tires

Based on the axle grouping, engineers can use the axle group load to calculate the damage factor,
how much damage a vehicle will cause, which will be explained later in this section.

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1) Single Axle Single Tire 2) Single Axle dual Tires 3) Tandem Axle Single Tire

4) Tandem Axle dual Tires 5) Tridem Axle dual Tires 6) Quad Axle dual Tires

Figure 2-5: Axle Group Configuration

2.3.4 Tire pressure

For pavement design, tire inflation pressure represents the contact stress that is applied by a tire to
the pavement surface. Contact stress is based on a tire’s load and its contact area (the tire’s imprint
on the pavement). The actual tire contact stress varies by the load value and its imprint on the
pavement surface depends on the tire pattern as seen in Figure 2-6. However, to simplify the analysis
the contact stress is assumed to be uniform with a circular contact area. Equation 2-5 demonstrates
the relationship of the three factors, contact stress, load and contact area based on a circular area.

q = P/A

Equation 2-5: Tire contact stress and load relationship

Where,

x q = Contact stress, kPa (kilopascals)

x P = Applied load, kN (kilonewtons)
x A = Area of contact, m2 = π a2
x a = Contact radius, m

The actual shape of the tire imprint depends on the tire load. A tire’s imprint might be rectangular,
trapezoidal, circular, or some irregular shape. Calculating the relationship between contact stress
and load, as shown in Equation 2-5, assumes a circular tire imprint to facilitate the calculation
process in a mechanistic model for the interaction between tire and pavement.

Typical tire pressures recorded by tire manufactures for heavy trucks range from 500 kPa to 1000
kPa, with an average value of 700 kPa.

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P
q

a) Actual Tire pressure b) Assumed Tire pressure

Figure 2-6: Tire Pressure Distribution

2.3.5 Vehicle count

Vehicle counts represent the total number of vehicles expected to use a road in both directions for a
given time period, based on the vehicle classification. Time periods can vary from just a few days to
entire seasons or a full 365 days.

Refer to Abu Dhabi DMAT Road Structures Design Manual (10) for directions on how to conduct
traffic surveys to obtain vehicle counts. In such surveys, engineers count traffic over several days,
then calculate an Average Daily Traffic (ADT) factor that serves as a base current two-way traffic
volume. For new roadways for which engineers can’t obtain actual vehicle counts, engineers can
apply traffic forecasting and trip generation models.

2.3.6 Traffic projections

Pavement designers must estimate projected traffic loads over a road’s DL, which is typically 20
years. To project traffic volumes, engineers shall use the transportation modelling software of the
City of Abu Dhabi.

If a model projection is not available, a designer shall assume a rational growth factor (GF), based
on the current ADT, to estimate future traffic. To predict future traffic, use either the general GF, as
shown in Equation 2-6, or one of the GF formulas. According to the Abu Dhabi Municipality’s
Roadway Design Manual, engineers can use either the linear GF formula, as shown in Equation 2-7,
or the compound GF formula, as shown in Equation 2-8, to estimate traffic.

ADT (Future) = ADT (current) * GF

Equation 2-6: General traffic projection relationship

GF = 1 + (GR/100)*DL

Equation 2-7: Linear growth factor

GF = (1 + (GR/100))DL

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Equation 2-8: Compound growth factor

Where

x ADT(Future) = Projected ADT at the end of DL, vehicle

x ADT(current) = Current ADT, vehicle
x GF = Growth factor, in decimal
x GR = Growth rate in percentage
x DL = Design life, years

GF ranges from 0 (which indicates no growth) to 10%. Engineers should base assumed GFs on a
highway’s functional classification, as well as vehicle ownership, population, employment rates, and
land uses within the area.

2.3.7 Design lanes

In common practice, pavement construction uses the same structure for all lanes. A pavement
designer bases this structure on the lane with the heaviest traffic, typically the slow outermost lane,
which is called the design lane. Traffic analyses apply a lane distribution factor (LDF) to represent
the design lane.

Practice in Abu Dhabi Emirates requires trucks to use the outer lane, for which the lane distribution
factor (LDF) should be 1.

2.3.8 Directional factor

If a roadway is a dual carriageway, engineers shall conduct the traffic count separately for each
direction, applying a directional factor (DF) of 1.0. When counting traffic for an undivided roadway to
determine a total volume for both directions, use a directional factor of 0.5. If traffic is higher in one
direction, however, obtain an estimate from a traffic survey for better accuracy.

2.3.9 Percentage of trucks

Pavement design requires determining the percentage of trucks (T), vehicles of classes 4 to 13
(buses to multi-trailer vehicles with seven or more axles), in the total traffic volume. If a traffic survey
is available, engineers can obtain this percentage directly from the traffic data.

2.3.10 Equivalent axle load factor

Pavement designs apply an equivalent single axle load factor (ESAL) to represent the accumulation
of damage caused by traffic. This standard unit represents a truck with a single axle, dual tires, and
total axle load of 80 kN as shown in Figure 2-7. To represent other axle groups (trucks with different
loads and configurations), designers must apply an equivalent axle load factor (EALF) to transform
such loads to the ESAL standard. An EALF represents the damage to a pavement caused by the
actual mixed axle load and axle configuration traffic relative to the damage of the standard axle.
Although the damage associated with the equivalent axle can be defined in numerous ways, the
1993 AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (4) and Asphalt Institute’s Asphalt
Pavements for highways & Streets Manual Series 1 (MS-1) (9) define it in terms of serviceability.
These manuals provide tables to convert actual axle loads to ESALs. As an alternate method,
designers can apply Equation 2-9, also called the ‘power law’, to calculate EALFs.

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Figure 2-7: 80 kN Standard Axle

EALF = (L/SL)m

Equation 2-9: EALF power law

Where:

x EALF = Equivalent axle load factor

x L = Actual axle load
x SL = Standard axle load (refer to Table 2-3)
x m = Load damage exponent (refer to Table 2-4)

Table 2-3: Standard axle load by axle group

Axle Group type Load (kN)

Single axle, single tire 53
Single axle, dual tire 80
Tandem axle, single tire 90
Tandem axle, dual tire 135
Tridem axle, dual tire 181
Quad axle, dual tire 221

Table 2-4: Load damage exponent

Load Damage
Design Method
Exponent (m)
Empirical 4
Mechanistic – Control Fatigue 5
Mechanistic – Control Rutting 7

Engineers can obtain actual axle loads from a weigh-in-motion (WIM) system data or from a traffic
survey that collects axle loads in addition to vehicle counts.

2.3.11 Truck factor

Truck Factor based on truck loading survey, Pavement designs apply a truck factor (TF), which
represents the percentage of different truck classes in the total traffic volume and the average
number of axles per truck in the traffic volume. Because different truck classes have a different axle
configurations and different loads, a truck factor is the summation of the percentage of each truck
class multiplied by the load factor for each class or group of trucks and the average number of axles.
Designers shall obtain the percentage of each class from a traffic survey. If only one class is
available, designers can apply Equation 2-10 to determine the truck factor.

TF = (∑ p*EALF)

Equation 2-10: Truck factor

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Where:

x TF = Truck factor
x p = Percent of each truck class
x EALF = Equivalent axle load factor

A sample EALF calculation sheet for a typical public bus based on the AASHTO (appendix D,
table D.4) is attached in the Annex 2.

2.3.12 ESAL calculation

ESAL calculations shall be in accordance with AASHTO pavement design manual and the final
design to be verified using Mechanistic Method.

Engineers can apply Equation 2-11 to convert the accumulation of the mixed traffic load passes to
ESALs (a standard axle load for an 80-kN single axle vehicle).

ESAL = ADT(current)*T*TF*GF*LDF*DF*DL*365

Equation 2-11: ESAL calculation

Where:

x ESAL = Equivalent single axle load

x ADT = Average daily traffic volume for current condition
x T = Percentage of trucks
x TF = Truck factor
x GF = Growth factor
x LDF = Lane distribution factor
x DF = Directional factor
x DL = Design life, in years

2.3.13 Mechanistic-Empirical traffic analysis

The M-E method uses the concept of load spectra to characterize traffic. Each axle type (such as
single or tandem) is divided into a series of load ranges. Vehicle class distributions, daily traffic
volume, and axle load distributions define the number of repetitions of each axle load group at each
load level. Specific traffic inputs include the following:

1. Traffic volume – base year information

a. Two-way annual average daily truck traffic (AADTT)

b. Number of lanes in the design direction
c. Percent trucks in design direction
d. Percent trucks in design lane
e. Vehicle (truck) operational speed

2. Traffic volume adjustment factors

a. Vehicle class distribution factors

b. Monthly truck distribution factors
c. Hourly truck distribution factors
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d. Traffic growth factors

3. Axle load distribution factors

4. General traffic inputs

a. Number axles/trucks
b. Axle configuration
c. Wheel base
d. Lateral traffic wander

Engineers can obtain this data from automatic vehicle classification (AVC) and weigh-in-motion
(WIM) stations. Engineers shall sort this data by axle type and vehicle class to be used in the M-E
design methodology. If site-specific data are not available, use the M-E design procedure’s default
values.

Using load spectra enhances pavement design, enabling the direct analysis of mixed traffic and
avoiding the need for load equivalency factors. Additional advantages of applying the load spectra
approach include the possibility of special vehicle analyses, analysis of the impact on performance
of overloaded trucks, and analysis of weight limit changes during critical climate conditions.

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3 PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Actual materials properties shall be used in the design, however if it is not available assume
properties of materials as per the standard specifications and calculate the factors from the relevant
formula or charts as per AASHTO.

In addition to external factors, such as traffic and environment, materials are critical elements that
impact pavement designs. Designers, however, can make the best use of pavement materials by
knowing their properties through testing. To obtain properties for different pavement materials,
designers may conduct laboratory tests or use empirical material characterization models. This
chapter covers the material characterizations for all types of materials used in pavement structures.
It details material characterizations related to pavement structural design and compliments material
specifications in the DMAT Standard Specifications Volume 1 for Road Works manual (1).

A pavement is composed of different layers. Refer to Austroads’ Guide to Pavement Technology,

Part 2: Pavement Structural Design (6) and Table 3-1 for information on how the functional and
structural purposes of layers differ. These differences require that each layer have specific materials
and properties.

Table 3-1: Structural and functional requirements for pavement layers

Pavement layer Structural considerations Functional considerations

x Deformation resistance x Roughness
x Durability (including x Skid resistance/surface
ageing) texture
Wearing surface (flexible or
x Strength x Surface drainage
rigid pavement)
x Propensity for cracking characteristics
x Noise characteristics
x Reflectivity/aesthetics
x Deformation resistance
x Durability (including
Base ageing)
x Strength
x Propensity for cracking
x Deformation resistance
x Durability (including
Subbase ageing)
x Strength
x Propensity for cracking
x Deformation resistance
Subgrade
x Volume stability

The following sections describe the material properties that are needed for pavement design when
applying either the empirical method or M-E method. Because these two design methods have
different approaches and models, methods to account for material properties in the pavement design
process also differ.

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