Class - IX, X and XII Notes May 2022

ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL GWALIOR
COMPILED NOTES MAY 2022

CLASS –IX, X AND XII
INDEX
S. No CLASS PAGE NUMBER
1 IX 2-38
2 X 39-82
3 XI -
4 XII 83-239
1
CLASS- IX
ACADEMIC SESSION 2022-23
SUBJECT- ENGLISH (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
SUPPLEMENTARY READER- MOMENTS
CH-2 THE ADVENTURES OF TOTO
SUMMARY:
The Adventures of Toto is an amusing story written by Ruskin Bond. This story features the
antics of a naughty monkey named „Toto‟. The narrator‟s grandfather was very fond of
animals. One day, he bought a small baby monkey from a tonga-driver for a sum of five
rupees. Grandfather had a collection of many animals in his private zoo such as a tortoise, a
tiny squirrel, a pair of rabbits and a pet goat. Toto was a new addition to the group.
Toto created nuisance from the first day itself. He spoilt the ornamental wallpaper, damaged
the peg and tore the narrator‟s blazer into pieces. Seeing all this mischief, Grandfather
realised that Toto was a smart animal. Soon, Toto was transferred to a huge cage and kept
him where the servants stayed along with Grandfather‟s other animals who lived together
amiably. But the monkey had a troublesome nature and created nuisance for the other pets.
As days passed, Toto‟s mischiefs went on increasing when he tore clothes into pieces and
broke utensils in the house. One day, Toto was having pullao from a large dish during
lunchtime kept on the dining table. When Grandmother saw this, she screamed, and another
woman came forward. Toto splashed water on the face of that woman. When Grandmother
came closer, Toto took the pullao plate and jumped into the branches of a jackfruit tree. He
purposely threw the plate from the tree that broke it into many pieces.
Meanwhile, everyone in the family was very annoyed with Toto‟s mischievous traits. It was
becoming difficult to manage him as his menace increased by the day. With a heavy heart,
Grandfather decided to give away Toto to the tonga-driver and sold him for three rupees
only.
Think about it
(Page 11)
Question 1.
How does Toto come to grand-father‟s private zoo?
Answer:
Grandfather loved animals. One day he saw this attractive monkey with a tonga- driver. The
monkey was tied to a feeding- trough and seemed out of place there. Grandfather had great
liking for animals. So, he decided to buy Toto from the tonga- driver and bought it for five
rupees.
Question 2.
“Toto was a pretty monkey.” In what sense is Toto pretty?
Answer:
Toto had bright eyes sparkling with mischief, pearly white teeth, quick and wicked fingers,
and a gracious tail which served as a third hand. The smile of Toto was cute and frightened
elderly Anglo- Indian ladies. Altogether all these qualities made him pretty.
2
Question 3.
Why does grandfather take Toto to Saharanpur and how? Why does the ticket collector
insist on calling Toto a dog?
Answer:
Toto was a mischievous monkey. He kept disturbing all other animals in grandfather‟s
private zoo. It seemed that only grandfather could manage him properly. So, he took Toto to
Saharanpur in a bag. The ticket collector called Toto a dog as the monkey did not qualify the
category of human beings.
Question 4.
How does Toto take a bath? Where has he learnt to do this? How does Toto almost boil
himself alive?
Answer:
Toto cunningly tested the temperature with his hand then gradually stepped into the bath. He
stepped first one foot, then the other, until he was into the water up to his neck. He rubbed
himself all over with the soap. He learned it all from the author. Someday Toto got in a large
kitchen kettle which was on fire to boil. He enjoyed the warm water but when the water
turned out to be hot, he jumped up and down. Suddenly the grandmother arrived at and
pulled him out in half-boiled condition.
Question 5.
Why does the author say, “Toto was not the sort of pet we could keep for long”?
Answer:
Author‟s statement about Toto proves itself if we take Toto‟s misdeeds into consideration.
Nobody could afford the frequent losses. He disturbed all other animals too. Obviously Toto
was not the sort of pet we could keep for long.
Short Answer Questions (2 marks each)

(About 30-40 words each)
Question 1:
Why did the author‟s grandfather decide to buy Toto? (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-016)
Answer:
Grandfather was an animal lover and took pity on Toto as it was kept tied to a feeding
trough. Toto looked out of place and grandfather decided to bring it to his private zoo. He
was much impressed by Toto.
Question 2:
Why could not Toto and Nana become friends? (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-019)
Answer:
Toto was very naughty and wicked and could not stay still for a long time. Nana was a well
behaved and docile animal. When they were together Toto bit on the long ears of Nana and
Nana got annoyed with Toto. Thus, Nana and Toto could not become Question 3:
How does Toto become a problem to grandfather while going to Saharanpur?
(Board Term 1,2012; ELI-020)
Answer:
While going to Saharanpur, Toto behaved well. When grandfather was producing his ticket,
Toto suddenly poked his head out of the bag. He gave the ticket collector a wide grin. The
ticket collector insisted that grandfather must buy the ticket for the pet. And proved to be a
big problem for grandfather.
3
Question 4:
Where was Toto kept immediately after grandfather got him? Why?
(Board Term 1,2012, ELI-020)
Answer:
Toto was kept in a closet. He was tied securely to a peg because his presence was to be
kept a secret from the writer‟s grandmother as she abhorred animals.
Question 5:
Who was Nana? How did Toto tease Nana? (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-023)
Answer:
Nana was the family donkey. Toto was kept in the stable with Nana, where Toto U9ed to
tease Nana by fast biting on to her long ears with his sharp little teeth. Even Nana got fed up
with Toto.
Question 6:
In what sense was Toto “a pretty monkey”. (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-027)
Answer:
Tito‟s bright eyes sparkled with mischief beneath deep-set eyebrows. His pearly white teeth
often displayed a smile that had the innocence of a child yet there was an underlined tinge of
naughtiness and mischievousness.
Question 7:
how did Toto‟s love for taking bathe almost led to his being half – boiled?
Answer:
Toto used to love taking bathe in hot water. Once when a kettle was kept on fire with water
to boil for tea, Toto sat in it. When the water began to boil, Toto tried getting up but found
outside cold. So he again sat down. He kept on hopping outside and then again inside and
after some time he started enjoying this game.
Question 8:
Why did the grandfather give away Toto, the monkey? (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-031)
Answer:
Toto was very naughty, and he troubled everyone. The other pets were not happy with him,
and he broke a lot of dishes, tore clothes, curtains, and wall papers. He had become very
difficult to handle and so grandfather gave Toto away.
Question 9:
Why did the grandfather hide Toto for some time when he brought him home?
Answer:
Grandmother was not very fond of animals. When he used to bring a new animal or bird, she
used to make a lot of fuss. To avoid this, grandfather hid Toto for some time and announced
his arrival to her when she was in a good mood.
Question 10:
Why did grandfather decide to take Toto along with him to Dehra Dun?
Answer:
Grandfather decided to take Toto along with him to Dehra Dun as there were many other
4
pets also / that lived there. But Toto would not allow any of his companions to sleep at night.
So, he made this decision.
Question 11:
Give-the names of Grandfather‟s pets. Where did they live? (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-045)
Answer:
The names of the grandfather‟s pets were Nana the donkey and Toto the monkey, a tortoise,
a pair of rabbits, a tame squirrel and a goat. They lived in a big cage in the servant‟s
quarters.
Long Answer Type Questions (4 marks each)

(About 80-100 words)
Question 1:
Write your views in the form of short paragraph on the topic “Should animals be kept as a
pet”. (SA-1,2014-15)
OR
While keeping pets at home, what all things should be kept in mind?
Answer:
Before bringing a pet in the house, we should remember that these animals can neither
speak nor express as humans. As a pet owner we should know that there are several
dangers that lurk in our households for these little creatures. We should always keep
pesticides and medicines at a bay from the animals and children as they are a potential
threat to them. The areas where pets might start fire inadvertently such as kitchen or fire
places or plugs should be covered, we should never have pets unattended around the open
flames. Small electrical cords are also harmful for them hence they would be wounded and
kept at distance. All the pots and oil bottles should be properly closed.
Question 2:
How can you say that Toto was a mischievous pet? (Board Term 1,2012, EL1-Q13)
Answer:
Toto was indeed a very mischievous pet. He tore the wall papers of the rooms, and also tore
the school blazer. He troubled other fellow animals. He even managed to get himself into
trouble by nearly half boiling himself in a kettle. He made holes in dresses and curtains.
Once he even scared the ticket checker. He even broke dishes in the houses. He proved to
be a big troublemaker for everyone. Thus, we can say that Toto was a mischievous pet.
Question 3:
Describe the incident at Dehradun railway station after reading the story, The Adventures of
Toto‟. (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-014)
Answer:
Grandfather had to go to Saharanpur. So, he decided to put Toto in a big black canvas bag
for the train journey. When they reached the station Toto started jumping on the platform and
everyone was surprised to see a bag jumping and moving about. When the ticket collector
came then Toto poked his head out of the bag. The ticket collector wanted grandfather to
buy a ticket for him and grandfather did not want to. Finally, the ticket collector had his way.
Question 4:
“Toto was not good enough to be kept at home.” Do you agree to this statement? Why/why
not. (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-017)
5
Answer:
Yes, Toto was not good enough to be kept at home. He was up to mischief all the time. He
tore the wall papers of the rooms, and tore the school blazer. He troubled other fellow
animals. He even managed to get himself into trouble by nearly boiling himself in a kettle. He
made holes in dresses and curtains. Once he even scared the ticket checker also. He even
broke dishes in the houses. Thus, it was not easy to keep him at home. „
Question 5:
“Toto was not the sort of pet we could keep for long.” Explain giving examples from the
text.(Board Term 1,2012, ELI-027)
Answer:
“Toto was not the sort of pet we could keep for long.” because he was very mischievous. He
scratched the plaster of the walls, tore the school blazer and aunt‟s dresses. He threw plates
at grandmother and glasses of water at one of the aunt‟s faces. He used to break the dishes
of pulav into pieces. And they could not afford the frequent loss of dishes, clothes, curtains,
and wallpaper.
Question 6:
Grandfather was a great lover of animals. Describe. (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-039)
Answer:
Narrator‟s grandfather had a great liking for animal. He had tortoise, a pair of rabbits, a tame
squirrel, a goat but no monkey. With the coming of Toto his mini ZQQ was transformed into
a real zoo. He had a variety of pet animals in that zoo. He frequently bought many varieties
of animals to keep them in his zoo. Due to this, he even faced anger of his wife at times and
when he brought Toto he was very happy with his cleverness.
Question 7:
How does Toto take a bathe? Where has he learnt to do this? (Board Term 1,2012, ELI-
041)
Answer:
Toto takes bathe in a tub‟ of warm water. It puts its legs in the water one by one and applies
soap as well. As monkeys are good at aping others, so Toto has learnt proper steps of
bathing while watching the narrator doing the same. He wanted to take a bath and in order to
do it, he sat in the boiling water of kettle also.
WRITING SKILL
TASK- 1 DIARY ENTRY
Format of Diary Entry
6
Date
Day
Time
Salutation [ Dear Diary]
Content
Signature/ Name of the writer
Format:
 Top left – Date, day and time.

 Tense most frequently used – Simple past, Present perfect and future.
 Written in the first person.
Steps:
 Begin the entry with a general sentence describing the day or your feelings.
 In the body, you may discuss an event, your feelings towards it. How it is likely
to affect your future.
 Conclude with a final remark and future course of action.
Question 1.
Yesterday it was your first day in your new school. You made new friends. Teachers were
good to you and you liked the infrastructure of the school. Write about your experiences and
feelings about the new school in your diary.
Answer
Wednesday, 1st July, 20XX
8:30 pm
7
Dear diary,
Today, I joined my new school. It was a very nice and exciting. My class teacher was very
nice to me. She introduced me to the entire class. I sat with Neha, the monitor of the class.
She helped me in every way possible. She gave me her notebooks, shared her lunch with
me. She even helped me with my classwork.
The best thing I liked about the school was the library. It was big and spacious. I am a
passionate reader and I found many books of my favourite authors. The computer lab was
well equipped with the latest models of computers.
I look forward to going to school tomorrow. Now, I am not missing my old friends and my old
school. Now, I am going to sleep as I have to get up early in the morning to get ready for
school.
Babli
8
ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOLGWALIOR
CLASS- IX
SUBJECT- HINDI (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
हहन्दी-सॊचमन
ऩाठ-1
गगल्रू
प्रश्नोत्तर -
प्र1. सोन जूही भें रगी ऩीरी करी को दे ख रेखखका के भन भें कौन से विचाय उभड़ने रगे?
उत्तय सोनजुही भें रगी ऩीरी करी को दे खकय रेखखका के भन भें छोटे से जीि गगरहयी की माद
आ गई, जजसे िह गगल्रू कहती थीॊ।
प्र2. ऩाठ के आधाय ऩय कौए को एक साथ सभादरयत औय अनादरयत प्राणी क्मों कहा गमा है ?
उत्तय हहॊद ू सॊस्कृतत भें ऐसी भान्मता है कक वऩतऩ

ृ ऺ भें हभाये ऩि
ू ज
व हभसे कुछ ऩाने के लरए कौए के
रूऩ भें हभाये साभने आते हैं। इसके अरािा कौए हभाये दयू स्थ रयश्तेदायों के आगभन की
सच
ू ना बी दे ते हैं, जजससे उसे आदय लभरता है । दस
ू यी ओय कौए की ककवश बयी काॉि-काॉि को
हभ अिभानना के रूऩ भें प्रमक्
ु त कयते हैं। इससे िह ततयस्काय का ऩात्र फनता है । इस प्रकाय
एक साथ आदय औय अनादय ऩाने के कायण कौए को सभादरयत औय अनादरयत कहा गमा है ।
प्र3. गगरहयी के घामर फच्चे का उऩचाय ककस प्रकाय ककमा गमा?
उत्तय भहादे िी िभाव ने गगरहयी के घामर फच्चे का उऩचाय फड़े ध्मान से भभताऩि
ू क
व ककमा। ऩहरे
उसे कभये भें रामा गमा। उसका खून ऩोंछकय घािों ऩय ऩें लसलरन रगाई गई। उसे रुई की
फत्ती से दध
ू वऩराने की कोलशश की गई। ऩयॊ तु दध
ू की फद
ूॊ ें भॉह
ु के फाहय ही रढ़
ु क गईं। कुछ
सभम फाद भॉह
ु भें ऩानी टऩकामा गमा। इस प्रकाय उसका फहुत कोभरताऩि
ू क
व उऩचाय ककमा
गमा।
प्र4. रेखखका का ध्मान आकवषवत कयने के लरए गगल्रू क्मा कयता था?
9
उत्तय रेखखका का ध्मान आकवषवत कयने के लरए गगल्रू उनके ऩैयों के ऩास आकय खेरता कपय सयव
से ऩदे ऩय चढ़ जाता कपय उसी तेजी से उतयता। िह इसी तयह बाग दौड़ कयता यहता जफ
तक रेखखका उसे ऩकड़ने के लरए उठ न जाती।
प्र5. गगल्रू को भक्

ु त कयने की आिश्मकता क्मों सभझी गई औय उसके लरए रेखखका ने क्मा
उऩाम ककमा?
उत्तय भहादे िी ने दे खा कक गगल्रू अऩने हहसाफ से जिान हो गमा था। उसका ऩहरा िसॊत आ चुका
था। खखड़की के फाहय कुछ गगरहरयमाॉ बी आकय गचकगचक कयने रगी थीॊ। गगल्रू उनकी
तयप प्माय से दे खता यहता था। इसलरए भहादे िी ने सभझ लरमा कक अफ उसे गगरहरयमों के
फीच स्िच्छॊ द विहाय के लरए छोड़ दे ना चाहहए।रेखखका ने गगल्रू की जारी की एक कीर इस
तयह उखाड़ दी कक उसके आने-जाने का यास्ता फन गमा। अफ िह जारी के फाहय अऩनी
इच्छा से आ-जा सकता था।
प्र6. गगल्रू ककन अथों भें ऩरयचारयका की बलू भका तनबा यहा था?
उत्तय रेखखका की अस्िस्थता भें गगल्रू उनके लसयाहने फैठ जाता औय नन्हें ऩॊजों से उनके फारों को
सहराता यहता। इस प्रकाय िह सच्चे अथों भें ऩरयचारयका की बलू भका तनबा यहा था।
प्र7. गगल्रू की ककन चेष्टाओॊ से मह आबास लभरने रगा था कक अफ उसका अॊत सभम सभीऩ है ?
उत्तय गगल्रू ने हदन बय कुछ बी नहीॊ खामा न फाहय गमा अॊत सभम की भजु श्कर के फाद बी िह
झर
ू े से उतयकय रेखखका के बफस्तय ऩय आ गमा औय अऩने ठॊ डे ऩॊजों से उॉ गरी ऩकड़कय हाथ
से गचऩक गमा, जजसे ऩहरे उसने घामर अिस्था भें ऩकड़ा था। इन्हीॊ चेष्टाओॊ से आबास
लभरने रगा कक अफ उसका अॊत सभम सभीऩ है ।
प्र8. 'प्रबात की प्रथभ ककयण के स्ऩशव के साथ ही िह ककसी औय जीिन भें जागने के लरए सो
गमा' −का आशम स्ऩष्ट कीजजए।
उत्तय इस कथन का आशम मह है कक सफ

ु ह होते होते गगल्रू की भत्ृ मु हो गई औय िह हभेशा के
लरए सो गमा ताकक िह कहीॊ औय जन्भ रेकय नए जीिन को ऩा सके।
प्र9. सोनजह
ु ी की रता के नीचे फनी गगल्रू की सभागध से रेखखका के भन भें ककस विश्िास का
जन्भ होता है?
10
उत्तय सोनजुही की रता के नीचे गगल्रू की सभागध फनाई गई क्मोंकक मह रता गगल्रू को फहुत
ऩसॊद थी औय साथ ही रेखखका को विश्िास था कक इस छोटे से जीि को इस फेर ऩय रगे
पूर के रुऩ भें दे खेगी। जह
ु ी भें जफ ऩीरे पूर रगें गे तो रेखखका के सभऺ गगल्रू की स्भतृ त
साकाय हो जाएगी। इससे उन्हे सॊतोष लभरेगा।
अन्य महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न
प्र1. रेखखका को अकस्भात ककस छोटे जीि का स्भयण हो आमा औय कैसे?
उत्तय रेखखका ने दे खा कक सोनजह

ु ी भें ऩीरी करी आ गई है। मह दे खकय उसे अकस्भात छोटे जीि
गगल्रू का स्भयण हो आमा। सोनजुही की इसी सघन हरयमारी भें गगल्रू तछऩकय फैठता था
जो अचानक रेखखका के कॊधे ऩय कूदकय उसे चौंका दे ता था। रेखखका को रगा कक ऩीरी करी
के रूऩ भें गगल्रू ही प्रकट हो गमा है ।
प्र2. कौए की काॉि-काॉि के फाद बी भनष्ु म उसे कफ आदय दे ता है औय क्मों?
उत्तय कौए की काॉि-काॉि के फाद बी भनष्ु म उसे वऩतऩ

ृ ऺ भें आदय दे ता है, क्मोंकक हभाये सभाज भें
ऐसी भान्मता है कक हभाये ऩयु खे हभसे कुछ ऩाने के लरए वऩतऩ
ृ ऺ भें कौओॊ के रूऩ भें आते
हैं। इसके अरािा कौआ हभाये ककसी दयू स्थ के आने का सॊदेश बी रेकय आता है ।
प्र3. कौए अऩना सर

ु ब आहाय कहाॉ खोज यहे थे औय कैसे?
उत्तय रेखखका ने दे खा कक गभरे औय दीिाय की सॊगध भें गगरहयी का छोटा-सा फच्चा है जो सॊबित:
घोंसरे से गगय ऩड़ा होगा। कौए उसे उठाने के प्रमास भें चोंच भाय यहे थे। इसी छोटे फच्चे भें
कौए अऩना सर
ु ब आहाय खोज यहे थे।
प्र4. रेखखका की अनऩ

ु जस्थतत भें गगल्रू प्रकृतत के साजन्नध्म भें अऩना जीिन ककस प्रकाय बफताता
था?
उत्तय रेखखका की अनऩ

ु जस्थतत भें गगल्रू खखड़की भें फनी जारी को उठाने से फने यास्ते द्िाया फाहय
चरा जाता था। िह दस
ू यी गगरहरयमों के झुॊड भें शालभर होकय उनका नेता फन जाता औय हय
डार ऩय उछर-कूद कयता यहता था। िह रेखखका के रौटने के सभम कभये भें िाऩस आ
जाता था।
11
प्र5. गगल्रू का वप्रम खाद्म क्मा था? इसे न ऩाने ऩय िह क्मा कयता था?
उत्तय गगल्रू का वप्रम खाद्म काजू था। इसे िह अऩने दाॉतों से ऩकड़कय कुतय-कुतयकय खाता यहता
था। गगल्रू को जफ काजू नहीॊ लभरता था तो िह खाने की अन्म चीजें रेना फॊद कय दे ता था
मा उन्हें झूरे से नीचे पेंक दे ता था।
प्र6. रेखखका ने कैसे जाना कक गगल्रू उसकी अनऩ

ु जस्थतत भें दख
ु ी था?
उत्तय रेखखको एक भोटय दघ

ु ट
व ना भें घामर हो गई। इससे उसे कुछ सभम अस्ऩतार भें यहना ऩड़ा।
उन हदनों जफ रेखखका के कभये का दयिाजा खोरा जाता तो गगल्रू झूरे से नीचे आता ऩयॊ तु
ककसी औय को दे खकय तेजी से बागकय झुरे भें चरा जाता। सफ उसे िहीॊ काजू दे आते, ऩयॊ तु
जफ रेखखका ने अस्ऩतार से आकय झूरे की सफाई की तो उसे झूरे भें काजू लभरे जजन्हें
गगल्रू ने नहीॊ खामा था। इससे रेखखका ने जान लरमा कक उसकी अनऩ
ु जस्थतत भें गगल्रू दख
ु ी
थी।
प्र7. बोजन के सॊफध

ॊ भें रेखखका को अन्म ऩारतू जानियों औय गगल्रू भें क्मा अॊतय नजय आमा?
उत्तय रेखखका ने अनेक ऩश-ु ऩऺी ऩार यखे थे, जजनसे िह फहुत रगाि यखती थी ऩयॊ तु बोजन के
सॊफध
ॊ भें रेखखका को अन्म ऩारतू जानियों औय गगल्रू भें मह अॊतय नजय आमा कक उनभें से
जअकसी जानिय ने रेखखका के साथ उसकी थारी भें खाने की हहम्भत नहीॊ कक जफकक गगल्रू
खाने के सभम भेज ऩय आ जाता औय रेखखका की थारी भें फैठकय खाने का प्रमास कयता।
प्र8. रेखखका ने रघु जीि की जान ककस तयह फचाई? उसके इस कामव से आऩको क्मा प्रेयणा
लभरती है ?
उत्तय रेखखका ने दे खा कक गभरे औय दीिाय की सॊगध के फीच एक छोटा-सा गगरहयी का फच्चा ऩड़ा
है । शामद मह घोंसरे से गगय गमा होगा। इसे कौए अऩना बोजन फनाने के लरए तत्ऩय थे कक
रेखखका की दृजष्ट उस ऩय ऩड़ गई। उसने उस फच्चे को उठाकय उसके घािों ऩय ऩें लसरीन
रगाई औय ऩानी वऩरामा। इससे िह दो-तीन हदन भें स्िस्थ हो गमा। रेखखका के इस कामव
भें हभें -
• जीि जॊतओ
ु ॊ के प्रतत सॊिेदनशीर फनने की प्रेयणा लभरती है ।
• जीि-जॊतओ
ु ॊ की यऺा कयने की सीख लभरती है ।
• जीि-जॊतओ
ु ॊ को न सताने तथा उन्हें प्रताडड़त न कयने की प्रेयणा लभरती है ।
12
प्र8. रेखखका को जीि-जॊतओ
ु ॊ की सॊिेदनाओॊ की सक्ष्
ू भ सभझ थी। इसे स्ऩष्ट कयते हुए फताइए कक
आऩको इनसे ककन ककन भल्
ू मों को अऩनाने की सीख लभरती है ?
उत्तय रेखखका अत्मॊत सदम, सॊिेदनशीर तथा ऩयदख

ु कोतय थी। उससे भनष्ु म ही नहीॊ ऩश-ु ऩक्षऺमों का
दख
ु बी नहीॊ दे खा जाता था। इसके अरािा उसे जीि-जॊतओ
ु ॊ की बािनाओॊ की सक्ष्
ू भ सभझ
थी। रेखखका ने दे खा कक िसॊत ऋतु भें गगल्रू अन्म गगरहरयमों की गचक-गचक सन
ु कय उन्हें
अऩनेऩन के बाि से खखड़की भें से तनहायता यहता है । रेखखका ने तयु ॊ त कीरें हटिाकय खखड़की
की जारी से यास्ता फनिा हदमा, जजसके भाध्मभ से िह फाहय जाकय अन्म गगरहरयमों के साथ
उछर-कूद कयने रगा। इससे हभें जीि-जॊतओ
ु ॊ की बािनाएॉ सभझने, उनके प्रतत दमारत
ु ा
हदखाने तथा जीिों को उनके प्राकृततक आिास भें ऩहुॉचाने की प्रेयणा लभरती है ।
13
CLASS- IX
SUBJECT- MATHS (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
CHAPTER 3
Coordinate Geometry
Cartesian System
Cartesian plane & Coordinate Axes
Cartesian Plane: A cartesian plane is defined by two perpendicular number lines, A

horizontal line(x−axis) and a vertical line (y−axis).
These lines are called coordinate axes. The Cartesian plane extends infinitely in all
directions.
Origin: The coordinate axes intersect each other at right angles, The point of
intersection of these two axes is called Origin.
Quadrants
The cartesian plane is divided into four equal parts, called quadrants. These are
named in the order as I,II,III and IV starting with the upper right and going around in
anticlockwise direction.
Points in different Quadrants.
Signs of coordinates of points in different quadrants:
14
I Quadrant: ‘+’ x – coordinate and ‘+’ y – coordinate. E.g. (2,3)
II Quadrant: ‘-’ x – coordinate and ‘+’ y – coordinate. E.g. (-1,4)
III Quadrant: ‘-’ x – coordinate and ‘-’ y – coordinate. E.g. (-3,-5)
IV Quadrant: ‘+’ x – coordinate and ‘-’ y – coordinate. E.g. (6,-1)
Plotting on a Graph
Representation of a point on the Cartesian plane
Using the co-ordinate axes, we can describe any point in the plane using an ordered
pair of numbers. A point A is represented by an ordered pair (x,y) where x is
the abscissa and y is the ordinate of the point.
Position of a point in a plane
Plotting a point
The coordinate points will define the location in the cartesian plane. The first point (x)
in the coordinates represents the horizontal axis and the second point in the
coordinates (y) represent the vertical axis.
Consider an example, Point (3,2) is 3 units away from the positive y-axis and 2 units
away from the positive x-axis. Therefore, point (3,2) can be plotted as shown below.
Similarly, (-2,3), (-1,-2) and (2,-3) are plotted.
15
Plotting a point in the plane
Q1. How will you describe the position of a table lamp on your study table to another
person?
Solution:
For describing the position of table lamp on the study table, we take two lines, a
perpendicular and a horizontal line. Considering the table as a plane(x and y axis) and
taking perpendicular line as Y axis and horizontal as X axis respectively. Take one
corner of table as origin where both X and Y axes intersect each other. Now, the
length of table is Y axis and breadth is X axis. From The origin, join the line to the
table lamp and mark a point. The distances of the point from both X and Y axes
should be calculated and then should be written in terms of coordinates.
The distance of the point from X-axis and Y- axis is x and y respectively, so the table
lamp will be in (x, y) coordinate.
Here, (x,y) = (15, 25)
. Write the answer of each of the following questions:
(i) What is the name of horizontal and the vertical lines drawn to determine the
position of any point in the Cartesian plane?
(ii) What is the name of each part of the plane formed by these two lines?
(iii) Write the name of the point where these two lines intersect.
Solution:
1. The name of horizontal and vertical lines drawn to determine the position of
any point in the Cartesian plane is x-axis and y-axis respectively.
2. The name of each part of the plane formed by these two lines x-axis and the y-
axis is quadrants.
3. The point where these two lines intersect is called the origin.
Q2. See Fig. and write the following:
1. The coordinates of B.
2. The coordinates of C.
3. The point identified by the coordinates (–3, –5).
4. The point identified by the coordinates (2, – 4).
5.
6. The abscissa of the point D.
7. The ordinate of the point H.
16
8. The coordinates of the point L.
9. The coordinates of the point M.
Solution:
1. The co-ordinates of B is (−5, 2).

2. The co-ordinates of C is (5, −5).
3. The point identified by the coordinates (−3, −5) is E.
4. The point identified by the coordinates (2, −4) is G.
5. Abscissa means x co-ordinate of point D. So, abscissa of the point D is 6.
6. Ordinate means y coordinate of point H. So, ordinate of point H is -3.
7. The co-ordinates of the point L is (0, 5).
8. The co-ordinates of the point M is (−3, 0).
Q. 1. In which quadrant or on which axis do each of the points (– 2, 4), (3, – 1), (– 1,
0),(1, 2) and (– 3, – 5) lie? Verify your answer by locating them on the Cartesian plane.
Solution:
 (– 2, 4): Second Quadrant (II- Quadrant)

 (3, – 1): Fourth Quadrant (IV- Quadrant)
17
 (– 1, 0): Negative x-axis
 (1, 2): First Quadrant (I- Quadrant)
 (– 3, – 5): Third Quadrant(III- Quadrant)
18
CLASS- IX
SUBJECT- SCIENCE (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
PHYSICS NOTES
Chapter - 8
Motion
Equation of motion by graphical methods

(i)velocity-time relation:
19
20
21
CHEMISTRY NOTES
Ch.1 Matter In Our Surroundings
Basis of Classification of Matter:
→ Based upon particle arrangement
→ Based upon energy of particles
→ Based upon distance between particles
Three States of Matter:
22
Solid Liquid Gas
Constituent particles Constituent particles Constituent
are very closely are less closely particles are far
packed. packed. apart from each
other.
Force of attraction Force of attraction Force of attraction
between particles is between particles is between particles
very strong. less strong. is negligible.
Force of attraction Kinetic energy Particles have
between particles is between particles is maximum kinetic
very strong. more than that in energy.
solids.
Have definite shape Do not have definite Neither have
and volume. shape but definite definite shape nor
volume. definite volume.
Have high density Density is lower than Density is least
and andcan not be solids and can and can easily
diffused. diffuse. diffuse.
Incompressible. Almost Highly
incompressible. compressible.
Temperature: Common and SI units
→ Common unit: Degree Celsius (oC)
→ SI unit: Kelvin (K)
→ Relation between common unit and SI unit of temperature:
0 oC = 273K
23
Change of State of Matter:
Physical states of matter can be interconverted into each other by following two ways:
1. By changing the temperature
2. By changing the pressure
Interconversion of states of matter:
1. Effect of Change of Temperature:
Solid to liquid:
→ On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases
which overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles thereby solid gets converted
to a liquid.
→ Melting: Change of solid state of a substance into liquid is called melting.
→ Melting point: The temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at the
atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.
→ Melting point of ice is 0oc.
24
(a) Liquid to gas:
→ On heating a liquid like water, the kinetic energy of its particles increases as high as in a
gas, thus causing the liquid to change to a gas.
→ Boiling: The change of a liquid substance into gas on heating is called boiling.
→ Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boils and changes rapidly into a gas at
the atmospheric pressure is called its boiling point.
→ Boiling point if water is 100oC.
(b) Gas to liquid:
→ On cooling a gas like steam (or water vapour), the kinetic energy of its particles is lowered
down, causing them to move slowly and bringing them closer, forming a liquid.
25
→ Condensation: The process, in which a gas, on cooling, turns into a liquid at a specific
temperature is called condensation or liquefaction.
(c) Liquid to solid:
→ When a liquid is cooled down by lowering its temperature, its particles lose the kinetic
energy and come to a stationary position, causing the liquid to turn to soilid.
Freezing: The change of a liquid substance into soilid by lowering its temperature is called
freezing.
Freezing point: The temperature at which the state of a substance changes from a liquid to
a solid is called the freezing point of that substance.
Fusion: The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known
as fusion.
Latent heat: The heat energy that is required to change the state of a substance without
causing any ruse in the temperature of the substance is called latent heat. Since, the heat
energy is hidden in the bulk of the matter, it is called latent heat.
Latent heat of fusion: The heat energy required to convert 1 kilogram of a solid into liquid
at atmospheric pressure, at its melting point, is known as the latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of vaporisation: The heat energy required to convert 1 kilogram of liquid into
gas, at atmospheric pressure, at its boiling point, is known as the latent heat of vaporisation
Note: Water vapour at 373 K have more energy than water at the same temperature
becauseparticles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of
vaporisation.
Sublimation: The change of state of a substance directly from a solid to gas or gas to solid,
without changing into the liquid state, is called sublimation.
26
2. Effect of change of pressure
→ Gas to liquid: Gases can be liquefied by applying pressure and reducing the
temperature. When a high pressure is applied to a gas, it gets compressed and if the
temperature is lowered, the gas is liquefied.
→ Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1

atmosphere without coming into liquid state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is
also known as dry ice.
BIOLOGY NOTES
Ch.5The Fundamental Unit of Life
Cell organelles:
Inside the cell there are different parts performing different activities to keep the cell alive
and functional. These parts are called Cell organelles. They are explained below:
1. Golgi Apparatus:
Golgi apparatus consists of a set of membrane bound, fluid filled vesicles, vacuoles and
flattened cisternae (closed sacks).
Cisternae are usually arranged parallel to each other.
Functions:
27
 Its main function is to store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.
 It is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum:
It is a membranous network of tube like structures extending from nuclear membrane to

plasma membrane.
It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:

(i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Here ribosomes are present on the surface for the
synthesis of proteins.
(ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Here ribosomes are absent and is meant for
secreting lipids.
Functions:
 It gives internal support to cell.
 It helps in transport of various substances from nuclear membrane to plasma

membrane or vice versa.
 RER helps in synthesis and transportation of proteins.
 SER helps in synthesis and transportation of lipids.
3. Ribosomes:
These are extremely small, dense and spherical bodies which occur freely in the matrix
(cytosol) or remain attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
These are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
Function:
They play a major role in the synthesis of proteins.
4. Mitochondria:
They are small rod-shaped organelles.
28
It is a double membrane structure with outer membrane being smooth and porous whereas
inner membrane being thrown into a number of folds called cristae.
They contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
They are absent in bacteria and red blood cells of mammals.
Functions:
 They are the sites of cellular respiration, hence provide energy for the vital activities
of living cells.
 They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP (Energy currency of
the cell). Therefore, they are also called „power house‟ of the cell.
5. Centrosome and Centrioles:
Centrosome is found only in eukaryotic animal cells. It is not bounded by any membrane but
consists of centrioles.
Centroles are hollow cylindrical structures arranged at right angle to each other and made
up of microtubules.
Function:
Centrioles help in cell division and also help in the formation of cilia and flagella.
6. Plastids:
Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and absent in animal cells.
They are usually spherical or discoidal in shaped and double membrane bound organelles.
They also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Plastids are of three types:
(a) Chloroplasts: These are the green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts
aid in the manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.
(b) Chromoplasts: These are the colourful plastids (except green colour).
(c) Leucoplasts: These are the colourless plastids.
Function:
29
 Chloroplasts trap solar energy and utilise it to manufacture food for the plant.
 Chromoplast impart various colours to flowers to attract insects for pollination.
 Leucoplasts help in the storage of food in the form of starch, proteins and fats.
7. Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are small, spherical, sac like structures which contain several digestive enzymes
enclosed in a membrane.
They are found in eukaryotic cells mostly in animals.
Functions:
 Lysosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.
 They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
 They help to keep the cell clean.
 During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example when the cell gets
damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore,
lysosomes are also known as suicide bags of a cell.
8. Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are liquid/solid filled and membrane bound organelles.
In plant cells, vacuoles are large and permanent. In animal cells, vacuoles are small In size
and temporary.
In mature plant cell, It occupies 90% space of cell volume.
Due to its size, other organelles, including nucleus shift towards plasma membrane.
Function:
 They help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell.
 They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.
 Form cell.
30
Difference Between Animal Cell and Plant Cell:
S.
Animal cell Plant cell
No.
Animal cells are generally small in Plant cells are larger than animal cells.
1.
size.
Cell wall is absent. Plasma membrane of plant cell is
2. surrounded by a rigid cell wall of
cellulose.
Plastids are absent except in case of Plastids are present.
3
protozoan Euglena.
Here vacuoles are many, small and They have a permanent and large central
4.
temporary. vacuole.
They have centrosome and They lack centrosome and centrioles.
5.
centrioles.
Structure of Plant cell and Animal cell:
31
CLASS- IX
SUBJECT- SOCIAL SCIENCE (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
Chapter - 1 ( The Story of Village Palampur)
Topics in the chapter
• Overview
• Introduction
• Organization of Production
• Farming in Palampur
• Non-Farm Activities in Palampur
Overview
→A story of a hypothetical village called Palampur.
→ To introduce some basic concepts relating to production.
→ Small scale manufacturing, dairy, transport, etc. are carried out on a limited scale in the
village.
→ Various resources combine to produce the desired goods and services in the village.
Introduction
• Palampur is a small village, well-connected with neighbouring villages and towns like,
Raiganj.
• Bullock carts, tongas, bogeys , motorcycles, jeeps, tractors and trucks types of visible
transport facilities are available on the road of Palampur.
• This village has two primary and one high school and also has a primary health centre run
by the government and one private dispensary.
• About 450 different caste families are living here.
→ Out of them, 80 upper caste families have land majority in this village. One third of total
population is covered by schedule caste.
• Most of the houses have electric connections.
32
→ Small manufacturing, transport, shop-keeping and farming are the production activities of
the village Palampur.
Organization of Production
• The goal of the organization is to produce goods and services.

→ Land, labour and capital are required for production. Natural resources fulfilled the
requirements of land and water.
→ Forlabour intensive industry, labour is required and for financial aid, capital is required.
• Physical capitals are also required for production.

→ Working Capital includes Raw materials and money in hand and Fixed Capital includes
tools, machines, buildings.
• Human Capital means that labour is also required for the selling purpose.
Farming in Palampur
Farming in Palampur is based on following factor:

(i) Land is fixed
(ii) Change in the method of cultivation
(iii) Multiple cropping
(iv) Modern Farming
(v) Sustainability of land
(vi) Distribution of land
(vii) Labour
(viii) Capital
(ix) Selling of farms products
• Land is fixed
→ About 75 per cent population are depended on farming in Palampur. Land area under
cultivation is fixed. There has been no expansion in land area under cultivation since
1960.• Change in method of cultivation
→ Multiple cropping and Modern farming are the method of cultivation used in Palampur to
increase the production from land.
• Multiple cropping
33
→ Method of multiple cropping is used in Palampur. Cultivation of different types of crops in
the same piece of land at same or different time is known as Multiple cropping. For example,
jowar and bajra grow during rainy season, potato is produced between October and
December, wheat is produced during winter season.
• Modern farming
→ In this type of farming , high yielding varieties seeds are used. As a result same piece of
land produce larger quantities of food grains.
→ In India Farmers of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh were the first to try out
the modern farming method.
→ Introduction of the Green Revolution facilitated the cultivation of wheat and rice using
High Yielding Variety of seeds (HYVs) instead of the traditional seeds. The HYVs are
capable of producing more amount of grain on one plant.
• Sustainability of land
→ According to a scientific report, in modern farming natural resource are overused.
→ Groundwater, rivers and lakes are polluted by the way of using of chemical fertilizers.
→ Chemical fertilizers also kill bacteria and other micro-organisms in the soil which are
essential for the growth of plants.
• Distribution of land
→ About one third of the 450 families are landless in Palampur.
→ 240 families cultivate small plots of land less i.e 2 hectares in size and remaining 60
families cultivate more than 2 hectares of land.
→ A few of the large farmers cultivate 10 hectares or more than 10 hectares of land.
34
• Labour
→ Some farmers are worked on their own land and some worked on another land for which
they receive wage.
→ Wages can be in cash or in kind. Wages vary from region to region, crop to crop and one
farm activity to another.
• Capital
→ Huge capital is required in the method of modern farming.
→ Small farmers have lack of capital. They borrow money from large farmers and
moneylenders at higher rate of interest.
→ There are three type of capital which are mostly used in any organization i.e working
capital, fixed capital and human capital.
• Selling of Farm Products
→ Surplus products are sold to medium or large farmers by the small farmers.
→ After that, medium and large farmers sell their surplus directly to the market.
→ The traders buy the products from market and sell the products to shopkeepers in the
towns and cities
Non-Farm Activities in Palampur
25 per cent of total population is engaged in non-farming activities in Palampur.
• Small-scale manufacturing
→ In Palampur, small scale manufacturing is done. Basically, the work is carried out at home
or in the fields with the help of family labour. So, labour is hired rarely.
• Transporting
→People and goods are ferried from one place to another through transporting service. For
this service the worker get paid. In Palampur, road is the mode of transportation.
35
• Dairy
→ Dairy is a major source of earning money in Palampur.
→ Dairy is a type of business where harvesting or processing of animal milk are done mostly
from cow and buffaloes.
• Shopkeeping
→ Shopkeeping is also a source of earning money in Palampur.
→ Shopkeepers earn money by selling a wide range of items like rice, wheat, sugar, tea, oil,
biscuits, soap, toothpaste, batteries, candles, notebooks, pen, pencil, even some cloth.
Here, shopkeeper is an individual who run the shop.
NCERT SOLUTIONS
Question-1 Modern farming methods require more inputs, which are manufactured in
industry. Do you agree?
Solution: No doubt, modern farming requires more inputs than traditional farming. These
are:
 chemical fertilizers
 pesticides
 pump sets
 farm machinery
 electricity
 diesel
 HYV seeds
 water supply
Most of these inputs like fertilizers, tools, and implements are manufactured in industry. HYV
seeds are developed in agriculture research laboratories. Machine industry provides various
kinds of implements, irrigation pumps, and farming machinery to improve productivity and
minimize farming efforts. Chemical and soil engineering-based industries provide fertilizers
and pesticides to boost agriculture. Water supply is done by canals and tanks. Electricity is
supplied by powerhouses.
Question-2 How did the spread of electricity help farmers in Palampur?
Solution: The spread of electricity helped the farmers in Palampur in the following ways:
36
1. Most of the houses have electricity connections.
2. It is used to run tubewells in the fields.
3. It is used in various types of small businesses.
Question-3 Is it important to increase the area under irrigation? Why?
Solution: Irrigation facilities are available only to about 40% of the cultivated land area in the
country. The rest of the land, i.e., 60% of the cultivated area, is still dependent on rainfall for
irrigation. It means that the benefit of multiple cropping cannot be achieved by 60% of the
farmers in the country. They produce less and so their income is also low. Thus, they live in
poverty.
Therefore, if these farmers are to be brought out of poverty, farm productivity has to
increase. This is only possible when they use modern farming methods and dependable
irrigation facilities. Hence, it is important to increase the area under irrigation.
Question-4 Why are the wages for farm labourers in Palampur less than minimum wages?
Solution: A waged labourer might be employed on a daily basis, or for one particular farm
activity like harvesting, or for the whole year. Most small farmers have to borrow money to
arrange for the capital. They borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the
traders who supply various inputs for cultivation. The rate of interest on such loans is very
high. They are put to great distress to repay the loan. Hence they pay very low wages to the
farm labourers.
Question-5 What are the different ways of increasing production on the same piece of land?
Use examples to Explain.
Solution: To grow more than one crop on a piece of land during the year is known as
multiple cropping. It is the most common way of increasing production on a given piece of
land. All farmers in Palampur grow at least two main crops; many are growing potato as the
third crop in the past fifteen to twenty years.
Question-6 How do the medium and large farmers obtain capital for farming? How is it
different from the small farmers?
Solution: In contrast to the small farmers, the medium and large farmers have their own
savings from farming. They are thus able to arrange for the capital needed.
Question-7 On what terms did Savita get a loan from Tajpal Singh? Would Savita‟s
condition be different if she could get a loan from the bank at a low rate of interest?
Solution:Savita was a small farmer. She planed to cultivate wheat on her 1-hectare land.
Besides seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, she needed cash to buy water and repair her farm
37
instruments. She estimated that his working capital itself would cost a minimum of Rs 3,000.
She didn‟t have the money, so she decided to borrow from Tejpal Singh, a large farmer.
Tejpal Singh agreed to give Savita the loan at an interest rate of 24 percent for four months,
which was a very high-interest rate.
Savita also had to promise to work on his field as a farm labourer during the harvest season
at Rs 35 per day. Savita knew that this wage is quite low and she will have to work very hard
to complete harvesting on her own field, and then work as a farm labourer for Tejpal Singh.
Savita agreed to those tough conditions, as she knew, that getting a loan is difficult for a
small farmer. Yes, Savita‟s condition would have been different if she could get a loan from
the bank at a low rate of interest.
Question-8 What can be done so that more non-farm production activities can be started in
villages?
Solution: The villagers must be made aware of the non-farm production activities and their
benefits. They must also be taught the methods of doing such activities. The villagers who
have the impression that they can earn only by farming, must be given proper guidance and
help to do such activities.
38
CLASS- X
SUBJECT- ENGLISH (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
NGLISH READER CHAPTER -2 NELSON MANDELA: A LONG WALK TO FREEDOM
SUMMARY
This chapter is an extract from the autobiography of Nelson Mandela (born- 18 July, 1918), the
first Black President of South Africa. Excerpts from “Long Walk to Freedom” include a
description of the inauguration ceremony, citations from his speech, his journey to being a
freedom fighter, the struggle, along with a tribute to other freedom fighters and countless other
people who fought for their freedom. In South Africa, a brutal practice named “apartheid” was
followed. Apartheid refers to discrimination between people on the basis of their race. It was one
of the most brutal societies where dark-skinned people were deprived of their basic rights. This
lesson gives us an overview as to how Nelson Mandela along with others, carved their way to a
society where there will be no discrimination on the basis of their colour, caste, race, age or
gender.
WORD MEANINGS
Deputy- Second in command

Sworn- given under oath; determined to stay in the role specified
Pledged- committed (a person or organization) by a solemn promise.
Assembled- (of people) gather together in one place for a common purpose
Confer- grant
Glory- honour
Outlaws- because of its policy of apartheid, many countries had earlier broken off diplomatic
relations with South Africa
On our own soil- in our own country
Possession- ownership
Dignity- the state or quality of being worthy of respect.
Emancipation- the fact or process of being set free from legal, social, or political restrictions
Liberate- free; release
Bondage- the state of being a slave
Discrimination- being treated differently or unfavorably
Deprivation- the damaging lack of material benefits considered to be basic necessities in a
society
Oppression- prolonged cruel or unjust treatment or exercise of authority.
39
Glorious- having, worthy of, or bringing fame or admiration.
Reign- rule; govern
Awe- amazed
Spectacular- beautiful in a dramatic and an eye-catching way
Array- an impressive display
Troop- soldiers or armed forces
Precision- accuracy
Bedecked- decorate
Unmindful- not conscious or aware
Chevron- a pattern in the shape of a V
Trail- series; chain
Oral Comprehension Check

Page 18,19
Question 1.
Where did the ceremonies take place ? Can you name any public buildings in India that are
made of sandstones?
Answer:
The ceremonies took place in the campus of the Union Building of Pretoria, which were
attended by dignitaries and leaders of many nations. In India; Rashtrapati Bhavan and Red Fort
are buildings made of red sandstone.
Question 2.
Can you say how 10th May is an „autumn day‟ in South Africa?
Answer:
As South Africa is in the Southern Hemisphere, may falls in the autumn season. Thus 10th May
is an „autumn day‟.
Question 3.
At the beginning of his speech, Mandela mentions “an extraordinary human disaster”. What
does he mean by this? What is the “glorious human achievement” he speaks of at the end?
Answer:
By „an extraordinary human disaster‟ Mandela means to state the practice of apartheid in South
Africa. During this there was a racial segregation based on colour and the blacks suffered a lot.
They were not allowed to demand freedom or any right. Mandela himself did spend many years
on infamous „Robben Island‟ as a prisoner where he was beaten mercilessly. He considered it
as great glorious human achievement that a black person became the President of a country
where the blacks were not even considered human beings and were treated badly.
Question 4.
What does Mandela thank the international leaders for ?
Answer:
Mandela felt very privileged to welcome the international leaders at the swearing – in ceremony
because not too long ago, the South Africans were considered outlaws. He thus thanks all of
them for having come to witness the historical ceremony. This was a gesture of international
40
recognition to a newly born free democratic nation and it could be considered as a common
victory for justice, peace and human dignity.
Question 5.
What ideals does Nelson Mandela set for the future of South Africa?
Answer:
Nelson Mandela set the ideals of liberating people from bondage of poverty, deprivation and
suffering. He also set the ideal for a society where there would be no discrimination based on
gender or racial origins.
Page 21
Question 1.
What did the military generals do ? How did their attitude change and why?
Answer:
The highest military generals of South African defence force saluted Mandela and pledged their
loyalty which was of great significance as during apartheid era they would have arrested him.
The change in their attitude was because of struggle and sacrifices put in by many heroes of
South Africa. This struggle not only ensured the freedom of a nation struggling with apartheid,
bur brought a change in mindsets of many. He believed that love can also be taught and human
being is naturally inclined towards love rather than hate.
Question 2.
Why were two national anthems sung?
Answer:
One the auspicious occasion of the inauguration two national anthems: one by the Whites and
the other by the Blacks symbolising the equality of the Blacks and the Whites were sung.
Question 3.
How does Mandela describe the systems of government in his country
(i) in the first decade, and
(ii) in the final decade, of the twentieth century?
Answer:
(i) In the first decade of the century, the whites erected a system of racial domination against the
blacks, thus creating the basis of one of the harshest and most inhumane societies the world
had ever known.
(ii) In the final decade of the 20th century, the . previous system had been overturned and
replaced by one which recognised rights and freedom of all people regardless of color of their
skin.
Question 4.
What does courage mean to Mandela?
Answer:
For Mandela courage does not mean the absence of fear but a victory over fear. According to
him brave men need not be fearless but should be able to conquer fear.
41
Question 5.
Which does Mandela think is natural, to love or to hate?
Answer:
For Mandela, love comes more naturally to the human heart than hate.
Page 4
Question 1.
What “twin obligations” does Mandela mention?
Answer:
Mandela mentions that every man has twin obligations. The first is to his family, parents, wife
and children; the second obligation is to his people, his community and his country.
Question 2.
What did being free mean to Mandela as a boy, and as a student ? How does he contrast these
“transitory freedoms” with “the basic and honourable freedoms”?
Answer:
Like any other kid, for Mandela freedom meant to make merry and enjoy the blissful life. Once
one becomes an adult, antics of childhood looks like transitory because most of the childish
activities are wasteful from an adult‟s perspective. Once you are adult, you have to earn a
livelihood to bring the bacon home. Its only then when you get an honourable existence in the
family and in the society.
Question 3.
Does Mandela think the oppressor is free? Why/why not?
Answer:
Mandela does not think that the oppressor is free because according to him an oppressor is a
victim of hatred who is behind the bars of prejudice and narrow-mindedness. He realises that
both the oppressor and the oppressed are robbed of their humanity and peace.
Thinking about the Text

(Page 24)
Question 1.
Why did such a large number of international leaders attend the inauguration ? What did it
signify the triumph of?
Answer:
To be the part of the inauguration, international leaders showed a gesture of solidarity from
international community to the idea of end of apartheid. It was the significance of the victory of
good over evil and triumph of a tolerant society without any discrimination.
Question 2.
What does Mandela mean when he says he is “simply the sum of all those African patriots”, who
had gone before him ?
42
Answer:
By saying that he is simply the sum of all those African patriots, Mandela wants to pay his
tribute to all the people who have sacrificed their lives for the sake of freedom. He says that he
is grateful to those who had gone before him because those heroes of past had paved the path
of co-operation and unity for him. Therefore, he could try to come to power to bring equality for
his people with their support.
Question 3.
Would you agree that the “depths of oppression” create “heights of character”? How does
Mandela illustrate this? Can you add your own examples to this argument ?
Answer:
I agree with the statement that depths of oppression create heights of character. Nelson
Mandela illustrates this by giving examples of great heroes of South Africa like Oliver Tambo,
Walter Sisulu and others who were inspired to sacrifice their lives in the long freedom struggle.
India is full of such examples, during our freedom struggle there was a galaxy of leaders of
great characters and the oppression of British rule created and encouraged people of noble
characters like Mahatma Gandhi, Lala Lajpat Rai, JL Nehru, Chandra Shekhar Ajad, Sardar
Bhagat Singh and many more. If we compare them with the quality of political leaders India is
having today, then Nelson Mandela seems to be absolutely right;
Question 4.
How did Mandela‟s understanding of freedom change with age and experience?
Answer:
With age and experience, Mandela understood the real meaning of freedom. As a young boy,
he thought that he was born free and believed that as long as he obeyed his father and abided
by the customs of his tribe, he was free in every possible manner. As he grew older, freedom to
raise a family and freedom to earn livelihood started dominating his thoughts. Gradually he
realised that he was selfish during his boyhood. He slowly understood that it was not just his
freedom that was being curtailed, but the freedom of all blacks. It was the freedom from fear and
prejudice. Age and experience widened his perspective of freedom.
Question 5.
How did Mandela‟s „hunger for freedom‟ change his life?
Answer:
Mandela realised in his youth that it was not just his freedom that was being curtailed, but the
freedom of all blacks. This changed the fearfulman to a fearless rebel.
He sacrificed the comforts of a settled family life to fight for a greater cause. He joined the
African National Congress and this changed him from a frightened young man into a bold one
who fought against racial prejudice.
EXTRACT BASED QUESTIONS-
Read the following extracts carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Question 1.
10th May dawned bright and clear. For the past few days 1 had been pleasantly besieged by
dignitaries and world leaders who were coming to pay their respects before the inauguration.
The inauguration would be the largest gathering ever of international leaders on South African
43
soil. The ceremonies took place in the lovely sandstone amphitheater formed by the Union
Buildings in Pretoria. For decades this had been the seat of white supremacy, and now it was
the site of a rainbow gathering of different colours and nations for the installation of South
Africa‟s first democratic, non-racial government.
(a) Who were coming and for what before the inauguration?
(b) What happened on the inauguration?
(c) Find out the word that means the same „commencement‟ from the passage.
(d) Find the word from the passage which means „an open space surround by sloping land‟.
Answer:
(a) Dignitaries and world leaders were coming to pay their respects before the inauguration.
(b) On the inauguration the first ever democracy, a non-racial government was installed as a
victory of good or evil.
(c) The word is „inauguration‟.
(d) The word is „ampitheater‟.
Question 2.
On that lovely autumn day I was accompanied by my daughter Zenani. On the podium, Mr de
Klerk was first sworn in as second Deputy President. Then Thabo Mbeki was sworn in as first
Deputy President. When it was my turn, I pledged to obey and uphold the Constitution and to
devote myself to the well-being of the republic and its people.
(a) Who accompanied Nelson Mandela on the inauguration?
(b) Who took the oath before Mandela? For what?
(c) Find out the word from the passage that has the same meaning as „maintain‟.
(d) ……. means a small platform that a person stands on when giving a speech etc.
Answer:
(a) Zenani, the daughter of Nelson Mandela accompanied him on the inauguration.
(b) Mr Deklerk and Mr Thabo Mbeki took oath before Nelson Mandela as the second and first
deputy president respectively.
(c) The word is „uphold‟.
(d) The word is „podium‟.
COMPETENCY BASED QUESTIONS
Question 1.
What does Nelson Mandela refer to as “an extraordinary human disaster”?
Answer:
Nelson Mandela refers to the apartheid policy of the white race against the black people as “an
extraordinary human disaster”. White people snatched freedom from the coloured people of
South Africa to whom the country belonged. The black people were subjected to oppression for
long. They were not even allowed to discharge their obligations to their own families, community
and their country. White people had no compassion for them and oppressed their own people
and put them in prison. If they had some freedom, it was curtailed. The black people lived the
life of a slave.
Question 2.
Describe the views of Mandela for the black people who fought and sacrificed their likes for the
country‟s political independence?
Answer:
44
Mandela always said that the political freedom was the result of sacrifices of thousands of the
black people who fought for that. He said that it could not be repaid. He thought himself as the
sum of all of those African patriots. He regretted that he could not thank them. He cursed the
policy of apartheid that wounded the people of his country, which would take centuries to heal.
He also said that the oppression and brutality of the white people produced great freedom
fighters like Oliver Tambo, Walter Sisulu, Luthuli, Dadoo, Fischer, Sobukwe and many more.
They were the men of courage, wisdom and large heartedness. They really suffered a lot for the
political freedom of the country.
Question 3.
What does Mandela mean to say that the oppressor and the oppressed alike are robbed of their
humanity?
Answer:
Mandela is right in saying that the oppressor and the oppressed alike are robbed of their
humanity. Both of them are actually the victim of hatred. Everyone is obliged to discharge their
duties whether personal or social but without freedom a man cannot do so. The person who
snatches this freedom of a man is really an oppressor and a prisoner of hatred. He has lack of
humanity. But this is the same with a person who is oppressed by other.
WRITING SKILLS (FORMAL LETTERS)
Introduction
Letter to Editor :
To know how to write a letter to the editor, just follow these steps:
 Properly write your postal address, e-mail address, phone number or any other contact
information.
 Write a simple salutation.
 State the argument you are responding to, provide evidence and say what should be
done.
 Have a simple closing.
Format: Sample Letter

You are Kavita Khanna, a resident of 50-C, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi. Write a letter to the
editor of „India Today‟, magazine about the article on „Ban Poly Bags‟ published in the
45
latest edition.
Q.Read the following advertisement for products using solar energy.

Solar Power Systems For A Greener India
 Excellent Offers
 Solar Cookers
 Solar Lanterns
 Solar Heating/Cooking Systems
 Solar Water Heater
Raj Solar Sales and Service 45-Panchkwan Road New Delhi
Write a letter to the editor of an English daily, making a plea to the common people to switch
over to solar energy to conserve electricity and limit electricity bills.(Board 2014, Set PRE2N18)
(5 marks)
46
Answer:
147 Mayur Vihar
New Delhi
11 April 20xx
The Editor Hindustan Times New Delhi
Subject: Evoking Awareness Towards Solar Energy
Sir
Through the columns of your reputed newspaper, I wish to make the people aware of the
growing need and demands of solar power. We all know that our earth is showing signs of a
patient in declining health and it is due to excessive pollution on our planet. Man has a desire to
live a luxurious life and for that, he is over consuming electricity. He doesn‟t realize that overuse
would exhaust the treasure. We must conserve electricity which is the need of the hour.
But this com; rvation can only be done if we start using solar power systems. Various kinds of
solar systems like solar cookers, solar lanterns, solar heating and cooking system, solar water
heater, etc., are available in the market.
These solar systems are non-polluting. They are economical and are available in different sizes.
So, I request you to publish this letter in your newspaper to make people aware of the need of
conserving electricity and limiting electricity bills. Public must pay attention to the dire need of
switching over to solar energy.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely
Divyansh
47
CLASS- X
SUBJECT- HINDI (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)

Chapter 1 साखी
पाठ्यपुस्तक के प्रश्न-अभ्यास
(क) ननम्नलऱखखत प्रश्नों के उत्तर दीजिए-

प्रश्न 1.
भीठी वाणी फोरने से औयों को सख
ु औय अऩने तन को शीतरता कैसे प्राप्त होती है?
उत्तय-
भीठी वाणी फोरने से औयों को सख
ु औय अऩने तन को शीतरता प्राप्त होती है, क्मोंकक भीठी वाणी फोरने से भन
का अहॊ काय सभाप्त हो जाता है । मह हभाये तन को तो शीतरता प्रदान कयती ही है तथा सन
ु नेवारों को बी सख
ु की
तथा प्रसन्नता की अनब
ु तू त कयाती है इसलरए सदा दस ु ऩहुॉचाने वारी व अऩने को बी शीतरता प्रदान
ू यों को सख
कयने वारी भीठी वाणी फोरनी चाहहए।
दीऩक हदखाई दे ने ऩय अॉधधमाया कैसे लभट जाता है? साखी के सॊदबभ भें स्ऩष्ट कीजजए।
उत्तय-
दीऩक भें एक प्रकाशऩज
ॊु होता है जजसके प्रबाव के कायण अॊधकाय नष्ट हो जाता है । इसी प्रकाय भन भें ऻान रूऩी
दीऩक का प्रकाश पैरते ही भन भें छामा भ्रभ, सॊदेह औय बमरूऩी अॊधकाय सभाप्त हो जाता है ।
ईश्वय कण-कण भें व्माप्त है, ऩय हभ उसे क्मों नहीॊ दे ख ऩाते ?
उत्तय-
ईश्वय कण-कण भें व्माप्त है औय कण-कण ही ईश्वय है । ईश्वय की चेतना से ही मह सॊसाय हदखाई दे ता है । चायों
ओय ईश्वयीम चेतना के अततरयक्त कुछ बी नहीॊ है, रेककन मह सफ कुछ हभ इन बौततक आॉखों से नहीॊ दे ख सकते।
जफ तक ईश्वय की कृऩा से हभें हदव्म चऺु (आॉखें) नहीॊ लभरते, तफ तक. हभ कण-कण भें ईश्वय के वास को नहीॊ
दे ख सकते हैं औय न ही अनब
ु व कय सकते हैं।
सॊसाय भें सख
ु ी व्मजक्त कौन है औय दख
ु ी कौन? महाॉ ‘सोना’ औय ‘जागना’ ककसके प्रतीक हैं? इसका प्रमोग महाॉ
क्मों ककमा गमा है? स्ऩष्ट कीजजए।
48
उत्तय-
सॊसाय भें वह व्मजक्त सख
ु ी है जो प्रबु प्राजप्त के लरए प्रमास से दयू यहकय साॊसारयक ववषमों भें डूफकय आनॊदऩव
ू क
भ
सोता है । इसके ववऩयीत वह व्मजक्त जो प्रबु को ऩाने के लरए तड़ऩ यहा है, उनके ववमोग से दख
ु ी है, वही जाग यहा
है । महाॉ ‘सोना’ का प्रमोग प्रबु प्राजप्त के प्रमासों से ववभख
ु होने औय ‘जागना’ प्रबु प्राजप्त के लरए ककए जा यहे प्रमासों
को प्रतीक है । इसका प्रमोग भानव जीवन भें साॊसारयक ववषम-वासनाओॊ से दयू यहने तथा सचेत कयने के लरए ककमा
गमा है ।
अऩने स्वबाव को तनभभर यखने के लरए कफीय ने क्मा उऩाम सझ
ु ामा है?
उत्तय-
अऩने स्वबाव को तनभभर यखने के लरए कफीय ने तनॊदक को अऩने तनकट यखने का सझ
ु ाव हदमा है, क्मोंकक वही
हभाया सफसे फड़ा हहतैषी है अन्मथा झूठी प्रशॊसा कय अऩना स्वाथभ लसद्ध कयने वारे तो अनेक लभर जाते हैं। तनॊदक
फयु ाइमों को दयू कय सद्गण
ु ों को अऩनाने भें सहामक लसद्ध होता है । तनॊदक की आरोचना को सन
ु कय आत्भतनयीऺण
कय शद्ध
ु व तनभभर आचयण कयने भें सहामता लभरती है ।
„ऐकै अवषय ऩीव का, ऩढे सु ऩॊडडत होइ’–इस ऩॊजक्त द्वाया कवव क्मा कहना चाहता है ?
उत्तय-
„ऐकै अवषय ऩीव का, ऩढे सु ऩॊडडत होइ’ ऩॊजक्त के भाध्मभ से कवव मह कहना चाहता है कक सॊसाय भें ऩीव अथाभत ्
ब्रह्भ ही सत्म है । उसे ऩढे मा जाने बफना कोई बी ऩॊडडत (ऻानी) नहीॊ फन सकता है ।
कफीय की उद्धृत साखखमों की बाषा की ववशेषता स्ऩष्ट कीजजए।
उत्तय-
कफीय की साखखमों की बाषा की ववशेषता है कक मह जन बाषा है । उन्होंने जनचेतना औय जनबावनाओॊ को अऩनी
सधुक्कड़ी बाषा द्वाया साखखमों के भाध्मभ से जन-जन तक ऩहुॉचामा है । इसलरए डॉ० हजायी प्रसाद वववेदी ने
इनकी बाषा को बावानरू
ु वऩणी भाना है । अऩनी चभत्कारयक बाषा के कायण आज बी इनके दोहे रोगों की जुफान
ऩय हैं।
(ख) ननम्नलऱखखत का भाव स्पष्ट कीजिएप्रश्न

बफयह बव
ु ग
ॊ भ तन फसै, भॊत्र न रागै कोइ।
उत्तय-
इस ऩॊजक्त का बाव है कक ववयह (जद
ु ाई, ऩथ
ृ कता, अरगाव) एक सऩभ के सभान है, जो शयीय भें फसता है औय शयीय
49
का ऺम कयता है । इस ववयह रूऩी सऩभ ऩय ककसी बी भॊत्र का प्रबाव नहीॊ ऩड़ता है, क्मोंकक मह ववयह ईश्वय को न ऩाने
के कायण सताता है । जफ अऩने वप्रम ईश्वय की प्राजप्त हो जाती है, तो वह ववयह रूऩी सऩभ शाॊत हो जाता है, सभाप्त
हो जाता है अथाभत ् ईश्वय की प्राजप्त ही इसका स्थामी सभाधान है ।
कस्तयू ी कॊु डलर फसै, भग
ृ ढूॉढे फन भाॉहह।
उत्तय-
इस ऩॊजक्त का बाव है कक बगवान हभाये शयीय के अॊदय ही वास कयते हैं। जैसे हहयण की नालब भें कस्तयू ी होती है,
ऩयवह उसकी खुशफू से प्रबाववत होकय उसे चायों ओय ढूॉढता कपयता है । ठीक उसी प्रकाय से भनष्ु म ईश्वय को
ववलबन्न स्थरों ऩय तथा अनेक धालभभक किमाओॊ द्वाया प्राप्त कयने का प्रमास कयता है, ककॊ तु ईश्वय तीथों, जॊगरों
आहद भें बटकने से नहीॊ लभरते। वे तो अऩने अॊत्कयण भें झाॉकने से ही लभरते हैं।
जफ भैं था तफ हरय नहीॊ, अफ हरय हैं भैं नाॉहह।
उत्तय-
इसका बाव है कक जफ तक भनष्ु म के बीतय ‘अहभ ्’ (अहॊ काय) की बावना अथवा अॊधकाय ववद्मभान यहता है , तफ
तक उसे ईश्वय की प्राजप्त नहीॊ होती। ‘अहभ ्’ के लभटते ही ईश्वय की प्राजप्त हो जाती है, क्मोंकक ‘अहभ ्’ औय ‘ईश्वय’
दोनों एक स्थान ऩय नहीॊ यह सकते। ईश्वय को ऩाने के लरए उसके प्रतत ऩण
ू भ सभऩभण आवश्मक है ।
ऩोथी ऩहढ ऩहढ जग भव
ु ा, ऩॊडडत बमा न कोई।
उत्तय
इसका अथभ है कक ऩोधथमाॉ एवॊ वेद ऩढ-ऩढकय सॊसाय थक गमा, रेककन आज तक कोई बी ऩॊडडत नहीॊ फन सका;
अथाभत ् ईश्वय के प्रेभ के बफना, उसकी कृऩा के बफना कोई बी ऩॊडडत नहीॊ फन सकता तत्वऻान की प्राजप्त नहीॊ कय
सकता।
भाषा अध्ययन
ऩाठ भें आए तनम्नलरखखत शब्दों के प्रचलरत रूऩ उदाहयण के अनस
ु ाय लरखखए-
उदाहयण- जजवै – जीना
औयन, भाॉहह, दे ख्मा, बव
ु ग
ॊ भ, नेड़ा, आॉगखण, साफण, भव
ु ा, ऩीव, जारौं, तास।
उत्तय-
50
शब्द प्रचलऱत रूप
औयन औयों को, औय
साफण साफन
ु
भाॉहह भें (अॊदय)
भव
ु ा भय गमा, भया
दे ख्मा दे खा
ऩीव वऩमा, वप्रम
बव
ु ग
ॊ भ बज
ु ॊग
जारौं जराऊॉ
51
नेड़ा तनकट
आॉगखण आॉगन भें
तास उस
योग्यता ववस्तार
„साधु भें तनॊदा सहन कयने से ववनमशीरता आती है तथा व्मजक्त को भीठी व कल्माणकायी वाणी फोरनी चाहहए’-
इन ववषमों ऩय कऺा भें ऩरयचचाभ आमोजजत कीजजए।
उत्तय-
छात्र ऩरयचचाभ का आमोजन स्वमॊ कयें ।
कस्तयू ी के ववषम भें जानकायी प्राप्त कीजजए।
उत्तय-
भग
ृ ों की एक प्रजातत होती है-कस्तयू ी भग
ृ । ऐसा भाना जाता है कक इस प्रजातत के भग
ृ ों की नालब भें कस्तयू ी होती है
जो तनयॊ तय अऩनी भहक बफखेयती यहती है । इस कस्तयू ी के फाये भें खुद भग
ृ को कुछ ऩता नहीॊ होता है । वे इस
भहकदाय वस्तु को खोजते हुए महाॉ-वहाॉ घभ
ू ते-कपयते हैं।
अन्य पाठे तर हऱ प्रश्न
ऱघु उत्तरीय प्रश्नोत्तर
ऐसी फाॉणी फोलरमे’ के भाध्मभ से कफीय कैसी वाणी फोरने की सीख दे यहे हैं औय क्मों?
उत्तय-
„ऐसी फाॉणी फोलरमे’ के भाध्मभ से कफीय भनष्ु म को अऩने भन का अहॊ काय मा घभॊड छोड़कय भधुय वाणी भें
52
ववनम्रता बयी वाणी फोरने की सीख दे यहे हैं। इसका कायण मह है कक अऩने भन का अहॊ काय त्मागने से हभाये शयीय
को शाॊतत औय शीतरता की अनब
ु तू त होगी तथा भधुय वाणी सन
ु ने वारों को सख
ु ानब
ु तू त होती है ।
भन भें आऩा कैसे उत्ऩन्न होता है ? आऩा खोने के लरए कफीय क्मों कह यहे हैं?
उत्तय-
भनष्ु म की इच्छा होती है कक वह साॊसारयक सख
ु ों का अधधकाधधक उऩमोग कये । इन सख
ु ों की चाहत भें वह सख
ु के
नाना प्रकाय के साधन एकत्र कय रेना चाहता है । इसके अरावा वह धन औय फर का स्वाभी बी फनना चाहता है ।
ऐसे होते ही उसके भन भें आऩा उत्ऩन्न हो जाता है । आऩा खोने के लरए कफीय इसलरए कह यहे हैं कक इससे भनष्ु म-
भनष्ु म भें दयू ी फढती है तथा भनष्ु म गवोजक्त का लशकाय हो जाता है ।
„ऐसैं घहट घहट याॉभ है ’ के भाध्मभ से कफीय ने भनष्ु म को ककस सत्मता से ऩरयधचत ककमा है ?
उत्तय-
„ऐसैं घहट घहट याॉभ है ’ के भाध्मभ से कफीय ने भनष्ु म को उस सत्मता से ऩरयधचत कयामा है जजससे भनष्ु म
आजीवन अनजान यहता है । भनष्ु म ईश्वय को ऩाने के लरए दे वारम, तीथभस्थान, गप
ु ा-कॊदयाओॊ जैसे दग
ु भ
भ स्थानों
ऩय खोजता-कपयता है औय अॊतत् दतु नमा से चरा जाता है, ऩयॊ तु वह ईश्वय को अऩने भन भें नहीॊ खोजती जहाॉ
उसका सच्चा वास है । ईश्वय तो घट-घट ऩय अथाभत ् हय प्राणी भें महाॉ तक कक कण-कण भें व्माप्त है ।
हय प्राणी भें याभ के फसने की तर
ु ना ककससे की गई है?
उत्तय-
याभ (ईश्वय) का वास घट-घट अथाभत ् हय प्राणी महाॉ तक कक कण भें है, ऩयॊ तु भनष्ु म अऩनी अऻानता औय अहॊ काय
के कायण मह फात नहीॊ सभझ ऩाता है । भनष्ु म भें ईश्वय का वास ठीक उसी तयह से है जैसे हहयन की नालब भें
कस्तयू ी होती है औय हहयन को उसका ऩता नहीॊ होता है ।
सफ अॉधधमाया लभहट गमा’ महाॉ ककस अॉधधमाये की ओय सॊकेत ककमा गमा है? मह अॉधधमाया कैसे दयू हुआ?
उत्तय-
„सफ अॉधधमाया लभहट गमा’ के भाध्मभ से भनष्ु म के भन भें सभाए अहॊ काय, अऻान, बम जैसे अॉधधमाये की ओय
सॊकेत ककमा गमा है जजसके कायण भनष्ु म साॊसारयकता भें डूफा था औय ईश्वय को नहीॊ ऩहचान ऩाता है । मह
अॉधधमाया प्रकाशऩज
ुॊ ईश्वय रूऩी दीऩक को भन भें दे खा। मह अॉधेया उसी तयह लभट गमा जैसे दीऩक जराने से
अॉधेया सभाप्त हो जाता है ।
53
कफीय की दृजष्ट भें सॊसाय सख
ु ी औय वह स्वमॊ दख
ु ी हैं, ऐसा क्मों?
उत्तय-
सॊसाय के रोगों को दे खकय कफीय को रगता है कक रोग साॊसारयक ववषम-वासनाओॊ के साथ खाने-ऩीने औय हॉसी-
खश
ु ी से जीने भें भस्त हैं। मे रोग सख
ु ी हैं। दस
ू यी ओय कफीय है जो प्रबु प्राजप्त न होने के कायण ऩये शान है । वह सोने
के फजाम जाग यहा है औय योते हुए दख
ु ी हो यहा है ।
याभ ववमोगी की दशा कैसी हो जाती है? स्ऩष्ट कीजजए।
उत्तय-
याभ का ववमोग झेर यहे व्मजक्त की दशा दमनीम हो जाती है । कोई भॊत्र मा उऩाम उसे ठीक नहीॊ कय ऩाता है । वह
इस व्मथा की अधधकता को सह नहीॊ ऩाता है औय अऩने प्राणों से हाथ धो फैठता है । ऐसा व्मजक्त महद जीता बी है
तो उसकी जस्थतत ऩागरों के सभान होती है । वह याभ से लभरकय ही स्वस्थ हो सकता है ।
तनॊदक के फाये भें कफीय की याम सभाज से ऩयू ी तयह लबन्न थी। स्ऩष्ट कीजजए।
उत्तय-
तनॊदक अथाभत ् आरोचकों के फाये भें कफीय की याम सभाज से बफरकुर बी भेर नहीॊ खाती थी। सभाज के रोग तनॊदा
के बम से आरोचकों को अऩने आसऩास पटकने बी नहीॊ दे ते हैं। इसके ववऩयीत कफीय का भत था कक तनॊदकों को
अऩने आसऩास ही फसने की जगह दे ना चाहहए। ऐसा कयना व्मजक्त के हहत भें होता है ।
दीघघ उत्तरीय प्रश्नोत्तर
कफीय की साखखमाॉ जीवन के लरए अत्मॊत उऩमोगी हैं। इनभें जजन जीवन-भल्
ू मों की झरक लभरती है, उनका
उल्रेख कीजजए।
उत्तय-
कफीय की साखखमाॉ कफीय के अनब
ु व औय गहनता से खोजे गए सत्म ऩय आधारयत है । उनकी हय साखी भनष्ु म को
सीख सी दे ती प्रतीत होती है । इन साखखमों भें हभें कई जीवन भल्
ू मों की झरक लभरती है; जैसे-
 भनष्ु म को सदै व ऐसी वाणी फोरना चाहहए जजससे फोरने औय सन

ु ने वारे दोनों को ही सख
ु औय शीतरता
लभरे।
 भनष्ु म को अहॊ काय का त्माग कय दे ना चाहहए।
 अऩने आरोचकों को अऩने आसऩास ही जगह दे ना चाहहए ताकक व्मजक्त का स्वबाव ऩरयष्कृत हो सके।
54
 ईश्वय प्राजप्त के लरए भनष्ु म को उधचत प्रमास कयना चाहहए जजसके लरए मह सभझना आवश्मक है कक
उसका वास घट-घट भें है ।
ईश्वय के सॊफध
ॊ भें कफीय के अनब
ु वों औय भान्मताओॊ का वणभन साखखमों के आधाय ऩय कीजजए।
उत्तय-
ईश्वय के सॊफध
ॊ भें कफीय के अनब
ु व औय भान्मताएॉ जनभानस की सोच के ववऩयीत थे। जनभानस का भानना है कक
ईश्वय भॊहदय, भजस्जद, गरु
ु द्वाये , तीथभ स्थरों मा दग
ु भ
भ स्थानों ऩय यहता है । भनष्ु म उसकी खोज भें महाॉ-वहाॉ
बटकता हुआ जीवन बफता दे ता है , ऩयॊ तु कफीय की भान्मता एवॊ अनब
ु व के अनस
ु ाय-
 ईश्वय हय प्राणी महाॉ तक कक कण-कण भें ववद्मभान है ।

 ईश्वय की प्राजप्त के लरए अहॊकाय का त्माग अत्मावश्मक है।
 ईश्वय के ववमाग भें व्मजक्त जी नहीॊ सकता है । महद वह जीता है तो उसकी दशा ऩागरों जैसी हो जाती है ।
 ईश्वय के फाये भें जाने बफना कोई ऻानी नहीॊ कहरा सकता है ।
 ईश्वय को ऩाने के लरए ववषम-वासनाओॊ औय साॊसारयकता का त्माग आवश्मक है ।
तनॊदक ककसे कहा गमा है? वह व्मजक्त के स्वबाव का ऩरयष्कयण ककस तयह कयता है?
उत्तय-
कफीय के अनस
ु ाय तनॊदक वह व्मजक्त है जो अऩने आसऩास यहने वारों की स्वाबाववक कलभमों को अनदे खा नहीॊ
कयता है । वह उन कलभमों की ओय व्मजक्त का ध्मान फाय-फाय आकवषभत कयाता है । उसकी इस आरोचना से व्मजक्त
गरततमों औय अऩनी कलभमों के प्रतत सजग हो जाता है । वह उन्हें दयू कयने मा ढॊ कने का प्रमास कयता है औय सध
ु ाय
के लरए उन्भख
ु हो जाता है । आत्भसध
ु ाय की बावना ऩनऩते ही व्मजक्त धीये -धीये अऩने दग
ु ण
ुभ ों औय कलभमों से
भजु क्त ऩा जाता है । ऐसा कयने भें व्मजक्त को कुछ खचभ बी नहीॊ कयना ऩड़ता है । इस तयह तनॊदक अऩने आसऩास
यहने वारों का ऩरयष्कयण कयता है ।
55
CLASS- X
SUBJECT- MATHS (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
Chapter 3
Pair of Linear Equations in two variables
Equation
An equation is a statement that two mathematical expressions having one or more

variables are equal.
Linear Equation
Equations in which the powers of all the variables involved are one are called linear
equations. The degree of a linear equation is always one.
General form of a Linear Equation in Two Variables

The general form of a linear equation in two variables is ax + by + c = 0, where a and b
cannot be zero simultaneously.
Representing linear equations for a word problem

To represent a word problem as a linear equation
 Identify unknown quantities and denote them by variables.

 Represent the relationships between quantities in a mathematical form, replacing
the unknowns with variables.
Solution of a Linear Equation in 2 variables

The solution of a linear equation in two variables is a pair of values, one for x and the
other for y, which makes the two sides of the equation equal.
Eg: If 2x+y=4, then (0,4) is one of its solutions as it satisfies the equation. A linear
equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.
Geometrical Representation of a Linear Equation

Geometrically, a linear equation in two variables can be represented as a straight line.
2x – y + 1 = 0
⇒ y = 2x + 1
56
Graph of y = 2x+1
Plotting a Straight Line

The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. We plot the straight line
as follows:
Any additional points plotted in this manner will lie on the same line.
All about Lines
General form of a pair of linear equations in 2 variables

A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented as follows
The coefficients of x and y cannot be zero simultaneously for an equation.
Nature of 2 straight lines in a plane

For a pair of straight lines on a plane, there are three possibilities
i) They intersect at exactly one point
57
pair of linear equations which intersect at a single point.
ii) They are parallel
pair of linear equations which are parallel.

iii) They are coincident
pair of linear equations which are coincident.
Graphical method of finding solution of a pair of Linear Equations

Graphical Method of finding the solution to a pair of linear equations is as follows:
 Plot both the equations (two straight lines)

 Find the point of intersection of the lines.
The point of intersection is the solution.
Comparing the ratios of coefficients of a Linear Equation
58
Algebraic Solution
Finding solution for consistent pair of Linear Equations

The solution of a pair of linear equations is of the form (x,y) which satisfies both the
equations simultaneously. Solution for a consistent pair of linear equations can be found
out using
i) Elimination method ii) Substitution Method iii) Cross-multiplication method iv)
Graphical method
Substitution Method of finding solution of a pair of Linear Equations

Substitution method:
y – 2x = 1
x + 2y = 12
(i) express one variable in terms of the other using one of the equa tions.
(ii) In this case, y = 2x + 1.
(ii) substitute for this variable (y) in the second equation to get a linear equation in one
variable, x. x + 2 × (2x + 1) = 12
⇒ 5 x + 2 = 12
(iii) Solve the linear equation in one variable to find the value of that variable.
5 x + 2 = 12
⇒x=2
(iv) Substitute this value in one of the equations to get the value of the other variable.
y=2×2+1
⇒y = 5
So, (2,5) is the required solution of the pair of linear equations y – 2x = 1 and x + 2y = 12.
Elimination method of finding solution of a pair of Linear Equations

Elimination method
Consider x + 2y = 8 and 2x – 3y = 2
59
Step 1: Make the coefficients of any variable the same by multiplying the equations with
constants. Multiplying the first equation by 2, we get,
2x + 4y = 16
Step 2: Add or subtract the equations to eliminate one variable, giving a single variable
equation.
Subtract second equation from the previous equation
2x + 4y = 16
2x – 3y = 2
– + –
———————–
0(x) + 7y =14
Step 3: Solve for one variable and substitute this in any equation to get the other
variable.
y = 2,
x=8–2y
⇒x=8–4
⇒x=4
(4, 2) is the solution.
Example
Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4 m more than its width is 36 m.
Find the dimensions of the garden graphically.
Solution:
60
Example
Given the linear equation 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, write another linear equation in two variables such
61
that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is:
(i) intersecting lines
(ii) parallel lines
(iii) coincident lines
Solution:
62
CLASS- X
SUBJECT- SCIENCE (CLASS NOTES - MAY2022)
PHYSICS NOTES
Chapter – 10 Light – Reflection and Refraction
Refraction
Refraction of Light: The bending of light at the interface of two different mediums is called
Refraction of light.
 If the velocity of light in medium is more, then medium is called optical rarer.
Example, air or vacuum is more optical rarer.
 If the velocity of light in medium is less, then medium is called optical denser.
Example, glass is more denser than air.
Laws of Refraction
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant, for the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also
known as Snell‟s law of refraction.
Following Snell‟s Law:
63
 Light bends towards the normal when moving from rarer to denser medium at the
surface of the two media.
 Light bends away from the normal when moving from denser to rarer medium at the
surface of contact of the two media.
Refractive Index
The extent to which light bends when moving from one medium to another is called refractive
index. This depends on the ratio of the speeds in the two media. The greater the ratio, more the
bending. It is also the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of
refraction, which is a constant for any given pair of media. It is denoted by:
n = sin∠i/sin∠r = speed of light in medium 1/speed of light in medium2.
Absolute and Relative Refractive Index
Refractive index of one medium with respect to another medium is called relative refractive
index. When taken with respect to vacuum, it‟s known as an absolute refractive index.
Refractive index of medium with respect to other medium is called Relative Refractive Index.
Ref. index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 =
Speed of light in medium 2 (V2) / Speed of light in medium1(V1)
refractive index of medium with respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute Refractive
Index.
Absolute refractive index of medium (m) = Speed of light in air(c) / Speed of light in
medium(Vm)
CHEMISTRY NOTES
Ch.1 Chemical Reactions And Equations
Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination Reaction, Decomposition Reaction,

Displacement Reaction, Double Displacement Reaction, Neutralization Reactions, Exothermic –
Endothermic Reactions and Oxidation-Reduction Reactions.
Types of Chemical Reactions:
Chemical reactions can be classified in following types:
(i) Combination Reaction: Reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form one
product are called Combination Reactions.
A general combination reaction can be represented by the chemical equation given here:
A + B → AB
Examples:
When magnesium is burnt in the air (oxygen), magnesium oxide is formed. In this reaction,
magnesium is combined with oxygen.
Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide
64
When carbon is burnt in oxygen (air), carbon dioxide is formed. In this reaction, carbon is
combined with oxygen.
C (s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide
(ii) Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which one compound decomposes in two or more
compounds or elements are known as Decomposition Reaction. A decomposition reaction is
just the opposite of combination reaction.
A general decomposition reaction can be represented as follows:
AB → A + B
Examples:
When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
Calcium carbonate → Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

Thermal Decomposition: The decomposition of a substance on heating is known as Thermal
Decomposition.
Example:
Electrolytic Decomposition: Reactions in which compounds decompose into simpler
compounds because of passing of electricity, are known as Electrolytic Decomposition. This is
also known as Electrolysis.
Example: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
2H2O(l)→2H2(g)+O2(g)
Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction: Reactions in which a compound decomposes
because of sunlight are known as Photolysis or Photo Decomposition Reaction.
Example: When silver chloride is put in sunlight, it decomposes into silver metal and chlorine
gas.
2AgCl(s) (white) Sunlight→ 2Ag(s) (grey) + Cl2(g)
Photographic paper has a coat of silver chloride, which turns into grey when exposed to
sunlight. It happens because silver chloride is colourless while silver is a grey metal.
(iii) Displacement Reaction: The chemical reactions in which a more reactive element
displaces a less reactive element from a compound is known as Displacement Reactions.
Displacement reactions are also known as Substitution Reaction or Single Displacement/
replacement reactions.
A general displacement reaction can be represented by using a chemical equation as follows:
A + BC → AC + B
Displacement reaction takes place only when „A‟ is more reactive than B. If „B‟ is more reactive
than „A‟, then „A‟ will not displace „C‟ from „BC‟ and reaction will not be taking place.
Examples:
When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas and zinc chloride.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
When zinc reacts with copper sulphate, it forms zinc sulphate and copper metal.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(iv) Double Displacement Reaction: Reactions in which ions are exchanged between two
reactants forming new compounds are called Double Displacement Reactions.
AB + CD → AC + BD
Examples:
When the solution of barium chloride reacts with the solution of sodium sulphate, white
precipitate of barium sulphate is formed along with sodium chloride.
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq)
65
When sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride and water are
formed.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: Double Displacement Reaction, in which precipitate is formed, is also known as
precipitation reaction. Neutralisation reactions are also examples of double displacement
reaction.
Precipitation Reaction: The reaction in which precipitate is formed by the mixing of the aqueous
solution of two salts is called Precipitation Reaction.
Example:
Neutralization Reaction: The reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt and
water by an exchange of ions is called Neutralization Reaction.
Example:
(v) Oxidation and Reduction Reactions:

Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of hydrogen or metallic
element from a compound is known as Oxidation.
Elements or compounds in which oxygen or non-metallic element is added or hydrogen or
metallic element is removed are called to be Oxidized.
Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non-metallic
element from a compound is called Reduction.
The compound or element which goes under reduction in called to be Reduced.
Oxidation and Reduction take place together.
Oxidizing agent:
 The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent.
 The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent.
Reducing agent:
 The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent.
 The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent.
The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is called Redox
reaction.
When copper oxide is heated with hydrogen, then copper metal and hydrogen are formed.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
(i) In this reaction, CuO is changing into Cu. Oxygen is being removed from copper oxide.
Removal of oxygen from a substance is called Reduction, so copper oxide is being reduced to
copper.
(ii) In this reaction, H2 is changing to H2O. Oxygen is being added to hydrogen. Addition of
oxygen to a substance is called Oxidation, so hydrogen is being oxidised to water.
 The substance which gets oxidised is the reducing agent.
 The substance which gets reduced is the oxidizing agent.
(vi) Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions:
Exothermic Reaction: Reaction which produces energy is called Exothermic Reaction. Most of
the decomposition reactions are exothermic.
66
Example:
Respiration is a decomposition reaction in which energy is released.
When quick lime (CaO) is added to water, it releases energy.
Endothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is called

Endothermic Reaction.
Example: Decomposition of calcium carbonate.
Effects of Oxidation Reactions in Everyday life: Corrosion and Rancidity.

Corrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable compounds due to
their reaction with oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the atmosphere is called
Corrosion.
Example: Rusting of iron.
Rusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is called Rust.
The rusting of iron is a redox reaction.

Corrosion (rusting) weakens the iron and steel objects and structures such as railings, car
bodies, bridges and ships etc. and cuts short their life.
Methods to Prevent Rusting
 By painting.
 By greasing and oiling.
 By galvanisation.
Corrosion of Copper: Copper objects lose their lustre and shine after some time because the
surface of these objects acquires a green coating of basic copper carbonate,
CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 when exposed to air.
67
Corrosion of Silver Metal: The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (becomes dull) on
exposure to air, due to the formation of a coating of black silver sulphide(Ag 2S) on its surface by
the action of H2S gas present in the air.
Rancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when they are
left exposed to air for a long time. This is called Rancidity. It is caused due to the oxidation of fat
and oil present in food materials.
Methods to prevent rancidity:
 By adding anti-oxidant.
 Vacuum packing.
 Replacing air by nitrogen.
 Refrigeration of foodstuff.
BIOLOGY NOTES
Ch. 6 Life Processes
Respiration: The process by which a living being utilises the food to get energy, is called
respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce
energy. Mitochondria is the site of respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of
ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.
Steps of respiration:
 Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the cytoplasm.
Glucose molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid. Glucose molecule is
composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
 Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in
mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of respiration in a
particular organism. Respiration is of two types, viz. aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration.
 Respiration involves
 Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and
release of CO2 → Breathing.
 Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell
→ Cellular respiration
Types of Respiration
68
 Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence of oxygen.
Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is released and water
molecule is also formed at the end of this process.
 Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the absence of
oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl
alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic respiration in microbes, like yeast or
bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
 Glucose (6 carbon molecule) → Pyruvate (3 carbon molecules) +
Energy
 Pyruvate (In yeast, lack of O2) → Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide +
Energy
 Pyruvate (In muscles, lack of O2) → Lactic Acid + Energy
 Pyruvate (In mitochondria; the presence of O2) → Carbon dioxide +
Water + Energy
The equations for the above reactions can be written as follows:
69
Pain in leg muscles while running:
70
 When someone runs too fast, he may experience throbbing pain in the leg
muscles. This happens because of anaerobic respiration taking place in the
muscles.
 During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is
compensated by anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the
process.
 The deposition of lactic acid causes pain in the leg muscles. The pain
subsides after taking rest for some time.
Exchange of gases:
 For aerobic respiration, organisms need a continuous supply of oxygen,

and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs to be removed from
the body.
 Different organisms use different methods for the intake of oxygen and
expulsion of carbon dioxide.
 Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple
organisms for this purpose.
 In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases.
 In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange of gases.
 Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen which is
dissolved in water through gills.
 Since, availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment, so the
breathing rate of aquatic organisms is faster.
 Insects have a system of spiracles and trachease which is used for taking
in oxygen.
 Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases.
 Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so
breathing rate is slower as compared to what it is in fishes.
Terrestrial organisms: Use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.

Aquatic organisms: Use dissolve oxygen for respiration.
71
CLASS- X
SUBJECT- SOCIAL SCIENCE (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)
BOOK – GEOGRAPHY ( CONTEMPORARY INDIA II)
CHAPTER-1
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT
NCERT QUESTIONS
1.Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following type of resource is iron ore?
(a) Renewable
(b) Biotic
(c) Flow
(d) Non-renewable
ii) Under which of the following type of resource tidal energy cannot be put?
(a) Replenishable
(b) Human-made
(c) Abiotic
(d) Non-recyclable
(iii) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
(a) Intensive cultivation
(b) Deforestation
(c) Over irrigation
(d) Overgrazing
iv) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?
(a) Punjab
(b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh
(c) Haryana
(d) Uttarakhand
(v) In which of the following states black soil is predominantly found?
72
(a) Jammu and Kashmir
(b) Maharashtra
(c) Rajasthan
(d) Jharkhand
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
(ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three main features of
this type of soil.
(iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
(iv) What are the biotic and abiotic resources? Give some examples.

(i) Explain the land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not increased much
since 1960-61?
(ii) How has technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources?
ANSWERS TO NCERT QUESTIONS
1 Answer:
(i) Non-renewable
(ii) Replenishable
(iii) Over irrigation
(iv) Uttarakhand
(v) Maharashtra
2 .(i) Answer: Black soil is found in the Deccan trap( Basalt) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the
Godavari and Krishna valleys.
This soil is ideal for cotton cultivation.
(ii) The type of soil found in river deltas is Alluvial Soil.
1. It is very fertile, and therefore good for the cultivation of crops

2. It Consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay
3. It has a good quantity of potash, lime and phosphoric acid, which is good for the growth
of paddy and sugarcane.
(iii) The main techniques that can be used are given below.
1. Contour ploughing
73
2. Terrace farming
3. Strips of grass are allowed to grow between the crops. This method is known as strip
cropping.
(iv) Biotic resource:
1. These are resources that are obtained from the biosphere

2. These resources have life
3. Examples are plants, animals, fish, human beings, livestock etc.
Abiotic resource:
1. These resources are composed of non-living things

2. Examples are water, minerals, metals, wind, solar energy etc.
Answer : 3 (i)
The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population density, technological capability and culture and
traditions etc. The pattern of the net sown area varies greatly from one state to another. It is
over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands. Forest area in the country is far
lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area, as it was outlined in the National Forest
Policy (1952). It was considered essential for the maintenance of the ecological balance. A part
of the land is termed as wasteland and land put to other non-agricultural uses. Wasteland
includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other non-agricultural uses includes
settlements, roads, railways, industry etc. Continuous use of land over a long period of time
without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage has resulted in land degradation.
(ii) There are various reasons for this.
1. Large scale production led to over utilisation of resources.

2. Technological advancement led to greater exploitation of resources.
3. Improved medical and health resources led to huge consumption of resources.
EXTRA QUESTIONS
Q1. Define resources? Name some resources?
Ans. a. Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs,
provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be
termed as Resource.
b. Land, Soil, Tree and air are some examples of resources.
74
Q2. Classify resources on the basis of origin. Give examples.
Ans. a. Biotic resources: These are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human
beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
b. Abiotic resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called
abiotic resources. For example, rocks and metals.
Q3. List the problems caused due to the indiscriminate use of resources by human
being?
Ans. a. Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals.
b. Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, in turn, divide the society into two,
segments i.e. „haves‟ and „have nots‟ or rich and poor.
c. Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as,
global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.
Q4. What was agenda 21?
Ans. a. It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the united Nation‟s
conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).
b. It focuses on attaining Global Sustainable Development.
c. It‟s main aim is to fight the environmental damage, poverty, diseases through global
cooperation on common interest, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.
d. An important and distinct aim of the agenda is that every local government should
draw its own local Agenda 21.
.Q5. Write a short note on Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992.
Ans. a. Rio de Janeiro was the meeting ground for the first International Earth Summit.
b. More than 100 heads of state met at this famous conference which was convened in
June 1992 to address the urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic
development at the global level.
c. A declaration on Global Climatic change and the Biological Diversity was signed by the
assembled leaders.
75
d. They adopted Agenda 21 and endorsed the global forest Principles to achieve Sustainable
Development in the 21st century.
Q6. What is resource planning? Why is resource planning essential?
Ans. a. Resource planning: Resource planning is the widely accepted strategy for
judicious use of resources.
b. Resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life.
c. Sustainable existence is a component of sustainable development.
Q7 . Define sustainable development? What are their importances?
Ans. a. Sustainable Development: Sustainable development means development should take
place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not
compromise with the needs of the future generations.
b. It is essential for sustained quality of life.
c. If the present trend of resource depletion by a few individuals and countries continues, the
future of our planet is in danger. So sustainable development is very important to save our
planet and our self.
Q8. Distinguish between Khadar and Bhangar.
Ans. Khadar Bhangar
1. The khadar soil is found in the low areas of valley. 1. The Bhangar soil is found in the
higher reaches.
2. It is finer in texture. 2. It is coarser in texture.
3. It is more fertile. 3. It is less fertile.
4. It is known as New alluvial. 4. It is known as old alluvial.
Q9. How is land a natural resource of utmost importance? Explain with suitable arguments.
Ans. a. All economic activities are performed on land.
b. It supports natural vegetation and wildlife.
76
c. It is used for transportation and communication system.
d. Most of the minerals are formed in land.
Q10. What is soil erosion? Explain the major types of soil erosion?
Ans. a. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is the removal of soil by the forces of nature like wind and
water is called soil erosion. This can also be described as denudation of soil cover and
subsequent washing down. Following are its two types:
b. Wind Erosion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or slopping land. This is known as wind
erosion.
c. Water Erosion: When running water is responsible for the removal of the top most layer of
the earth that is known as water erosion.
ASSIGNMENT:
Q1. Define stock.
Q2. Give some examples of community owned resources.
Q3. What do you mean by the wasteland ?
Q4. Which soil is known as regur soil ?
Q5. Define sheet erosion .
Q6. List the main characteristics of black soil.
Q7. “Land is a natural resource of utmost importance “. Justify the statement.
Q8. What was the main concern of Gandhi ji about resource conservation ?
Q9. “ India is rich in certain type of resources but deficient in some other resources”. Justify
the statement.
Q10. Classify resources on the basis of the status of development and explain them with the
help of suitable examples.
Q11. Map Skill
Mark the various types of soil on an outline political map of India.
BOOK – GEOGRAPHY (CONTEMPORARY INDIA-II )
77
CHAPTER – 2
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
NCERT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :
.Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of flora and fauna?
(a) Agricultural expansion.
(b) Large scale developmental projects.
(c) Grazing and fuelwood collection.
(d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.
Answer:
Grazing and fuelwood collection
(ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve community
participation?
(a) Joint forest management
(b) Beej Bachao Andolan
(c) Chipko Movement
(d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries
Answer:
Demarcation of wildlife sanctuaries
2. Match the following animals with their category of existence.
Animals/Plants Category of existence
Black Buck Extinct
Asiatic Elephant Rare
Andaman wild pig Endangered
Himalayan Brown Bear Vulnerable
Pink Head Duck Endemic

Answer:
Animals/Plants Category of existence
Black Buck Endangered
78
Asiatic Elephant Vulnerable
Andaman wild pig Endemic
Himalayan Brown Bear Rare
Pink Head Duck Extinct

3. Match the following.
Reserved Other forests and wastelands belonging to

Forests both government and private individuals and
communities
Protected Forests are regarded as most valuable as far

Forests as the conservation of forest and wildlife
resources
Unclassed Forest lands are protected from any further

Forests depletion
Answer:
Reserved Forests are regarded as most valuable as far as

Forests the conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Protected Forest lands are protected from any further

Forests depletion
Unclassed Other forests and wastelands belonging to both

Forests Government and private individuals and
communities
(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
Answer:
Biodiversity is made up of various types of life forms found on earth. It is a measure of variation
at the ecosystem, species and genetic level. Biodiversity is abundant in Tropical areas. Tropical
areas cover 10 per cent of the earth surface but it hosts 90% of the world species.
Contribution of biodiversity in human lives
1. Agriculture – Variety of Plant species meet our needs for food.

2. Their contribution to business and industry
3. Leisurely activities
4. Ecological services
(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain
Answer:
79
1. Various river valley projects have affected the flora and fauna
2. Many illegal Mining projects have depleted the flora and fauna
3. Too many development projects for leisure activities in the forests have negatively
affected.
4. Too many human activities in the forest area due to rising population and lack of space
has created human-animal conflict.

(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife in
India?
Answer:
Chipko Movement:
The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted deforestation
in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can
be enormously successful.
Certain societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial. The
Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba
(Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees. The tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind
(Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during weddings. To many of us,
peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred.
In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife
Protection Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and are explicitly
rejecting government involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of
Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav „Sonchuri‟, declaring
their own set of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting and are protecting the wildlife
against any outside encroachments.
(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.
Answer:
In India, joint forest management (JFM) programme furnishes a good example of involving local
communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. The programme has been
in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha passed the first resolution for joint
forest management. JFM depends on the formation of local (village) institutions that undertake
protection activities mostly on degraded forest land managed by the forest department. In
return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber
forest produces and share in the timber harvested by „successful protection‟. The clear lesson
from the dynamics of both environmental destruction and reconstruction in India is that local
communities everywhere have to be involved in some kind of natural resource management.
But there is still a long way to go before local communities are at the centre stage in decision-
making. Accept only those economic or developmental activities, that are people-centric,
environment-friendly and economically rewarding.
EXTRA QUESTIONS
Q1. Describe the steps taken by the government to protect the species from becoming
extinct.
80
Ans. The following are the steps taken by the government to protect the species from being
extinct.
 Implementation of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972. According to it a list of protected

species in India was published to protect the endangered species.
 Hunting and trade in wildlife has been banned to give legal protection to their habitat.
 Various national parks and wildlife sanctuaries have been established to give natural
habitat to the species facing extinction.
Q2. How are forests classified under different categories? Explain with examples.
Ans. Forests are classified under different categories as follows.
 Reserved forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared
as reserved forests. They conserve forest and wildlife resources and are regraded as the
most valuable. .
 Protected forests: As declared by the Forest Department, one-third of the total forest
area is declared as protected forests. They are protected from any further depletion.
 Unclassed forests: They are forests and wastelands belonging both to the government
and private individuals and communities.
3. How has the destruction of forests and wildlife resulted into the loss of cultural diversity?
Explain.
Ans. The destruction of forests and wildlife resulted into the loss of cultural diversity in the
following ways.
 The destruction of forests and wildlife has affected the liveliood of many communities, who
are dependent on forests.
 In some areas women are involved in fuel collection, fodder for their animals and water for
their domestic needs. Due to deforestation these products are not available to them. It
adversely affects the lives of such people.
 The destruction of forests has resulted in severe droughts and floods, which has affected
forest-dependent communities. People live in extreme poverty.
Q4. When was the Indian Wildlife Protection Act implemented? Describe its main objectives.
Ans. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972 for protecting habitats. An
all-India list of protected animals was also published.
Its main objectives are as follows.
 To protect the remaining population of certain endagered species by banning hunting,

giving legal protection to their habitats and stopping trade in wildlife.
 The central and state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
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 The central government also announced various projects like Project Tiger and Project
Rhino for protecting specific animals, which were gravely threatened.
5. Nature worship is an old-age belief. Explain how it has helped in the conservation of
forest and wildlife.
Ans.Nature worship has helped in the conservation of forest and wildlife in the following
ways.
 The tribals believe in nature worship, which is based on the fact that all creations of
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs have protected several forests from decay,
cutting and felling of trees. They are called Sacred Groves. Sacred qualities are also
ascribed to mountains, springs and plants.
 Certain communities revere a particular tree like Mundas and Santhal of Chhota Nagpur
region worship mahua and kadamba trees respectively.
 The tribals of Bihar and Odisha worship the tamarind and mango trees respectively
during weddings.
6. Distinguish between endangered species and vulnerable species of wild animals. Give
one example of each.
Ans. Endangered species: Endangered species are the species which are in danger of
extinction. If the negative factors, which have caused their decline, continue to operate,
then survival of such species is difficult. For example, blackbuck. Vulnerable species:
Vulnerable Species are the species whose population has declined so much that they
may move into the category of endangered species in the near future, if the negative
factors continue to operate. For example, blue sheep.
7. Evaluate the role of large-scale development projects in accelerating the loss of forests in
India.
Ans .Large-scale development projects have contributed to the loss of forests.
 Since 1951, over 5000 sq km of forests have been cleared for river valley projects.
 Clearing of forests for Narmada Sagar Project would inundate 40,000 hectares of forest.
 Multi-purpose projects have also led to social movements like Narmada Bachao Andolan
and Tehri Dam Andolan, whose original focus was on the trees, that would be submerged
under dam water.
82
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - ENGLISH (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
FLAMINGO TEXTBOOK
CHAPTER 2-LOST SPRING
QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK SOLVED
THINK AS YOU READ
Q1. What is Saheb looking for in the garbage dumps? Where is he and where has he come from?
Ans. Saheb is looking for gold in the garbage dumps. He is in the neighbourhood of the author.
Saheb has come from Bangladesh. He came with his mother in 1971. His house was set amidst
the green fields of Dhaka. Storms swept away their fields and homes. So they left the country.
Q2. What explanations does the author offer for the children not wearing footwear?
Ans. One explanation offered by the author is that it is a tradition to stay barefoot. It is not lack of
money. He wonders if this is only an excuse to explain away a perpetual state of poverty. He also
remembers the story of a poor body who prayed to the goddess for a pair of shoes.
Q3. Is Saheb happy working at the tea-stall? Explain.
Ans. No, Saheb is not happy working at the tea-stall. He is no longer his own master. His face has
lost the carefree look. The steel canister seems heavier than the plastic bag he would carry so
lightly over his shoulder. The bag was his. The canister belongs to the man who owns the tea-
shop.
THINK AS YOU READ
Q1. What makes the city of Firozabad famous?
Ans. The city of Firozabad is famous for its bangles. Every other family in Firozabad is engaged in
making bangles. It is the centre of India‘s glass-blowing industry. Families have spent generations
working around furnaces, welding glass, making bangles for the women in the land.
Q2. Mention the hazards of working in the glass bangles industry?
83
Ans. Boys and girls with their fathers and mothers sit in dark hutments, next to lines of flames of
flickering oil lamps. They weld pieces of coloured glass into circles of bangles. Their eyes are more
adjusted to the dark than to the light outside. They often end up losing eyesight before they
become adults. Even the dust from polishing the glass of bangles is injurious to eyes. Many
workers have become blind. The furnaces have very high temperature and therefore very
dangerous.
Q3. How is Mukesh‘s attitude to his situation different from that of his family?
Ans. Mukesh‘s grandmother thinks that the god-given lineage can never be broken. Her son and
grandsons are bom in the caste of bangle makers. They have seen nothing but bangles.
Mukesh‘s father has taught them what he knows—the art of making bangles. But Mukesh wants to
be a motor mechanic. He will go to a garage and learn, though the garage is far away from his
home.
UNDERSTANDING THE TEXT
Q1. What could be some of the reasons for the migration of people from villages to cities?
Ans. People migrate from villages to cities in search of livelihood. Their fields fail to provide them
means of survival. Cities provide employment, jobs or other means of getting food. The problem in
case of the poor is to feed the hungry members. Survival is of primary concern.
Q2. Would you agree that promises made to the poor children are rarely kept? Why do you think
this happens in the incidents narrated in the text?
Ans. The promises made to the poor are rarely kept. The author asks Saheb half-joking, whether
he will come to her school if she starts one. Saheb agrees to do so. A few days later he asks if the
school is ready. The writer feels embarrassed at having made a promise that was not meant.
Promises like hers abound in every comer of their bleak world.
Q3. What forces conspire to keep the workers in bangle industry of Firozabad in poverty?
Ans. Certain forces conspire to keep the workers in bangle industry of Firozabad in poverty. These
include the moneylenders, the middlemen, the policemen, the keepers of law, the bureaucrats and
the politicians. Together they impose a heavy burden on the child.
TALKING ABOUT THE TEXT
Q1. How, in your opinion, can Mukeshrealise his dream?
Ans. Mukesh is the son of a poor bangle-maker of Firozabad. Most of the young men of Firozabad
have no initiative or ability to dream, but Mukesh is an exception. He has the capacity to take
courage and break from the traditional family occupation. He has strong will power also. He does
84
not want to be a pawn in the hands of the middlemen or moneylenders. He insists on being his own
master by becoming a motor mechanic.
He can realise his dream by joining a garage and learn the job of repairing cars and driving them.
He will have to overcome many hurdles before he succeeds. Then comes transport problem.
Money is the first one. He will have to earn some money himself. The garage is a long way from his
home. He will have to cover it twice everyday anyhow—by walking on foot.
Patience, hardwork, firm will and the determination to learn will help him realise his dream.
Q2. Mention the hazards of working in the glass bangles industry.
Ans. The glass bangles industry has many health hazards. It usually employs small children. It is
illegal to employ very young children in hazardous industries, but certain forces like !middlemen,
moneylenders, police and politicians combine to entrap the poor workers.
Let us first consider the places where bangle makers work. It is a cottage industry. They work in the
glass furnaces with high temperatures. The dingy cells are without air and light. Boys and girls work
hard during day next to lines of flames of flickering oil lamps.
They weld pieces of coloured glass into circles of bangles. Their eyes are more adjusted to the
dark than to the light outside. That is why, they often end up losing their eyesight before they
become adults.
Glass blowing, welding and soldering pieces of glass are all health hazards. Even the dust from
polishing the glass of bangles adversely affects the eyes and even adults go blind. Thus, the
surroundings, prevailing conditions and the type of job involved-all prove risky to the health of the
workers.
Q3. Why should child labour be eliminated and how?
Ans. Child labour should be eliminated because the children employed at tender age as i domestic
servants, dish-washers at road-side dhabas and in hazardous industries making glass bangles,
biris, crackers etc. lose the charm of the spring of their life. Their childhood is stolen. Burdened by
the responsibility of work, they become adults too soon. Most of them are undernourished, ill-fed,
uneducated, and poor. They have a stunted growth.
Child labour can be eliminated only through concerted efforts on the part of government agencies,
NGOs (Non-Government Organisations), co-operative societies and political leaders. Mere passing
of law will not help. Laws should be enacted faithfully. The children thrown out of work should be
rehabilitated and given proper food, clothes, education and pocket money. Their feelings, thoughts
and emotions should be respected. Let them enjoy sunshine and fresh air.
85
THINKING ABOUT LANGUAGE
Although this text speaks of factual events and situations of misery, it transforms these situations
with an almost poetical prose into a literary experience. How does it do so? Here are some literary
devices:
•Hyperbole is a way of speaking or writing that makes something sound better or more exciting
than it really is. For example: Garbage to them is gold.
•A Metaphor, as you may know, compares two things or ideas that are not very similar. A metaphor
describes a thing in terms of a single quality or feature of some other thing; we can say that a
metaphor ―transfers‖ a quality of one thing to another. For example: The road was a ribbon of light.
•Simile is a word or phrase that compares one thing with another using the words ―like‖ or ―as‖. For
example: As white as snow.
Carefully read the following phrases and sentences taken from the text. Can you identify the literary
device in each example?
1.Saheb-e-Alam which means the lord of the universe is directly in contrast to what Saheb is in
reality.
2.Drowned in an air of desolation
3.Seemapuri, a place on the periphery of Delhi yet miles away from it, metaphorically.
4.For the children it is wrapped in wonder; for the elders it is a means of survival.
5.As her hands move mechanically like the tongs of a machine, I wonder if she knows the sanctity
of the bangles she helps make.
shoulders.
Answers
1.Hyperbole 2.Metaphor 3.Contrast 4.Contrast
5.Simile 6.Contrast 7.Hyperbole 8.Metaphor
9.Metaphor 10.Hyperbole 11.Contrast
86
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - HINDI (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
आत्म पररचय
कऺा – 12
पाठ्यपस्
ु तक से हऱ प्रश्न
कविता के साथ
प्रश्न 1:
कविता एक ओय जग-जीिन का भाय लरए घभ
ू ने की फात कयती है औय दस
ू यी ओय ‘भैं कबी न जग का
ध्मान ककमा कयता हूॉ’-विऩयीत से रगते इन कथनों का क्मा आशम हैं?
उत्तर –
जग-जीिन का बाय रेने से कवि का अलबप्राम मह है कक िह साॊसारयक दायमत्िों का यनिााह कय यहा है । आभ
व्मक्क्त से िह अरग नहीॊ है तथा सख
ु -दख
ु , हायन-राब आदद को झेरते हुए अऩनी मात्रा ऩयू ी कय यहा है ।
दसू यी तयप कवि कहता है कक िह कबी सॊसाय की तयप ध्मान नहीॊ दे ता। महाॉ कवि साॊसारयक दायमत्िों की
अनदे खी की फात नहीॊ कयता। िह सॊसाय की यनयथाक फातों ऩय ध्मान न दे कय केिर प्रेभ ऩय केंदित यहता है।
आभ व्मक्क्त साभाक्जक फाधाओॊ से डयकय कुछ नहीॊ कय ऩाता। कवि साॊसारयक फाधाओॊ की ऩयिाह नहीॊ
कयता। अत: इन दोनों ऩॊक्क्तमों के अऩने यनदहताथा हैं। मे एक-दस
ू ये के वियोधी न होकय ऩूयक हैं।
जहाॉ ऩय दाना यहते हैं, िहीॊ नादान बी होते हैं-कवि ने ऐसा क्मों कहा होगा?
उत्तर –
नादान मानी भूखा व्मक्क्त साॊसारयक भामाजार भें उरझ जाता है । भनुष्म इस भामाजार को यनयथाक भानते
हुए बी इसी के चक्कय भें पैसा यहता है । सॊसाय असत्म है । भनुष्म इसे सत्म भानने की नादानी कय फैठता है
औय भोऺ के रक्ष्म को बर ू कय सॊग्रहिक्ृ त्त भें ऩड़ जाता है । इसके विऩयीत, कुछ ऻानी रोग बी सभाज भें
यहते हैं जो भोऺ के रक्ष्म को नहीॊ बूरते। अथाात सॊसाय भें हय तयह के रोग यहते हैं।
87
भैं औय, औय जग औय कहाॉ का नाता- ऩॊक्क्त भें ‘औय’ शब्द की विशेषता फताइए।
उत्तर –
महाॉ ‘औय’ शब्द का तीन फाय प्रमोग हुआ है । अत: महाॉ मभक अरॊकाय है । ऩहरे ‘औय’ भें कवि स्िमॊ को
आभ व्मक्क्त से अरग फताता है । िह आभ आदभी की तयह बौयतक चीजों के सॊग्रह के चक्कय भें नहीॊ
ऩड़ता। दस
ू ये ‘औय’ के प्रमोग भें सॊसाय की विलशष्टता को फतामा गमा है । सॊसाय भें आभ व्मक्क्त साॊसारयक
सुख-सुविधाओॊ को अॊयतभ रक्ष्म भानता है । मह प्रिक्ृ त्त कवि की विचायधाया से अरग है । तीसये ‘औय’ का
प्रमोग ‘सॊसाय औय कवि भें ककसी तयह का सॊफॊध नहीॊ’ दशााने के लरए ककमा गमा है ।
शीतर िाणी भें आग’ के होने का क्मा अलबप्राम हैं?
अयिा
‘शीतर िाणी भें आग लरए कपयता हूॉ’-इस कथन से कवि का क्मा आशम है ?
अयिा
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ भें कवि के कथन- ‘शीतर िाणी भें आग लरए कपयता हुॉ’ – का वियोधाबास स्ऩष्ट कााक्जए।
उत्तर –
कवि ने महाॉ वियोधाबास अरॊकाय का प्रमोग ककमा है । कवि की िाणी मद्मवऩ शीतर है , ऩयॊ तु उसके भन भें
वििोह, असॊतोष का बाि प्रफर है । िह सभाज की व्मिस्था से सॊतष्ु ट नहीॊ है । िह प्रेभ-यदहत सॊसाय को
अस्िीकाय कयता है । अत: अऩनी िाणी के भाध्मभ से अऩनी असॊतक्ु ष्ट को व्मक्त कयता है । िह अऩने
कवित्ि धभा को ईभानदायी से यनबाते हुए रोगों को जाग्रत कय यहा है ।
फच्चे ककस फात की आशा भें नीड़ों से झाॉक यहे होंगे?
उत्तर –
ऩऺी ददन बय बोजन की तराश भें बटकते कपयते हैं। उनके फच्चे घोंसरों भें भाता-वऩता की याह दे खते यहते
हैं कक भातावऩता उनके लरए दाना राएॉगे औय उनका ऩेट बयें गे। साथ-साथ िे भाॉ-फाऩ के स्नेदहर स्ऩशा ऩाने
के लरए प्रतीऺा कयते हैं। छोटे फच्चों को भाता-वऩता का स्ऩशा ि उनकी गोद भें फैठना, उनका प्रेभ-प्रदशान बी
असीभ आनॊद दे ता है । इन सफकी ऩूयता के लरए िे नीड़ों से झाॉकते हैं।
88
ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता हैं- की आियृ त से कविता की ककस विशेषता का ऩता चरता हैं?
उत्तर –
‘ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है ’-की आिक्ृ त्त से मह प्रकट होता है कक रक्ष्म की तयप फढ़ते भनुष्म को सभम
फीतने का ऩता नहीॊ चरता। ऩथथक रक्ष्म तक ऩहुॉचने के लरए आतुय होता है । इस ऩॊक्क्त की आिक्ृ त्त सभम
के यनयॊ तय चरामभान प्रिक्ृ त्त को बी फताती है । सभम ककसी की प्रतीऺा नहीॊ कयता। अत: सभम के साथ
स्िमॊ को सभामोक्जत कयना प्राणणमों के लरए आिश्मक है ।
कविता के आस-पास
 सॊसाय भें कष्टों को सहते हुए बी खश

ु ी औय भस्ती का भाहौर कैसे ऩैदा ककमा जा सकता है ?
उत्तर –
साभाक्जक प्राणी होने के नाते भनुष्म हय सॊफॊध का यनिााह कयता है । उसे जीिन भें अनेक तयह के कष्टों का
साभना कयना ऩड़ता है । कष्ट सहना भानि की यनमयत है । सुख-दख
ु सभम के अनुसाय आते-जाते यहते हैं।
भनुष्म को दख
ु से ऩये शान नहीॊ होना चादहए क्मोंकक दख
ु ों के बफना सुख की सच्ची अनुबूयत नहीॊ ऩाई जा
सकती। अत: भनुष्म को सॊतुलरत तथा सकायात्भक दृक्ष्टकोण अऩनाकय जीिन को उल्रासऩूणा फनाना
चादहए। यनयॊ तय काभ भें रगे यहकय कष्टों को बुरामा जा सकता है ।
अन्य हऱ प्रश्न
ऱघूत्तरात्मक प्रश्न
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ कविता भें कवि हरयिश याम फच्चन ने अऩने व्मक्क्तत्ि के ककन ऩऺों को उबाया है ?
उत्तर –
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ कविता भें कवि हरयिॊश याम फच्चन ने अऩने व्मक्क्तत्ि के यनम्नलरणखत ऩऺों को उबाया है -
1. कवि अऩने जीिन भें लभरी आशाओॊ-यनयाशाओॊ से सॊतुष्ट है ।

2. िह (कवि) अऩनी धन
ु भें भस्त यहने िारा व्मक्क्त है ।
3. कवि सॊसाय को लभथ्मा सभझते हुए हायन-राब, मश-अऩमश, सुख-दख ु को सभान सभझता है ।
4. कवि सॊतोषी प्रिक्ृ त्त का है । िह िाणी के भाध्मभ से अऩना आक्रोश प्रकट कयता है ।
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ कविता ऩय प्रयतऩाद्म लरणखए।
उत्तर –
89
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ कविता के यचयमता का भानना है कक स्िमॊ को जानना दयु नमा को जानने से ज्मादा कदठन है ।
सभाज से व्मक्क्त का नाता खट्टा-भीठा तो होता ही है । सॊसाय से ऩयू ी तयह यनयऩेऺ यहना सॊबि नहीॊ। दयु नमा
अऩने व्मॊग्म-फाण तथा शासन-प्रशासन से चाहे क्जतना कष्ट दे , ऩय दयु नमा से कटकय भनुष्म यह बी नहीॊ
ऩाता क्मोंकक उसकी अऩनी अक्स्भता, अऩनी ऩहचान का उत्स, उसका ऩरयिेश ही उसकी दयु नमा है । िह अऩना
ऩरयचम दे ते हुए रगाताय दयु नमा से अऩने िविधात्भक औय द्िॊद्िात्भक सॊफॊधों का भभा उद्घादटत कयता
चरता है । िह ऩूयी कविता का साय एक ऩॊक्क्त भें कह दे ता है कक दयु नमा से भेया सॊफॊध प्रीयतकरह का है , भेया
जीिन विरुद्धों का साभॊजस्म है ।
“ददन जल्दी – जल्दी ढरता है । कविता का उदृदा श्म फताइए।
उत्तर –
मह गीत प्रलसद्ध कवि हरयिॊश याम फच्चन की कृयत यनशा-यनभॊत्रण से उद्धृत है । इस गीत भें कवि प्रकृयत की
दै यनक ऩरयितानशीरता के सॊदबा भें प्राणी-िगा के धड़कते रृदम को सुनने की काव्मात्भक कोलशश को व्मक्त
कयता है । ककसी वप्रम आरॊफन मा विषम से बािी साऺात्काय का आश्िासन ही हभाये प्रमास के ऩगों की गयत
भें चॊचरता मानी तेजी बय सकता है । इससे हभ लशथथरता औय कपय जड़ता को प्राप्त होने से फच जाते हैं।
मह गीत इस फड़े सत्म के साथ सभम के गुजयते जाने के एहसास भें रक्ष्म-प्राक्प्त के लरए कुछ कय गुजयने
का जज्फा बी लरए हुए है ।
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ कविता को द्िक्ष्ट भें यखते हुए कवि के कथ्म को अऩने शब्दों भें प्रस्तुत कीज।
उत्तर –
‘आत्भऩरयचम’ कविता भें कवि कहता है कक मद्मवऩ िह साॊसारयक कदठनाइमों से जूझ यहा है , कपय बी िह
इस जीिन से प्माय कयता है । िह अऩनी आशाओॊ औय यनयाशाओॊ से सॊतुष्ट है । िह सॊसाय से लभरे प्रेभ ि
स्नेह की ऩयिाह नहीॊ कयता, क्मोंकक सॊसाय उनहीॊ रोगों की जमकाय कयता है जो उसकी इच्छानुसाय व्मिहाय
कयते हैं। िह अऩनी धन
ु भें यहने िारा व्मक्क्त है । कवि सॊतोषी प्रिक्ृ त्त का है । िह अऩनी िाणी के जरयमे
अऩना आक्रोश व्मक्त कयता है । उसकी व्मथा शब्दों के भाध्मभ से प्रकट होती है तो सॊसाय उसे गाना भानता
है । िह सॊसाय को अऩने गीतों, द्िॊद्िों के भाध्मभ से प्रसनन कयने का प्रमास कयता है । कवि सबी को
साभॊजस्म फनाए यखने के लरए कहता है ।
कौन-सा विचाय ददन ढरने के फाद रौट यहे ऩॊथी के कदभों को धीभा कय दे ता हैं ? ‘फच्चन’ के गीत के आधाय
ऩय उत्तय दीक्जए।
उत्तर –
कवि एकाकी जीिन व्मतीत कय यहा है । शाभ के सभम उसके भन भें विचाय उठता है कक उसके आने के
इॊतजाय भें व्माकुर होने िारा कोई नहीॊ है । अत: िह ककसके लरए तेजी से घय जाने की कोलशश कये । शाभ
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होते ही यात हो जाएगी औय कवि की वियह-व्मथा फढ़ने से उसका रृदम फेचन
ै हो जाएगा। इस प्रकाय के
विचाय आते ही ददन ढरने के फाद रौट यहे ऩॊथी के कदभ धीभे हो जाते हैं।
मदद सॊक्जर दयू हो तो रोगों की िहाॉ ऩहुॉचने की भानलसकता कैसी होती हैं?
उत्तर –
भॊक्जर दयू होने ऩय रोगों भें उदासीनता का बाि आ जाता है । कबी-कबी उनके भन भें यनयाशा बी आ जाती
है । भॊक्जर की दयू ी के कायण कुछ रोग घफयाकय प्रमास कयना छोड़ दे ते हैं। कुछ व्मथा के तका-वितका भें
उरझकय यह जाते हैं। भनुष्म आशा ि यनयाशा के फीच झूरता यहता है ।
कवि को सॊसाय अऩूणा क्मों रगता है ?
उत्तर –
कवि बािनाओॊ को प्रभुखता दे ता है । िह साॊसारयक फॊधनों को नहीॊ भानता। िह िताभान सॊसाय को उसकी
शुष्कता एिॊ नीयसता के कायण नाऩसॊद कयता है । िह फाय-फाय िह अऩनी कल्ऩना का सॊसाय फनाता है तथा
प्रेभ भें फाधक फनने ऩय उनहें लभटा दे ता है । िह प्रेभ को सम्भान दे ने िारे सॊसाय की यचना कयना चाहता है ।
यनम्नलरणखत ऩद्मश को ऩढ़कय ऩूछे गए प्रश्नों के उत्तय दीक्जए-
भैं स्नेह-सुया का ऩान ककमा कयता हूॉ,

भैं कबी न जग का ध्मान ककमा कयता हूॉ,
जग ऩूछ यहा उनको, जो जग की गाते,
भैं अऩने भन का गान ककमा कयता हूॉ।
भैं यनज उय के उद्गाय लरए कपयता हूॉ.

भैं यनज उय के उऩहाय लरए कपयता हूॉ.
है मह अऩूणा सॊसाय न भुझको बाता
भैं स्िप्नों का सॊसाय लरए कपयता हूॉ।
(क) कवि ने ‘स्नेह’ को ‘सुया’ क्मों कहा है ? ससाय के प्रयत उसके नकायात्भक दृक्ष्टकोण का क्मा कायण है ?
(ख) ससाय ककनकी भहत्ि दे ता हैं? कवि को िह भहत्ि क्मों नहीॊ ददमा जाता?
(ग) ‘उद्गाय’ औय ‘उऩहाय’ कवि को क्मों वप्रम हैं?
(घ) आशम स्ऩष्ट कीक्जए :
91
है मह अऩण
ू ा सॊसाय न भझ
ु को बाता
उत्तर –
(क) कवि ने ‘स्नेह’ को ‘सयु ा’ इसलरए कहा है क्मोंकक िह प्रेभ की भादकता भें डूफ जाता है । इस भादकता के
कायण उसे साॊसारयक कष्टों की ऩयिाह नहीॊ यह जाती।
(ख) सॊसाय उन रोगों को भहत्त्ि दे ता है जो साॊसारयकता भें डूफे यहते हैं औय साॊसारयकता को ही सिोत्तभ
भानते हैं। कवि साॊसारयकता से दयू यहता है , इसलरए सॊसाय कवि को भहत्ि नहीॊ दे ता।
(ग) कवि को उद्गाय इसलरए ऩसॊद है क्मोंकक इस उद्गाय भें उसके भन के बाि सभाए हुए हैं, क्जनहें िह
दयु नमा को दे ना चाहता है । उसे उऩहाय इसलरए ऩसॊद हैं, क्मोंकक उसके रृदम रूऩी उऩहाय भें कोभर बाि
सभाए हुए हैं।
(घ) आशम-कवि को रगता है कक फाहयी सॊसाय प्रेभ के बफना अऩूणा है । सॊसाय भें प्रेभ का अबाि है , इसलरए
सॊसाय ि ु नाहीॊ बाता। कवि के भना भें प्रेभ से वऩयऩूणा सॊसाय का एक सऩना है क्जसे िह साकय रूऩ दे ना
चाहता है ।
यनम्नलरणखत काव्म-ऩक्क्तमों के काव्म-सौंदम ऩय प्रकाश डालरए-
भुझसे लभरने को कौन विकर?

भैं होऊॉ ककसके दहत चचर?
मह प्रश्न लशथथर कयता ऩया को, बयत उय भें विहिरता हैं!
ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है !
उत्तर –
भािसौंदयय– शाभ यनकट जानकय प्राणी अऩने-अऩने घय आने को उद्धृत हैं, क्मोंकक उनके घय ऩय कोई-न-कोई
उनकी प्रतीऺा कय यहा होता है । ऩय कवि के आने के इॊतजाय भें कोई प्रतीऺायत नहीॊ है , इसलरए उसके कदभ
लशथथर हैं।
शिल्पसौंदयय
 प्रश्न अरॊकाय का प्रमोग है ।

 ‘जल्दी-जल्दी’ भें ऩुनरुक्क्त प्रकाश अरॊकाय है ।
 सयर, सहज, प्रिाहभमी बाषा बािालबव्मक्क्त के अनुकूर है ।
 तत्सभ शब्दों का प्रमोग है ।
92
‘ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है ’ कविता का प्रयतऩाद्म स्ऩष्ट कीक्जए।
उत्तर –
‘ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है ’ कविता प्रेभ की भहत्ता ऩय प्रकाश डारती है । प्रेभ की तयॊ ग ही भानि के जीिन
भें उभॊग औय बािना की दहरोय ऩैदा कयती है । प्रेभ के कायण ही भनुष्म को रगता है कक ददन जल्दी-जल्दी
फीता जा यहा है । इससे अऩने वप्रमजनों से लभरने की उभॊग से कदभों भें तेजी आती है तथा ऩक्षऺमों के ऩॊखों
भें तेजी औय गयत आ जाती है । मदद जीिन भें प्रेभ हो तो लशथथरता आ जाती है ।
स्ियं करें
1. कवि का कहना है कक उसने स्नेह-सुया का ऩान ककमा है । इस ऩान का उस ऩय क्मा प्रबाि ऩड़ा
है ?
2. कवि फच्चन को कैसा सॊसाय अच्छा नहीॊ रगता, औय क्मों?
3. ‘सत्म ककसी ने नहीॊ जाना’-कवि ने ऐसा क्मों कहा है ?
4. कवि ने ककस ऩथ्
ृ िी को ठुकयाने की फात कही है ? कवि के कथन से आऩ ककतना सहभत हैं औय
क्मों?
5. याही ददन ढरने से ऩूिा ही भॊक्जर ऩय ऩहुॉच जाना चाहता है , ऐसा क्मों?
6. थचडड़मा के ऩयों भें चॊचरता आने के क्मा-क्मा कायण हो सकते हैं?
7. उस प्रश्न का उल्रेख कीक्जए जो कवि-भन को विहिरता से बय दे ता है । इससे उस ऩय क्मा
प्रबाि ऩड़ता है ?
8. यनम्नलरणखत काव्माॊशों के आधाय ऩय ऩूछे गए प्रश्नों के उत्तय दीक्जए
o भैं यनज उय के उद्गाय लरए कपयता हूॉ
भैं यनज उय के उऩहाय लरए कपयता हूॉ,
है मह अऩूणा सॊसाय न भुझको बाता
(क) बाि-सौंदमा स्ऩष्ट कीक्जए।

(ख) अयतभ ऩक्क्त का आशम स्ऩष्ट कीक्जए।
(ग) काव्माॊश कीबावषक – लशल्ऩ सॊफॊधी विशेषताएॉ लरणखए-
फच्चे प्रत्माशा भें होंगे

नीड़ों से झाॉक यहे होंगे
मह ध्मान ऩयो भें थचडड़मों के बयता ककतनी चॊचरता है !
93
क काव्माॊश का बाि-सौंदमा स्ऩष्ट कीक्जए ।
(ख) काव्म की बाषा सॊफॊधी दो विशेषताएॉ लरणखए।
(ग) अरॊकाय एिॊ बफॊफ विधान स्ऩष्ट कााविए।
(ख) एक गीत
1.

हो जाए न ऩथ भें यात कहीॊ,
भॊक्जर बी तो है दयू नहीॊ-
मह सोच थक7 ददन का ऩथी बी जल्दी-जल्दी चरता हैं!

ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढोरता हैं!
िब्दाथय-ढरता-सभाप्त होता। मथ-यास्ता। भक्जर-रक्ष्म। मथ-मात्री।

प्रसंग-प्रस्तुत काव्माॊश हभायी ऩाठ्मऩुस्तक ‘आयोह, बाग-2‘ भें सॊकलरत गीत ‘ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है !’ से
उद्धृत है । ईसा के यविता हयिॊशयाम फच्न हैं। इसगत भें किने एक जिना की कॊु ता तथा प्रेभा की व्माकुरता
क िणाना ककमा है ।
व्याख्या-कवि जीिन की व्माख्मा कयता है । िह कहता है कक शाभ होते दे खकय मात्री तेजी से चरता है कक
कहीॊ यास्ते भें यात न हो जाए। उसकी भॊक्जर सभीऩ ही होती है इस कायण िह थकान होने के फािजूद बी
जल्दी-जल्दी चरता है । रक्ष्म-प्राक्प्त के लरए उसे ददन जल्दी ढरता प्रतीत होता है । यात होने ऩय ऩथथक को
अऩनी मात्रा फीच भें ही सभाप्त कयनी ऩड़ेगी, इसलरए थककत शयीय भें बी उसका उल्रलसत, तयॊ थगत औय
आशाक्नित भन उसके ऩैयों की गयत कभ नहीॊ होने दे ता।
वििेष-
1. कवि ने जीिन की ऺणबॊगुयता ि प्रेभ की व्मग्रता को व्मक्त ककमा है ।

2. ‗जल्दी-जल्दी’ भें ऩुनरुक्क्तप्रकाश अरॊकाय है ।
3. बाषा सयर, सहज औय बािानुकूर है , क्जसभें खड़ी फोरी का प्रमोग है ।
4. जीिन को बफॊफ के रूऩ भें व्मक्त ककमा है ।
5. विमोग श्ग
ॊ ृ ाय यस की अनुबूयत है ।
प्रश्न
94
(क) ‗हो जाए न ऩथ भें ’- महाॉ ककस ऩथ की ओय कवि ने सकेत ककमा हैं?
(ख) ऩथथक के भन भें क्मा आशका हैं?
(ग) ऩथथक के तेज चरने का क्मा कायण हैं?
(घ) कवि ददन के फाये भें क्मा फताता हैं?
उत्तर –
(क) ‗हो जाए न ऩथ भें ”-के भाध्मभ से कवि अऩने जीिन-ऩथ की ओय सॊकेत कय यहा है , क्जस ऩय िह अकेरे
चर यहा है ।
(ख) एक नभें फाहआशॊक है ककवऩयऩाॉच से वऩहरेकहया नहजए याहने केकयण से ककना ऩहा सकता हैं ।
(ग) ऩथथक तेज इसलरए चरता है क्मोंकक शाभ होने िारी है । उसे अऩना रक्ष्म सभीऩ नजय आता है । यात न
हो जाए, इसलरए िह जल्दी चरकय अऩनी भॊक्जर तक ऩहुॉचना चाहता है ।
(घ) कवि कहता है कक ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है । दस
ू ये शब्दों भें , सभम ऩरयितानशीर है । िह ककसी की
प्रतीऺा नहीॊ कयता ।
2.
फच्चे प्रत्माशा भें होंगे,

नीड़ों से झाॉक यहे होंगे-
मह ध्मान ऩयों भें थचडड़मों के बयता ककतनी चॊचरता है !

िब्दाथय-प्रत्माशा-आशा। नीड़-घोंसरा। ऩय-ऩॊख। चचरता-अक्स्थयता।

प्रसंग-प्रस्तुत काव्माॊश हभायी ऩाठ्मऩुस्तक ‘आयोह, बाग-2‘ भें सॊकलरत गीत ‘ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है !’ से
उद्धृत है । इस गीत के यचयमता हरयिॊश याम फच्चन हैं। इस गीत भें कवि ने एकाकी जीिन की कॊु ठा तथा प्रेभ
की व्माकुरता का िणान ककमा है ।
व्याख्या-कवि प्रकृयत के भाध्मभ से उदाहयण दे ता है कक थचडड़माॉ बी ददन ढरने ऩय चॊचर हो उठती हैं। िे
शीघ्रायतशीघ्र अऩने घोंसरों भें ऩहुॉचना चाहती हैं। उनहें ध्मान आता है कक उनके फच्चे बोजन आदद की आशा
भें घोंसरों से फाहय झाॉक यहे होंगे। मह ध्मान आते ही उनके ऩॊखों भें तेजी आ जाती है औय िे जल्दी-जल्दी
अऩने घोंसरों भें ऩहुॉच जाना चाहती हैं।
वििेष-
95
1. उक्त काव्माॊश भें कवि कह यहा है कक िात्सल्म बाि की व्मग्रता सबी प्राणणमों भें ऩाई जाती
है ।
2. ऩक्षऺमों के फच्चों द्िाया घोंसरों से झाॉका जाना गयत एिॊ दृश्म बफॊफ उऩक्स्थत कयता है ।
3. तत्सभ शब्दािरी की प्रभुखता है ।
4. ‗जल्दी-जल्दी’ भें ऩुनरुक्क्त प्रकाश अरॊकाय है ।
5. सयर, सहज औय बािानक
ु ू र खड़ी फोरी भें साथाक अलबव्मक्क्त है ।
प्रश्न
(क) फच्चे ककसका इॊतजाय कय यहे होंगे तथा क्मों?

(ख) थचडड़मों के घोंसरों भें ककस दश्ू म की कल्ऩना की गई हैं?
(ग) थचडड़मों के ऩयों भें चॊचरता आने का क्मा कायण हैं?
(घ) इस अशा से ककस भानि-सत्म को दशामा गमा है ?
उत्तर –
(क) फच्चे अऩने भाता-वऩता के आने का इॊतजाय कय यहे होंगे क्मोंकक थचडड़मा (भाॉ) के ऩहुॉचने ऩय ही उनके
बोजन इत्मादद की ऩूयता होगी।
(ख) कवि थचडड़मों के घोंसरों भें उस दृश्म की कल्ऩना कयता है जफ फच्चे भाॉ-फाऩ की प्रतीऺा भें अऩने घयों
से झाॉकने रगते हैं।
(ग) थचडड़मों के ऩयों भें चॊचरता इसलरए आ जाती है क्मोंकक उनहें अऩने फच्चों की थचॊता भें फेचन
ै ी हो जाती
है । िे अऩने फच्चों को बोजन, स्नेह ि सयु ऺा दे ना चाहती हैं।
(घ) इस अॊश से कवि भाॉ के िात्सल्म बाि का सजीि िणान कय यहा है । िात्सल्म प्रेभ के कायण भातभ
ृ न
आशॊका से बय उठता है
3.
भुझसे लभरने को कौन विकर?

भैं होऊॉ ककसके दहत चॊचरा?
मह प्रश्न लशथथर कयता ऩद को, बयता उय भें विहिरता हैं!

िब्दाथय-विकर-व्माकुर। दहत-लरए, िास्ते। चॊचर-कक्रमाशीर। लशथथर-ढीरा। मद-ऩैय। उय-रृदम। विह्िरता-

फेचन
ै ी, बाि आतुयता।
प्रसंग-प्रस्तुत काव्माॊश हभायी ऩाठ्मऩुस्तक ‘आयोह, बाग-2‘ भें सॊकलरत गीत ‘ददन जल्दी-जल्दी ढरता है ’ से
96
उद्धृत है । इस गीत के यचयमता हरयिॊश याम फच्चन हैं। इस गीत भें कवि ने एकाकी जीिन की कॊु ठा तथा प्रेभ
की व्माकुरता का िणान ककमा है ।
व्याख्या-कवि कहता है कक इस सॊसाय भें िह अकेरा है । इस कायण उससे लभरने के लरए कोई व्माकुर नहीॊ
होता, उसकी उत्कॊठा से प्रतीऺा नहीॊ कयता, िह बरा ककसके लरए बागकय घय जाए। कवि के भन भें प्रेभ-
तयॊ ग जगने का कोई कायण नहीॊ है । कवि के भन भें मह प्रश्न आने ऩय उसके ऩैय लशथथर हो जाते हैं। उसके
रृदम भें मह व्माकुरता बय जाती है कक ददन ढरते ही यात हो जाएगी। यात भें एकाकीऩन औय उसकी वप्रमा
की विमोग-िेदना उसे अशाॊत कय दे गी। इससे उसका रृदम ऩीड़ा से फेचन
ै हो उठता है ।
वििेष-
1. एकाकी जीिन बफताने िारे व्मक्क्त की भनोदशा का िास्तविक थचत्रण ककमा गमा है ।
2. सयर, सहज औय बािानक
ु ू र खड़ी फोरी का प्रमोग है ।
3. ‗भुझसे लभरने’ भें अनुप्रास अरॊकाय तथा ‘भैं होऊॉ ककसके दहत चॊचर?‘ भें प्रश्नारॊकाय है ।
4. तत्सभ-प्रधान शब्दािरी है क्जसभें अलबव्मक्क्त की सयरता है ।
प्रश्न
(क) कवि के भन भें कौन-से प्रश्न उठते हैं?

(ख) कवि की व्माकुरता का क्मा कायण हैं?
(ग) कवि के कदभ लशथथर क्मों हो जाते हैं?
(घ) ‗भैं होऊॉ ककसके दहत चचर?‘ का बाि स्ऩष्ट कीक्जए
उत्तर –
(क) कवि के भन भें यनम्नलरणखत प्रश्न उठते हैं-

(i) उससे लभरने के लरए कौन उत्कॊदठत होकय प्रतीऺा कय यहा है ?
(ii) िह ककसके लरए चॊचर होकय कदभ फढ़ाए?
(ख) कवि के रृदम भें व्माकुरता है क्मोंकक िह अकेरा है । वप्रमा के विमोग की िेदना इस व्माकुरता को
प्रगाढ़ कय दे ती है । इस कायण उसके भन भें अनेक प्रश्न उठते हैं।
(ग) कवि अकेरा है । उसका इॊतजाय कयने िारा कोई नहीॊ है । इस कायण कवि के भन भें बी उत्साह नहीॊ है ,
इसलरए उसके कदभ लशथथर हो जाते हैं।
(घ) ‗भैं होऊॉ ककसके दहत चॊचर’ का आशम मह है कक कवि अऩनी ऩत्नी से दयू होकय एकाकी जीिन बफता
यहा है । उसकी प्रतीऺा कयने िारा कोई नहीॊ है , इसलरए िह ककसके लरए फेचन
ै होकय घय जाने की चॊचरता
ददखाए।
97
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - MATHEMATICS (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
Ch1.Relation and Functions:
The topics and subtopics covered in relations and Functions are:
 Introduction
 Types of relations
 Types of Functions
 Composition of functions and invertible functions
Relation
The concept of relation is used in relating two objects or quantities with each other. If two sets are
considered, the relation between them will be established if there is a connection between the elements of
two or more non-empty sets.
Types of Relations
A relation in set A is a subset of A × A. Thus, A × A is two extreme relations.
Empty Relation
If no element of A is related to any element of A, i.e. R = υ ⊂ A ×A, then the relation in a set is called empty
relation.
Universal Relation
If each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e. R = A × A, then the relation is said to be universal
relation.
A relation R in a set A is called-
Reflexive- if (a,a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A.
Symmetric- if (a1,a2) ∈ R implies that (a2,a1) ∈ R , for all a1,a2∈ A.
Transitive- if (a1,a2) ∈ R and (a2,a3) ∈ R implies that (a1,a3) ∈ R for all a1,a2,a3 ∈ A.
Equivalence Relation- A relation in a set A is equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Functions
98
A function is a relationship which explains that there should be only one output for each input. It is a special
kind of relation(a set of ordered pairs) which obeys a rule i.e every X-value should be connected to only one
y-value.
Types of Functions
1. One to one Function: A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of
distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1 , x2 ∈ X, f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) implies x1 = x2 .
Otherwise, f is called many-one.
2. Onto Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element of Y is the
image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there exists an element x in X such that f(x)
= y.
3. One-one Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both one-
one and onto.
Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then the composition of f and g, denoted by gof, is defined as
the function gof : A → C given by;
gof (x) = g(f (x)), ∀ x ∈ A
Note
(i) In general, fog(x) ≠ gof(x).
(ii) In general, gof is one-one implies that f is one-one and gof is onto implies that g is onto.
(iii) If f : X → Y, g : Y → Z and h : Z → S are functions, then ho(gof) = (hog)of.
Invertible Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be invertible, if there exists a function g : Y → X such

that gof = Ix and fog = Iy. The function g is called inverse of function f and is denoted by f-1.
Note
(i) To prove a function invertible, one should prove that, it is both one-one or onto, i.e. bijective.
(ii) If f : X → V and g : Y → Z are two invertible functions, then gof is also invertible with
(gof)-1 = f-1og-1
99
Domain and Range of Some Useful Functions
Binary Operation: A binary operation * on set X is a function * : X × X → X. It is denoted by a * b.
Commutative Binary Operation: A binary operation * on set X is said to be commutative, if a * b = b * a, ∀

a, b ∈ X.
Associative Binary Operation: A binary operation * on set X is said to be associative, if a * (b * c) = (a * b)

* c, ∀ a, b, c ∈ X.
Note: For a binary operation, we can neglect the bracket in an associative property. But in the absence of
associative property, we cannot neglect the bracket.
Identity Element: An element e ∈ X is said to be the identity element of a binary operation * on set X, if a *
e = e * a = a, ∀ a ∈ X. Identity element is unique.
Note: Zero is an identity for the addition operation on R and one is an identity for the multiplication operation
on R.
Invertible Element or Inverse: Let * : X × X → X be a binary operation and let e ∈ X be its identity element.
An element a ∈ X is said to be invertible with respect to the operation *, if there exists an element b ∈ X such
that a * b = b * a = e, ∀ b ∈ X. Element b is called inverse of element a and is denoted by a-1.
Note: Inverse of an element, if it exists, is unique.
Operation Table: When the number of elements in a set is small, then we can express a binary operation
on the set through a table, called the operation table.
100
Ch2.Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
Inverse Function
If y = f(x) and x = g(y) are two functions such that f (g(y)) = y and g (f(y)) = x, then f and y are said to be
inverse of each other
i.e., g = f-1
IF y = f(x), then x = f-1(y)
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If y = sin-1(x), then x = sin-1 y, similarly for other trigonometric functions.
This is called inverse trigonometric function .
Now, y = sin-1(x), y ∈ [π / 2 , π / 2] and x ∈ [-1,1].

(i) Thus, sin-1x has infinitely many values for given x ∈ [-1, 1].
(ii) There is only one value among these values which lies in the interval [π / 2 , π / 2]. This value is called
the principal value.
Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric
FunctionsGraphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
101
102
Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Property I
Property II
Property III
Property IV
Property V
Property VI
103
Property VII
Property VIII
Property IX
104
Property X
Property XI
Property XII
105
Important Results
where Sk denotes the sum of the product of x1,x2,…xn takes k at a time.
===================================
106
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - PHYSICS (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
Chapter 3
Current Electricity
Electric Current (I)
The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a wire is called electric current flowing through it.
Electric current (I) = q / t. Its SI unit is ampere (A).
The conventional direction of electric current is the direction of motion of positive charge.
The current is the same for all cross-sections of a conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Similar to the
water flow, charge flows faster where the conductor is smaller in cross-section and slower where the
conductor is larger in cross-section, so that charge rate remains unchanged.
If a charge q revolves in a circle with frequency f, the equivalent current, i = qf
(In a metallic conductor current flows due to motion of free electrons while in electrolytes and ionized
gases current flows due to electrons and positive ions.)
Types of Electric Current
According to its magnitude and direction electric current is of two types
(i) Direct Current (DC) Its magnitude and direction do not change with time. A ceil, battery or DC
dynamo are the sources of direct current.
(ii) Alternating Current (AC) An electric current whose magnitude changes continuously and changes
its direction periodically is called alternating current. AC dynamo is source of alternating current.
Current Density
The electric current flowing per unit area of cross-section of conductor is called current density.
Current density (J) = I / A
Its S1 unit is ampere metre-2 and dimensional formula is [AT-2].
107
It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of motion positive charge or in the direction of
flow of current.
Thermal Velocity of Free Electrons
Free electrons in a metal move randomly with a very high speed of the order of 105 ms-1. This speed
is called thermal velocity of free electron.
Average thermal velocity of free electrons in any direction remains zero.
Drift Velocity of Free Electrons
When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a conductor, the free electrons in it move with
an average velocity opposite to direction of electric field. which is called drift velocity of free electrons.
Drift velocity vd = eEτ / m = eVτ / ml
where, τ = relaxation time, e = charge on electron,
E = electric field intensity, 1 = length of the conductor, V =
potential difference across the ends of the conductor m = mass
of electron.
Relation between electric current and drift velocity is given by vd = I /
An e
Mobility
The drift velocity of electron per unit electric field applied is mobility of electron. Mobility of
electron (μ) = vd / E
Its SI unit is m2s-1V-1 and its dimensional formula is [M-1T2A].
Ohm’s Law
If physical conditions of a conductor such as temperature remains unchanged, then the electric current (I)
flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) applied across its ends.
I∝V
or V = IR
where R is the electrical resistance of the conductor and R = Ane2 τ / ml.
Electrical Resistance
The obstruction offered by any conductor in the path of flow of current is called its electrical resistance.
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Electrical resistance, R = V / I
Its SI unit is ohm (Ω) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-3A-2].
Electrical resistance of a conductor R = ρl / A
where, l = length of the conductor, A = cross-section area and ρ =
resistivity of the material of the conductor.
Resistivity
Resistivity of a material of a conductor is given by ρ = m /
n2 τ
where, n = number of free electrons per unit volume.
Resistivity of a material depend on temperature and nature of the material.
It is independent of dimensions of the conductor, i.e., length, area of cross-section etc.
Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature as ρt = ρo
(1 + αt)
where ρo and ρt are resistivity of metals at O°C and t°C and α temperature coefficient of resistivity
of the material.
For metals α is positive, for some alloys like nichrome, manganin and constantan, α is positive but very
low.
For semiconductors and insulators. α is negative.
Resistivity is low for metals, more for semiconductors and very high alloys like nichrome, constantan
etc.
(In magnetic field the resistivity of metals increases. But resistivity of ferromagnetic materials such as iron,
nickel, cobalt etc decreases in magnetic field.)
Electrical Conductivity
The reciprocal of resistivity is called electrical conductivity.

Electrical conductivity (σ) = 1 / ρ = 1 / RA = ne2 τ / m Its SI units is ohm-1 m-1 or mho m-1 or siemen m-1.
Relation between current density (J) and electrical conductivity (σ) is given by J = σ E
where, E = electric field intensity.
Ohmic Conductors
Those conductors which obey Ohm‘s law, are called ohmic conductors e.g., all metallic conductors
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are ohmic conductor.
For ohmic conductors V – I graph is a straight line.
Non-ohmic Conductors
Those conductors which do not obey Ohm‘s law, are called non-ohmic conductors. e.g., diode valve,
triode valve, transistor , vacuum tubes etc.
For non-ohmic conductors V – I graph is not a straight line.
Superconductors
When few metals are cooled, then below a certain critical temperature their electrical resistance suddenly
becomes zero. In this state, these substances are called superconductors and this phenomena is
calledsuperconductivity.
Mercury become superconductor at 4.2 K, lead at 7.25 K and niobium at 9.2 K
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Colour Coding of Carbon Resistors
The resistance of a carbon resistor can be calculated by the code given on it in the form of coloured strips.
Colour
coding
Colour Figure
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Tolerance power
Colour Tolerance
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
No colour 20%
This colour coding can be easily learned in the sequence ―B B ROY Great Bratain Very Good Wife‖.
111
Combination of Resistors
1.In Series
(i) Equivalent resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3
(ii) Current through each resistor is same.

(iii) Sum of potential differences across individual resistors is equal to the potential difference, applied
by the source.
2. In Parallel Equivalent
resistance
1 / R = 1 /R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3
Potential difference across each resistor is same.
Sum of electric currents flowing through individual resistors is equal to the be electric current drawn from
the source.
Electric Cell
An electric cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
Electric cells are of two types
(i) Primary Cells Primary ceUs cannot be charged again. Voltic, Daniel and Leclanche cells are
primary cells.
(ii) Secondary Cells Secondary cells can be charged again and again. Acid and alkali
accumulators are secondary cells.
Electro – motive – Force (emf) of a Cell
The energy given by a cell in flowing unit positive charge throughout the circuit completely one time, is
equal to the emf of a cell.
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Emf of a cell (E) = W / q. Its
SI unit is volt.
Terminal Potential Difference of a Cell

The energy given by a cell in flowing unit positive charge through till outer circuit one time from one
terminal of the cell to the other terminal of the cell.
Terminal potential difference (V) = W / q. Its SI
unit is volt.
Internal Resistance of a Cell
The obstruction offered by the electrolyte of a cell in the path of electric current is called internal
resistance (r) of the cell. Internal resistance of a cell
(i) Increases with increase in concentration of the electrolyte.
(ii) Increases with increase in distance between the electrodes.
(iii) Decreases with increase in area of electrodes dipped in electrolyte.

Relation between E. V and r E =
V + Ir
r = (E / V – 1) R
If cell is in charging state, then E =
V – Ir
Grouping of Cells
(i) In Series If n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in series to a
resistance R. then equivalent emf
Eeq = E1 + E2 + …. + En = nE
Equivalent internal resistance req = r1 + r2 + …. + rn = nr Current
In the circuit I = Eeq / (R + req) = nE / (R + nr)
(ii) In Parallel If n cells. each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected to in parallel. then
equivalent emf. Eeq = E
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Equivalent internal resistance
1 / req = 1 / r1 + 1 / r1 + … + 1 / rn = n / r or req = r / n Current In
the circuit I = E / (R + r / n)
(iii) Mixed Grouping of Cells If n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in series
and such m rows are connected in parallel, then
Equivalent emf, Eeq
Equivalent Internal resistance req
Current in the circuit, I = nE / (R + nr / m) or I =
mnE / mR + nr
Note Current in this circuit will be maximum when external resistance is equal to the equivalent
internal resistance, i.e.,
R = nr / m ⇒ mR = nr
Kirchhoff’s Laws
There are two Kirchhoff‘s laws for solving complicated electrical circuits
(i) Junction Rule The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction in a closed circuit is zero, i.e.,
Σ I = O.
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This law follows law of conservation of charge.
(ii) Loop Rule The algebraic sum of all the potential differences in any closed circuit is zero, i.e.,
ΣV = 0 ⇒ ΣE = ΣIR
This law follows law of conservation of energy.
Physics Notes for Class 12 chapter 3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY Balanced
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is also known as a metre bridge or slide wire bridge.
This is an arrangement of four resistance in which one resistance is unknown and rest known. The
Wheatstone bridge as shown in figure. The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer
is zero, i.e., ig = O.
Principle of Wheatstone Bridge
P/Q=R/S
The value of unknown resistance S can found. as we know the value of P,Q and R. It may be
remembered that the bridge is most sensitive, when all the four resistances are of the same order.
Meter Bridge
This is the simplest form of Wheatstone bridge and is specially useful for comparing resistance more
accurately.
115
R / S = l1 / (100 – l1)
where l1 is the length of wire from one end where null point is obtained.
Potentiometer
Potentiometer is an ideal device to measure the potential difference between two points. It consists of a
long resistance wire AB of uniform cross section in which a steady direct current is set up by means of a
battery.
If R be the total resistance of potentiometer wire L its total length, then potential gradient, i.e., fall in
potential per unit length along the potentiometer will be
K = V / L = IR / L
= Eo R / (Ro + R)L
where, Eo = emf of battery and Ro = resistance inserted by means of rheostat Rh.
Determination of emf of a Cell using Potentiometer
116
If with a cell of emf E on sliding the contact point we obtain zero deflection in galvanometer G when
contact point is at J at a length I from the end where positive terminal of cell have been joined. then
fall in potential along length i is just balancing the emf of cell. Thus, we have
E = Kl
or E1 / E2 = l1 / l2
Determination of Internal Resistance of a Cell using Potentiometer
The arrangement is shown in figure. If the cell E is in open circuit and balancing length l1, then E = Kl1
But if by inserting key K2 circuit of cell is closed, then ooten difference V is balanced by a length
l2 of potential where
V = Kl2
Internal resistance of cell
r = E – V / V , R = l1 – l2 / l2 * R
Important Points
 Potentiometer is an ideal voltmeter.

 Sensitivity of potentiometer is increased by increasing length of potentiometer wire.
 If n identical resistances are first connected in series and then in parallel. the ratio of the
equivalent resistance.
Rs / Rp= n2 / 1
 If a skeleton cube is made with 12 equal resistance,each having a resistance R, then the
net resistance across
1. The diagonal of cube = 5 / 6 R
2. The diagonal of a face = 3 / 4 R
3. along a side = 7 / 12 R
 If a resistance wire is stretched to a greater length, keeping volume constant, then R
∝ l2 ⇒ R1 / R2 = (l1 / l2)2
and R ∝ 1 / r4 ⇒ R1 / R2 = (r2 / r1)4
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where l is the length of wire and r is the radius of cross-section area of wire.
REVISION NOTES
Electrical Conductivity: It is the inverse of specific resistance for a conductor whereas
the specific resistance is the resistance of unit cube of the material of the conductor.
Where is the conductivity and is resistivity.
SI Unit of Conductivity: The SI unit of conductivity is Siemens per meter (Sm-1). Current
through a given area of a conductor: It is the net charge passing per unit time through
the area.
Current Density Vector: The current density vector gives current flowing per
second through area when it is held normal to the direction of charge flow. Note that
the direction of is in the direction of current flow.

Current Density: Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per second per unit
area normal to the flow.
where n is the number density (number per unit volume) of charge
carriers each of charge q and is the drift velocity of the charge carriers. For
electrons q = –e. If is normal to a cross – sectional area A and is constant over the
area, the magnitude of the current I through the area is
Mobility: Mobility is defined to be the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field
and is given by
Now, where q is the electric charge of the current carrier and is its
mass.
Thus, mobility is a measure of the response of a charge carrier to a given external

electric field.
Resistivity: Resistivity is defined to be reciprocal of conductivity.
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It is measured in ohm-metre.
Resistivity as a function of temperature: It is given as,
Where, is the temperature coefficient of resistivity and is the resistivity of the

material at temperature T.
Ranges of Resistivity:
a) Metals have low resistivity: Range of varies from 10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m.
b) Insulators like glass and rubber have high resistivity: Range of varies from
1022 to 1024 times greater than that of metals.

c) Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the middle range of resistivity on a
logarithmic scale.
Total resistance in Series and in Parallel:
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series is given by R = R 1 + R2 + …
+ Rn
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel is given by
Electrical Conductivity: When a conducting substance is brought under the
influence of an electric field , free charges (e.g. free electrons in metals)
move
under the influence of this field in such a manner, that the current density due
to their motion is proportional to the applied electric field.
Consider a cylindrical material with cross-sectional area A and length L through
which a current is passing along the length and normal to the area A.
119
Then, since and are in the same direction, where is a
constant of proportionality called electrical conductivity.
120
Thus JAL = ELA,
where A is cross-sectional area and L is length of the material through which a
current is passing along the length, normal to the area A. But, JA = I, the current
through the area A and EL = V 1 - V2, thus the potential difference across the ends
of the cylinder denoting V 1 - V2 as V,
where is called resistance of the material. In this form, Ohm's law can
be stated as a linear relationship between the potential drop across a substance
and the current passing through it.
Measuring resistance: R is measured in ohm ( ), where
EMF: Emf (Electromotive force) denotes a non-electrostatic agency. Typically, it is

a battery, in which a chemical process drives the positive charge from a low
potential to a high potential. The effect of such a source is measured in terms of
work done per unit charge in moving a charge once around the circuit. This is
denoted by
Significance of Ohm’s Law: Ohm‘s law is obeyed by many substances, but it is not a
fundamental law of nature. It fails if:
(i) V depends on I non- linearly. Example is when ρ increases with I (even if the
temperature is kept fixed).
(ii) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V for the same absolute value of
V.
(iii) The relation between V and I is non- unique.
When a source of emf is connected to an external resistance R, the voltage
across R is given by
where r is the internal resistance of the source.
Kirchhoff's First Rule: At any junction of several circuit elements, the sum of
currents entering the junction must be equal the sum of currents leaving it.
121
In the above junction, current I enters it and currents I1 and I2 leave it. Then, I = I1 + I2.
This is a consequence of charge conservation and assumption that currents are steady,
that is no charge piles up at the junction.
Kirchhoff's Second Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any
closed resistor loop must be zero. This is based on the principle that electrostatic forces
alone cannot do any work in a closed loop.
This gives: (R1 + R2) I1 + R3 Iv3 + R4 I4 = 0
In case of current loops:

(i) Choose any closed loop in the network and designate a direction (in this example
counter clockwise) to traverse the loop.
(ii) Go around the loop in the designated direction, adding emf's and potential
differences. An emf is counted as positive when it is traversed (-) to (+) and negative in the
opposite case i.e., from (+) to (-). An IR term is counted negative if the resistor is
traversed in the same direction of the assumed current, and positive if in the opposite
direction.
(iii) Equate the total sum to zero.
122
Wheatstone Bridge: Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four
resistances R1, R2, R3, R4. The null point condition is given by,
This is also known as the balanced condition. If R1, R2, R3 are known, R4
can be determined.
Meter bridge: In a balanced condition of the meter bridge,
where S is the resistance per unit length of wire and is the length of wire
from one end where null point is obtained.
Potentiometer: The potentiometer is a device to compare potential
differences. Since the method involves a condition of no current flow, the
device can be used to measure potential differences, internal resistance of a
cell and compare emf‘s of two sources.
Potential Gradient: The potential gradient of the wire in a potentiometer

depends on the current in the wire. If an emf is balanced against length
, then
Similarly, if is balanced against , then
The comparison of emf‘s of the two cells is given by,
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CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - BIOLOGY (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)

CHAPTER- 3
CH.-3 REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Reproduction:
INTRODUCTION
Human beings are sexually reproducing organisms and are viviparous.
The events of sexual reproduction in human beings are-
1. Gametogenesis- the process of formation of gametes is called as gametogenesis.

2. Insemination- the process of transfer of sperms into the ovum is called insemination.
3. Fertilization- the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a single celled
zygote is called fertilization.
4. Implantation- the process of attachment of embryo to the endometrial wall of uterus of
female is called implantation.
5. Gestation- the period of embryonic developmentis called gestation, also referred as
6. Parturition- the process of delivery of the baby is called parturition.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region. It Consists of – a pair of testis, glands,
accessory ducts, external genitalia.
Testes-
oSmooth organ situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called
O
o The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testis which is 2-2.5 C
which is below than the normal internal body temperature.
o Each testisis 4 to 5 cm in length and 2 to 3 cm in width in adults.
o Each testis contains about250 compartments called testicular lobules.
o Each testicular lobules contain one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules, in
which sperms are produced.
o The wall of each seminiferous tubuleis lined by two types of cells called male germ
cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
o The male germ cells undergo meiosis leading to sperm formation and Sertoli cells
provide nutrition to the germ cells.
o The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces contain
small blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells.
o Leydig cells synthesize and secrete testicular hormones called androgens.
Accessory ducts-
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o The male accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas
deferens.
o The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete
testis.
o The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the
posterior surface of each testis.
o The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops over
the urinary bladder.
o Vas deferens receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the
ejaculatory duct.
o The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its
external opening called urethral meatus.
Accessory glands-
o The male accessory glands include paired seminalvesicles, prostate gland and
paired bulbourethral glands.
o Accessory glands secrete seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and
some enzymes
o Secretion of bulbourethral gland also helps in lubricating the penis.
External genitalia-
o The penis is the male external genitalia.
o Some special tissues make up the penis which helps in the erection of the penis.
o The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis.
o Foreskin, a loose fold of tissue covers the glans penis.
Fig. male reproductive system
Fig. seminiferous tubule with accessory ducts
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Female reproductive system is located in the pelvic region. It consists of - a pair of ovaries, a
pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia. A pair of mammary glands is
also integrated structurally and functionally with the parts of female reproductive system to
125
support the process of ovulation, fertilization, gestation, parturition and care of the baby after
birth. A pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina constitute the female accessory ducts.
Ovaries-
o The primary female sex organs that produce the ovum and several ovarian
hormones, steroid in nature.
o Located one on each side of the lower abdomen.
o Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma.
o The ovarian stroma is divided into two zones – a peripheral cortex and an inner
medulla.
Oviduct (fallopian tube)-
o 10-12 cm in length.
o Extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus.
o Part closer to the ovary is the funnel shaped
o Fimbriae are the finger like projections located on the edges of the infundibulum.
o Fimbriae help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.
o The infundibulum leads to the ampulla which is the wider part of the oviduct.
o The last part of the oviduct is isthmus which has a narrow lumen and it joins the
uterus.
Uterus-
o Uterus is also called womb.
o The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.
o Ligaments attached to the pelvic wall support the uterus.
o The narrow cervix opens the uterus into the vagina.
o Cervical canal is the cavity of the cervix which forms birth canal along with vagina.
o Three layers of tissues are present in the uterus wall- the outer thin membrane
bound perimetrium, middle thick layer of smooth muscle called myometrium, inner
glandular layer called endometrium.
o Endometrium lines the uterine cavity.
o During menstrual cycle, endometrium undergoes cyclical changes but the
myometrium exhibits strong contraction during parturition.
Fig. female reproductive system
External genitalia
126
o Vagina is the female external genitalia.
o Vagina includes mons pubis, labia majora (labia majus), labia minora (labia minus),
hymen and clitoris.
o Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
o The labia majora are folds of tissue extend down from the mons pubis and surround
the vaginal opening.
o Under the labia majore, there are paired tissue folded to form labia monora.
o Hymen is membrane covering the opening of the vagina.
o A tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upperjunction of the two labia minora
above the urethral opening is called clitoris.
Fig. external genitalia with other parts in female reproductive system
MAMMARY GLANDS
o Paired structures containing glandular tissues and fats, the amount of fat varies from
person to person.
o The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells called
o The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is storedin the cavities called as lumens of
alveoli.
o The alveoli open into mammary tubules and the tubules of each lobe join to form a
mammary duct which joins to form a wider mammary ampulla.
o Mammary ampulla is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked
out.
Fig. mammary gland
127
GAMETOGENESIS
The process of formation of gametes in primary sex organs is called Gametogenesis.
Gametogenesis includes-
o spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis in males

o oogenesis in females.
The process of formation of sperms is called spermatogenesis. It involves 3 phases-
o multiplication phase
o growth phase
o maturation phase.
The conversion of spermatids into sperms is called spermiogenesis.
The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
The process of formation of sperms is called spermatogenesis. It involves 3 phases-

multiplication phase, growth phase, maturation phase.
o In multiplication phase, male germ cells also called as spermatogonia undergo

mitotic divisions to form large number of spermatogonia.
o In growth phase, spermatogonia increases their size by accumulation of nutrition in
the cytoplasm and are ready for meitoic division and the spermatocytes are called
as primary spermatocytes with 46 chromosomes.
o In maturation phase- A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division
leading formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes,
which have only 23 chromosomes each and the secondary spermatocytes undergo
the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid spermatids
Spermiogenesis-
o The spermatids are transformed into sperms, also called as spermatozoa by the
process called spermiogenesis.
o After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells and are
released from the seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation
128
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis
o
Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant increase in the
secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from hypothalamus.
o The increases level of gonadotropin releasing hormone stimulates the anterior
pituitary to secrete luteinizing hormone(LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone(FSH).
o LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
o Androgens stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.
o FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and secrete two factors- androgen binding protein
(ABP) and inhibin which helps in spermiogenesis.
STRUCTURE OF A SPERM
o It is a microscopic, motile structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a
tail.
o Whole body is covered by plasma membrane.
o The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus and the anterior portion is
covered by a cap-like structure acrosome
o The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria which produce energy for sperm
motility needed for fertilization.
o Tail helps the sperm cell to swim to reach the egg cell.
o Seminal plasma along with sperm constitutes the semen.
129
..
130
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - CHEMISTRY (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
Electrochemistry is that branch of chemistry which deals with the study of production of
electricity from energy released during spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of
electrical energy to bring about non-spontaneous chemical transformations.
Importance of Electrochemistry
Production of metals like Na, Mg. Ca and Al.
Electroplating.
Purification of metals.
Batteries and cells used in various instruments.
Conductors
Substances that allow electric current to pass through them are known as conductors.
Metallic Conductors or Electronic Conductors

Substances which allow the electric current to pass through them by the movement of
electrons are called metallic conductors, e.g.. metals.
Electrolytic Conductors or Electrolytes

Substances which allow the passage of electricity through their fused state or aqueous
solution and undergo chemical decomposition are called electrolytic conductors, e.g.,
aqueous solution of acids. bases and salts.
Electrolytes are of two types:

1. Strong electrolytes The electrolytes that completely dissociate or ionise into ions are
called strong electrolytes. e.g., HCl, NaOH, K2SO4
131
2. Weak electrolytes The electrolytes that dissociate partially (ex < 1) are called weak
electrolytes, e.g., CH3COOH, H2CO3, NH4OHH2S, etc.
Electrochemical Cell and Electrolytic
A cell of almost constant emf is called standard cell. The most common is Weston
standard cell.
Galvanic cell is also called voltaic cell.
General Representation of an Electrochemical Cell
132
Other features of the electrochemical cell are
1. There is no evolution of heat.
2. The solution remains neutral on both sides.
3. The reaction and now of electrons stops after sometime.
Daniell Cell
An electrochemical cell of zinc and copper metals is known as Daniell cell. It is
represented as
By convention cathode is represented on the RHS and anode on the LHS.
Function of salt bridge
133
1. It completes the circuit and allows the flow of current.
2. It maintains the electrical neutrality on both sides. Salt-bridge generally contains solution
of strong electrolyte such as KNO3, KCL etc. KCI is preferred because the transport
numbers of K+ and Cl– are almost same.
Transport number or Transference number The current flowing through an
electrolytic solution is carried by the ions. The fraction of the current carried by an ion is
called its transport number or transference number. Thus.
Transport number of cation. nc = (current carried by cation/total current)
Transport number of cation. na = (current carried by anion/total current)
Evidently nc + na = 1
Electrode Potential
When an electrode is in contact with the solution of its ions in a half-cell, it has a
tendency to lose or gain electrons which is known as electrode potential. It is expressed
in volts. It is an intensive property, i.e., independent of the amount of species in the
reaction.
Oxidation potential The tendency to lose electrons in the above case is known as
oxidation potential. Oxidation potential of a half-cell is inversely proportional to the
concentration of ions in the solution.
Reduction potential The tendency to gain electrons in the above case is known as
reduction potential. According to IUPAC convention, the reduction potential alone be
called as the electrode potential unless it is specifically mentioned.
E°red = – E°oxidalion
It is not possible to determine the absolute value of electrode potential. For this a
reference electrode [NHE or SHE] is required. The electrode potential is only the
difference of potentials between two electrodes that we can measure by combining
them to give a complete cell.
Standard electrode potential The potential difference developed between metal

electrode and solution of ions of unit molarity (1M) at 1 atm pressure and 25°C (298 K)
is called standard electrode potential.
It is denoted by E°.
134
Reference Electrode
The electrode of known potential is called reference electrode. It may be primary
reference electrode like hydrogen electrode or secondary reference electrode like
calomel electrode.
Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). also known as
normal hydrogen electrode (NHE), consists of platinum wire, carrying platinum foil
coated with finely divided platinum black. The wire is sealed into a glass tube. placed in
beaker containing 1 M HCl. The hydrogen gas at 1 atm pressure is bubbled through the
solution at 298K. Half-cell is pt H2 (1 atm) H+ (1 M)
In SHE. at the surface of plantinum, either of (he following reaction can take place
2H+(ag) + 2e– → H2G Reduction

H2(g) → 2H+(ag) + 2e– Oxidation
The electrode potential of SHE has been fixed as zero at all temperatures.
Its main drawbacks are
1. It is difficult to maintain 1 atm pressure of H2 gas.

2. It is difficult to maintain H+ ion concentration 1 M.
3. The platinum electrode is easily poisoned by traces of impurities.
Hence, calomel electrodes are conveniently used as reference electrodes, It consists of

mercury in contact with Hg2 Cl2 (calomel) paste in a solution of KCl.
Electromotive Force (emf) of a Cell
135
It is the difference between the electrode potentials of two half-cells and cause flow of
current from electrode at higher potential to electrode at lower potential. It is also the
measure of free energy change. Standard emf of a cell,
Electrochemical Series
It is the arrangement of electrodes in the increasing order of their standard reduction
potentials.
Standard Electrode Potential at 298 K
136
137
Appications of Electrochemical Series (ECS)
1. The lower the value of E°, the greater the tendency to form cation.
M → Mn+ + ne–
Metals placed below hydrogen in ECS replace hydrogen from di1 acids but metals
placed above hydrogen cannot replace hydrogen from dil acids.
138
3. Oxides of metals placed below hydrogen are not reduced by H2 but oxides of iron and
metals placed above iron are reduced by H2·
 SnO, PbO, CuO are reduced by H2
 CaO, K2O are not reduced by H2·
4. Reducing character increases down the series.
5. Reactivity increases down the series.
6. Determination of emf; emf is the difference of reduction potentials of two half-cells.
 Eemf = ERHS – ELHS

If the value of emf is positive. then reaction take place spontaneously, otherwise not.
7. Greater the reduction potential of a substance, oxidising power. (e.g.. F 2 > Cl2 > Br2 >
I2)
8. A negative value of standard reduction potential shows that it is the site of oxidation.
9. Oxides of metals having E°red ≥ 0.79 will be decomposed by heating to form O2 and
metal.
HgO (s) → Hg(l)(1/2)O2(g)
(E°Hg2+/Hg = 0.79V)
Nernst Equation
The relationship between the concentration of ions and electrode potential is given by
Nernst equation.
For a electrochemical cell,
139
Concentration of pure solids and liquids is taken as unity.
Nernst equation and Kc

At equilibrium
Here, ΔG° is the standard Gibbs free energy change.
Relationship between free energy change and equilibrium constant
ΔG° = – 2.303RT log Kc

Concentration Cells
(i) Electrode concentration cells Two hydrogen electrodes or different pressures are
dipped In the same solution of electrolyte,
e.g..
140
(ii) Electrolyte concentration cells Electrodes are the same but electrolyte solutions have
different concentrations, e.g..
Conductance (G)
It is the ease of flow of electric current through the conductor. It is reciprocal of

resistance (R).
G = (1/R), units ohm-1 mhos or Ω-1

Specific Conductivity (K)
It is the reciprocal of specific resistance.
Unit of cell constant is cm-1 or m-1.

Specific conductivity decreases on dilution. This is because concentration of ions per cc
decreases upon dilution.
Molar Conductivity (Λm)
141
The conductivity of all the ions produced when 1 mole of an electrolyte is dissolved in V
mL of solution is known as molar conductivity.
It is related to specific conductance as
Λm = (k x 1000/M)
where. M = molarity.
It units are Ω-1 cm2 mol-1 or S cm2 mol-1.

Equivalent conductivity (Λm)
The conducting power of all the ions produced when 1 g-equivalent of an electrolyte is
dissolved in V mL of solution, is called equivalent conductivity. It is related to specific
conductance as
Λm = (k x 1000/N)
where. N = normality.
Its units are ohm-1 cm2 (equiv-1) or mho cm2 (equiv-1) or S cm2 (g-equiv-1).
Debye-Huckel Onsagar equation It gives a relation between molar conductivity, Λm at
a particular concentration and molar conductivity Λm at infinite dilution.
Λm = Λ0m – √C
where, b is a constant. It depends upon the nature of solvent and temperature.
Factors Affecting Conductivity

(i) Nature of electrolyte The strong electrolytes like KNO3 KCl. NaOH. etc. are
completely ionised in aqueous solution and have high values of conductivity (molar as
well as equivalent).
The weak electrolytes are ionised to a lesser extent in aqueous solution and have lower
values of conductivity (molar as well as equivalent) .
ii) Concentration of the solution The concentrated solutions of strong electrolytes

have SIgnificant interionic attractions. which reduce the speed of ions and lower the
value of Λm. and Λeq.
The dilution decreases such attractions and increase the value of Λm and Λeq.
142
The limiting value, Λ0m or Λ∞m. (the molar conductivity at zero concentration (or at
infinite dilution) can be obtained extrapolating the graph.
In case of weak electrolytes, the degree of ionisation increases dilution which increases
the value of Λm and Λeq. The liminting value Λ0m cannot be obtained by extrapolating the
graph. ~
limiting value, Λ0m, for weak electrolytes is obtained by Kohlrausch law.
(iii) Temperature The increase of temperature decreases inter-ionic attractions and
increases kinetic energy of ions and their speed. Thus, Λm and Λeq increase with
temperature.
Kohlrausch’s Law
At infinite dilution, the molar conductivity of an electrolyte is the sum of the ionic
conductivities of the cations and anions, e.g., for AxBy.
Applications
(i) Determination of equivalent/molar conductivities of weak electrolytes at infinite
dilution, e.g.,
(ii) Determination of degree of dissociation (α) of an electrolyte at a given dilution.
143
The dissociation constant (K) of the weak electrolyte at concentration C of the solution
can be calculated by using the formula
kc = (Cα2/1 – α)
where, α is the degree of dissociation of the electrolyte.
(iii) Salts like BaSO4 .., PbSO4‗ AgCl, AgBr and AgI which do not dissolve to a large
extent in water are called sparingly soluble salts.
The solubility of a sparingly soluble salt can be calculated as
Electrolysis
It is the process of decomposition of an electrolyte when electric current is passed
through either its aqueous solution or molten state,
1. In electrolytic cell both oxidation and reduction takes place in the same cell.
2. Anode is positively charged and cathode is negatively charged, In electrolytic cell.
3. During electrolysis of molten electrolyte, cations are liberated at cathode. while anions at
the anode.
4. When two or more ions compete at the electrodes. the ion with higher reduction potential
gets liberated at the cathode while the ion with lower reduction potential at the anode.
For metals to be deposited on the cathode during electrolysis, the voltage required is
almost the same as the standard
electrode potential. However for liberation of gases, some extra voltage is required than
144
the theoretical value of the standard electrode potential. The extra voltage thus required
is called over voltage or bubble voltage.
How to Predict the Products of Electrolysis?

When an aqueous solution of an electrolyte is electrolysed, if the cation has higher
reduction potential than water (-0.83 V), cation is liberated at the cathode (e.g.. in the
electrolysis of copper and silver salts) otherwise H2 gas is liberated due to reduction of
water (e.g., in the electrolysis of K, Na, Ca salts, etc.) Similarly if anion has higher
oxidation potential than water (- 1.23 V), anion is liberated (e.g., Br–), otherwise O2 gas
is liberated due to oxidation of water (e.g., in caseof F–, aqueous solution of Na2SO4 as
oxidation potential of SO2-4 is – 0.2 V).
Discharge potential is defined as the minimum potential that must be applied acrossthe
electrodes to bring about the electrolysis and subsequent discharge of the ion on the
electrode.
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

1. First law
The amount of the substance deposited or liberated at cathode directly proportional to
the quantity of electricity passed through electrolyte.
W∝Ixt=IxtxZ=QxZ
 I current in amp, t = time in sec,
 Q = quantity of charge (coulomb)
 Z is a constant known as electrochemical equivalent.
When I = 1 amp, t = 1 sec then Q = 1 coulomb, then w = Z.
Thus, electrochemical equivalent I‖ the amount of the substance deposited or liberated

by passing 1A current for 1 sec (i.e.. 1 coulomb, I x t = Q)
2. Second law
145
When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes. the
amounts of the substance deposited or liberated at the electrodes arc directly
proportional to their equivalent weights, Thus,
Hence, electrochemical equivalent ∝ equivalent weight.
Batteries
These are source of electrical energy which may have one or more cells connected in
series. For a good quality battery it should be reasonably light. compact and its voltage
should not vary appreciably during its use.
Primary Batteries
In the primary batteries. the reaction occurs only once and after use over a period of
time battery becomes dead and cannot be reused again.
(i) Dry cell or Leclanehe cell

Anode-Zinc container
Cathode-Graphite rod surrounded by MnO2 powder

Electrolyte-Paste of NH4Cl + ZnCl2
Cathode reaction,
2MnO2(s) + 2 NH+4(aq) + 2e– → Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

Anode reaction,
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–

Cell potential 1.25 V to 1.5 V
(ii) Mercury cell
146
Anode-Zn-Hg amalgam
Cathode-Paste of (HgO + C)
Electrolyte-Moist paste of KOH-ZnO
Secondary Batteries
These cells can be recharged and can be used again and again, e.g.,
(i) Lead Storage battery

Anode-Spongy lead
Cathode-Grid of lead packed with PbO2

Electrolyte-38% H2SO4 by mass
When recharged the cell reactions are reversed.
(ii) Nickel-cadmium storage cell
Anode-Cadmium
Cathode-Metal grid containing NiO2
147
Electrolyte-KOH solution
Anode reaction,
Cd(s) + 2OH–(aq) → Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e–
Fuel Cells
Galvanic cells which use energy of combustion of fuels like H2, CH4, CH3OH, etc., as
the source to produce electrical energy are called fuel cells. The fuel cells are pollution
free and have high efficiency.
Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell
Electrodes-Made of porous graphite impregnated with catalyst (Pt, Ag or a metal oxide).
Electrolyte-Aqueous solution of KOH or NaOH
Oxygen and hydrogen are continuously fed into the cell.
Corrosion
148
Slow formation of undesirable compounds such as oxides, sulphides or carbonates at
the surface of metals by reaction with moisture and other atmospheric gases is known
as corrosion.
Factors Affecting Corrosion

1. Reactivity of metals
2. Presence of moisture and atmospheric gases like CO2, SO2, etc.

3. Presence of impurities
4. Strains in the metal
5. Presence of electrolyte
Rusting of Iron-Electrochemical Theory

An electrochemical cell, also known as corrosion cell, is developed at the surface of
iron.
Anode- Pure iron
Cathode-Impure surface
Rusting of iron can be prevented by the following methods :
1. Barrier protection through coating of paints or electroplating.
149
2. Through galvanisation or coating of surface with tin metal.
3. By the use of antirust solutions (bis phenol).
4. By cathodic protection in which a metal is protected from corrosion by connecting it to

another metal that is more easily oxidised.
150
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - ECONOMICS (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
BOOK: INTRODUCTORY MACROECONOMICS
UNIT-1: NATIONAL INCOME AND RELATED AGGREGATES
NOTES:
Chapter 4: Methods of Calculating National Income
Methods of National Income And How To Determine National Income By Income

Method And Its Numericals, Steps And Precaution:
There are three methods of calculating national income.

These are:
(a) Income Method
(b) Expenditure Method
(c) Value Added Method/Product Method/Output Method
National Income determination under income method:

(a) ―Production creates income‖. If we want to calculate National Income by Income method,
then we have to add different factor incomes from the economy.
(b) The addition of all these factor incomes gives us the calculation near by the
National Income, i.e., Net Domestic Product at FC (NDPfc).
(c) Components of Income Method
1. Compensation Of Employees (COE)/Emoluments of employees: The amount

earned by employees from their employers, whether in cash or in kind or through any
other social security scheme is known as compensation of employees.
This is broadly divided into the following three components:
(a) Wages and Salaries payable in Cash:
(i) Wages and salaries receivable by the employees in respect of their work.
(ii) Special allowances for working overtime.
(iiij Cost of travel to and from work, and car parking.
(iv) Bonuses
(v) Commissions, gratuities, tips, cost of living (i.e., dearness allowance paid in our country)
honorarium, vacation, sick leave allowance etc.
151
(vi) Pensions at the time of retirement (Deferred Wage): Pensions at the time of retirement are
related to factor services rendered by recipient prior to their retirement. It is also known as
deferred wage.
Any expenses incurred by the employees and thereafter reimbursed by the business enterprise
should be excluded from Compensation Of Employees (COE) as such expenses are part of
intermediate consumption of business enterprise.
(b) Wages and Salaries in Kind: Remuneration in kind consists of goods and services that are
not necessary for work and can be used by employees at their own discretion, for the
satisfaction of their needs or wants or those of other members of their households. It includes:
(i) Meals and drinks including those consumed when travelling for business.
(ii) Accommodation.
(iii) The services of vehicles or other durables provided for the personal use of the employees.
(iv) Goods and services produced as outputs from the employer‘s own process of production
such as free travel for the employees of railways or airlines, or free coal for miners.
(v) Sports, recreation or holiday facilities for employees and their families.
(vi) Creches for children of employees.
(vii) Value of the interest foregone by employers when they provide loans to employees at
reduced, or even zero rates of interest for the purposes of buying houses, furniture or other
goods and services.
It should be kept in mind that it does not include any facilities which are necessary for work and
in which employees do not have any discretion.
For example, uniforms or other forms of special clothing to be used for work only. Examples are
uniforms for police, uniforms of drivers, uniforms for nurses in the hospital. It‘s so because such
payments are intermediate consumption of business enterprises.
(c) Employers‘ Contribution to Social Security Schemes: Employers‘ make payments to social
security schemes like life insurance, causality insurance, pension schemes etc. For example,
there is a Contributory provident Fund Scheme for employees of educational institutions and
public sector undertakings. The contribution made by the employers for such schemes is a part
of compensation of employees.
The thing which has to be remembered is that, employers‘ contribution towards social security
scheme should be included whereas employees‘ contribution towards Social Security Scheme
should not be included as COE is that what the employer pays to employee and if anything
borne by employee himself should not be included under COE.
2. Operating Surplus: The CSO (Central Statistical Organization) has defined operating
surplus as ―value of gross output less the sum of intermediate consumption, compensation of
employees, mixed income, depreciation and NIT.‖
Operating Surplus = GVOMP – Intermediate consumption – COE – Mixed Income –
Depreciation – NIT
In other words, it is the sum of income from property and income from entrepreneurship.
Operating surplus have the following two components:

(a) Income from property: It is the income which has been arisen from rent, interest and royalty.
It is divided into three components:
(i) Rent: The income arising from ownership of land and building is known as rent. It also
includes imputed rent. If a person living in his own house, then it is assumed in an economy that
he is paying rent to himself. This concept is known as imputed rent.
(ii) Royalty: Royalties are the payments made for the use of mineral deposits such as coal, oil,
etc. or for the use of patents, copyrights, trademarks, etc.
152
(iii) Interest: It is the amount earned for lending funds to the production units. It also includes
imputed interest of funds provided by entrepreneur. But interest income includes interest on
loan taken for productive services only.
The following categories of interest should not be included :
• Interest on national debt or interest paid by government on nation debt should not be included
as it is assumed that such interest is paid on loan taken for consumption purpose.
• Interest paid by one firm to another firm as it is already included in the profit of the firm which
pays it.
(b) Income from entrepreneurship: It is a return of entrepreneur after paying all the other factors
of production. It is of the following three types:
(i) Distributed Profit (Dividend): It is that part of total profit which is given to shareholders.
The thing to be noted here is that profit earned by one firm to another should not be included
under this head because it is already included in the profit of the firm which pays it.
(ii) Undistributed Profit (Saving of private corporate sector or Retained £arnings):
It is that part of total profit which is not given to shareholders and kept as a reserve for future
uncertainties.
(iii) Corporation Tax (Profit Tax): It is that part of total profit which is given by a firm to the
government as Tax.
The concept of operating surplus is applicable to all producing enterprises, whether they belong
to the private sector or to the government. The government enterprises also are expected to
earn reasonable rate of profit on the funds invested.
But, operating surplus does not arise in the general government sector as they produce goods
and services for the social welfare of the country and not for profit motive i.e., why rent, interest
and profit are zero in general government sector.
3. Mixed Income: Income of own account workers (like farmers, doctors, barbers, etc.) and
unincorporated enterprises (like small shopkeepers, repair shops) is known as mixed income.
They do not maintain proper accounts. They do not generally hire factor services from the
market rather use their own resources like land, labour, funds, etc. As the result of, it becomes
difficult to classify their income distinctly among rent, wages, interest and profit.
NDPFC Compensation of employees (COE) + Operating surplus (OS) + Mixed Income (MY)
Method for Calculating National Income By Income Method:
If we want to calculate National Income by Income method, we have to add different factor
incomes from the economy.
The addition of all these factor incomes gives us the calculation near by the National Income,
i.e. Net Domestic Product at FC (NDPFC).
Important Note:
1. Profit earned by one firm to another should not be included because it is a part of
intermediate consumption.
2. If Profit after tax is given and corporate tax is given, then by adding them we get profit. Profit
after tax = 1000
Corporate tax =100 Profit =1100
3. If Profit before tax and corporate tax are given, then ignore corporate tax.
Profit before tax = 1000
Corporate tax =100 Profit = 1000
Steps for calculating national income by income method:
153
Step 1: To identify enterprises which employ primary factors (Land, Labour, Capital, enterprise).
Step 2: To classify various types of factor income like:
(a) Compensation of employees: The amount earned by employees from their employer,
whether in cash or in kind or through any other social security scheme is known as
compensation of employees.
(b) Operating Surplus: It is the sum of income from property and income from entrepreneurship.
(c) Mixed Income: Income of own account workers (like farmers, doctors, barbers, etc.) and
unincorporated enterprises (like small shopkeepers, repair shops) is known as mixed income.
Step 3: To estimate amount of factor payments made by each producing unit.
Step 4: To add all factor incomes / payments within domestic territory to get domestic income,
i.e., NDPFC .
NDPFC = Compensation of employees + Operating Surplus + Mixed Income Step 5: Addition of
NFIA to NDPFC to get NY, i.e., NNPFC .
Precautions of income method.

(a) Avoid transfers: National income includes only factor payments, i.e., payment for the
services rendered to the production units by the owners of factors. Any payment for which no
service is rendered is called a transfer, not a production activity. Gifts, donations etc. are main
examples. Since transfers are not a production activity it must not be included in national
income.
(b) Avoid capital gain: Capital gain refers to the income from the sale of second hand goods
and financial assets. Income from the sale of old cars, old house, bonds, debentures, etc. are
some examples. These transactions are not production transactions. So, any income arising to
the owners of such things is not a factor income.
(c) Include income from self-consumed output: When a house owner lives in his house, he
does not pay any rent. But in fact he pays rent to himself. Since, rent is a payment for services
rendered, even though rendered to the owner itself, it must be counted as a factor payment.
(d) Include free services provided by the owners of the production units: Owners work in their
own unit but do not charge salary. Owners provide finance but do not charge any interest.
Owners do production in their own buildings but do not charge rent. Although they do not
charge, yet the services have been performed. The imputed value of these must be included in
national income.
How To Determine National Income By Expenditure Method And Its Numericals, Steps
And Precautions:
National income determination by Expenditure method:

(a) ―Production creates income, income creates expenditure‖. If we want to calculate National
Income by this method, we have to add different final expenditures from an economy.
(b) The addition of all those final expenditure gives us the calculation near by the National
Income, i.e. GDPMP .
Components of Expenditure Method
1. Government Final Consumption Expenditure (GFCE): The expenditure made by a general
government on current expenditure on goods and services like public health, defence, law and
order, education, etc. These goods and services generate no income because it is produce by a
general government without any profit motive.
These goods and services are valued at their cost to the government as they are not sold to the
citizen and have been produced for the social welfare of the citizens. So, GFCE = Intermediate
consumption of government + Compensation of employees (wages and salaries in cash and in
154
kind) by government + Direct purchases made abroad by government (purchases made by
embassies and consulates located in foreign countries) + Consumption of fixed capital
(depreciation) – Sale of goods and services by government.
2. Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE): Private final consumption expenditure is
defined as consumption expenditure by consumer households (household final consumption
expenditure) and private NPISH (Non-profit Institution serving households) on all types of
consumer goods.
PFCE = Household final consumption expenditure + Private non-profit Institution serving
households final consumption expenditure.
The value of following items is measured for getting private final Consumption Expenditure.
(a) Purchases of currently produced goods and services in the domestic market by consumer
households and NPISH.
(b) Direct purchases made abroad by resident households are added but direct purchases in
domestic market by non-resident households and extra territorial bodies are deducted.
PFCE = Purchases of currently produced goods and services in the domestic Market by
consumer households and NPISH households + direct purchases made abroad by resident
households – direct purchases in domestic market by non¬resident households.
Note: If in the examination problem household final consumption expenditure is not given, it can
be calculated as under
Household Final Consumption Expenditure = Personal disposable income – Personal
(Household) Saving
3. Gross Domestic Capital Formation or Gross Investment or Investment Expenditure:
It refers to additions to the physical stock of capital during a period of time. It includes building
machinery, Housing construction, construction of factories, etc. It has been classified into the
following categories.
(a) Gross Domestic Fixed Capital Formation (GDFCF): It is the expenditure incurred on
purchase of fixed assets. It is of three types:
(i) Gross Business Fixed Investment: It is the amount that the business units spend on purchase
of newly produced capital goods like plant and equipments. Gross business fixed investment is
the gross amount spent on newly produced fixed capital goods. When depreciation is deducted
from it, we obtain Net Business fixed Investment.
Gross Business Fixed Investment = Net Business fixed Investment + Depreciation
(ii) Gross Residential Construction Investment: This is the amount spent on construction of flats
and residential houses. The investment is said to be gross when depreciation is not deducted
and Net when depreciation is deducted.
(iii) Gross Public Investment: This includes capital formation by government in the form of
building of roads, bridges, schools, hospitals, etc. This investment is called Gross when
depreciation is not deducted and Net when depreciation is subtracted.
(b) Change In Stock (Closing Stock – Opening Stock) Or Inventory Investment: It is the net
change in inventories of final goods, finished goods, semi-finished goods and raw material.
These are included as they represent currently produced goods, which are not included in the
current sale of final output. It is a difference between closing stock and the opening stock of the
year.
(c) Net Acquisition Of Valuables: These are those high value durable goods like gold, silver,
amtiques, etc. which are taken at market price.
GDCF = Gross domestic fixed capital formation (GDFCF) + Change in Stock (Closing Stock –
Opening Stock) + Net acquisition of valuables
Or
GDCF = Gross Business Fixed Investment + Gross Residential Construction +
Gross Public Investment + Inventory Investment + Net Acquisition of Valuables
155
4. Net Export (Export – Import): It shows the difference between Domestic spending
on foreign goods (i.e., imports) and foreign spending on domestic goods (i.e., exports).
Thus, the difference between exports and imports of a country is called Net Exports.
Net Exports = Export – Import
GDPMP = Government final consumption expenditure + Private final consumption expenditure
+ Gross domestic capital formation + Net export
Numerical Problems on Expenditure Method
Value Added
Value of output – Intermediate consumption
*Value of output = sales + change in stock
*Change in stock = closing stock – opening stock
Value Added Method/Product Method/Output Method By this method, the total value
of all the final goods and services produced in an economy during a given time period
are estimated to obtain the value of domestic income.
10. Computation of National Income (By Value Added Method)
11. Precautions While Using Value Added Method

(i) The value of intermediate goods should not be included.
(ii) Purchase and sale of second hand goods should not be included.
(iii) Imputed value of self-consumed goods should be included, but self-consumed
services should not be included.
(iv) Own account production should be included.
(v) Commission earned on account of sale and purchase of second hand goods is
included.
(vi) If sales are given, then exports are not included separately.
(vii) If intermediate purchases are given, then imports are not included.
156
Previous Years Examination Questions
3 Marks Questions
1. Calculate sales from the following data (All India 2013)
2. Calculate sales from the following data (Delhi 2013)
157
4. Calculate Gross Value Added at Factor Cost (Delhi 2012)
158
5. Calculate Net Value Added at Factor Cost (Delhi 2012)
6. Find Net Value Added at Market Price (Delhi 2012)
159
7. Find Net Value Added at Market Price (All India 2012)
8. Find Gross Value Added at Factor Cost (All India 2012)
160
9. From the following data calculate Net Value Added at Factor
Cost
(Delhi 2011)
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Value of Output (Sales + Change in
Stock)-Purchase of
Intermediate Goods – Consumption of Fixed Capital – Indirect Taxes
= 3500 + 50 – 2000 – 500 – 350
= 3550-2850 = Rs. 700 crore
10. From the following data calculate Net Value Added at Factor Cost
(All India
2011)
161
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Sales + Change in Stock (Closing
Stock- Opening Stock)- Purchase of Intermediate Goods – Consumption of Fixed
Capital – Indirect Tax
= 500+ (80-60)-350-90-50
= 520-490 = Rs. 30 crore
Cost
(Delhi 2011 c)
Stock) – Purchase of Intermediate Goods – Depreciation – Net Indirect Taxes
= 750+ (-30)-500-60-100
= 750 – 690 = Rs. 60 crore
12. Calculate value of output from the following data (Delhi 2008)
162
Ans. Value of Output = Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) + Depreciation
+ (Excise Duty – Subsidy) + Intermediate Consumption
= 100+10+ (20-5) + 75
= 185+15
= Rs. 200 crore
13. Calculate intermediate consumption from the following data
(Delhi 2008)
Ans. Intermediate Consumption = Value of Output – Net Value Added

at Factor Cost (NVAFc)+ Depreciation + (Sales Tax-Subsidy)
= 200-[80+ 20+ (15 -5)]
= Rs. 90 lakh
Ans. Sales = Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC)+ Intermediate Consumption –
Change in Stock+ Indirect Tax + Depreciation
= 300+ 200-(-50)+ 20+ 30
= Rs. 600 lakh
15.Calculate Net Value Added at Factor Cost from the following data
(All India
2008)
163
Stock) – Intermediate Cost- Depreciation – Net Indirect Tax
= [140+ (-10)]-90-20-(-5)
= 140-110 + 5
= 30 + 5 = Rs. 35 lakh
16. Calculate Gross Value Added at Factor Cost from the following data
(All India
2008)
Ans. Gross Value Added at Factor Cost (GVAFC) = Value of Output (Sales + Change in
Stock)- Purchase of Raw Materials – Indirect Tax (Sales Tax + Excise Duty)
= [400+ (-40)]-250-(20+ 30)
= 400 – 340 = Rs. 60 lakh
(All India
2008)
164
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Value of output (Sales + Change in
Stock) – Purchase of Raw Materials – Consumption of Fixed Capital + Subsidies
= [700 + (-30)] – 400 -20 + 50
= 750-450 = Rs. 300 lakh
18. From the following information about firm X, calculate Net Value Added at
Factor Cost (Delhi 2008 C)
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Value of Output [Sales + Change in
Stock (Closing Stock – Opening Stock)] – Purchase of Raw Material – Depreciation
(Gross Capital Formation – Net Capital Formation) + Subsidies
= [800 + (40 – 50)] – 500 – [200 -180] + 60
= 790-500-20+60
= 850-520
= Rs. 330 lakh
Cost (
Delhi 2008 C)
165
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Sales + Change in Stock – Purchase
of Raw Materials- Consumption of Fixed Capital + Subsidies
= 500 + (-20) – 250 -40 + 30
= 530-310
= Rs. 220 lakh
4 Marks Questions
20.Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated in estimating

National Income (Delhi 2012)
(i) Expenditure on fertilisers by a farmer.
(ii) Purchase of tractor by a farmer
Ans. (i) Expenditure on fertilisers by a farmer is ‗not included‘ in the estimation of

National Income as it is an intermediate consumption as fertilisers are meant for further
production.
(ii) Purchase of a tractor by a farmer is included in the estimation of National Income as
it is capital formation or investment expenditure.
21.Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated in the estimation
of National Income (Delhi 2012)
(i) Payment of bonus by a firm.
(ii) Payment of interest on loan taken by an employee from the employer.
Ans. (i) Payment of bonus by a firm is not Included in the estimation of National Income
as it is not a part of factor income.
(ii) Payment of interest on loan taken by an employee from the employer will ‗not‘ be
included in the estimation of National Income as it will be treated as transfer income,
also loan is taken for consumption purpose.
22. Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated in estimation
of National Income (Delhi 2012)
(Interest paid by banks on deposits by individuals.
(ii) National debt interest.
166
Ans. (i) Interest paid by banks on deposits by individuals should be included in
estimation of National Income as it will be treated as factor income.
(ii) National debt interest should ‗not‘ be included in estimation of National Income as it
is assumed that government borrows for consumption and hence, it is treated as
transfer income.
23.Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated while

estimating National Income (All India 2012)
(i) Expenditure on free services provided by government.
(ii) Payment of interest by a government firm.
Ans. (i) Expenditure on free services provided by government should be Included‘ in the
estimation of National Income, as it is a final expenditure of the government.
(ii) Payment of interest by a government firm should ‗not‘ be included in the estimation
of National Income, as it is a transfer payment.
24.How should the following be treated while estimating National Income?

Give reasons. (All India 2012)
(i) Expenditure on education of children by a family.
(ii) Payment of electricity bill by a school.
Ans. (i) Expenditure on education of children by a family is ‗included‘ in the estimation

of National Income as it is a part of final consumption expenditure by the household.
(ii) Payment of electricity bill by a school is ‗included‘ in the estimation of National
Income as it is a part of final consumption expenditure.
25. Giving reason, explain the treatment assigned to the following while
(i) Family members working free on the farm owned by the family.
(ii) Payment of interest on borrowings by general government.
Ans. (i) Family members working free on the farm owned by the family should included‘
as it is a part of mixed income.
(ii) Payment of interest on borrowings by general government should ‗not‘ be included in
the estimation of National Income as it is not mentioned and not clear whether the
government has borrowed for consumption or production.
26.Giving reason, explain the treatment assigned to the following while

(i) Social security contributions by employees.
(ii) Pension paid after retirement.
Ans. (i) Social security contributions by employees is ‗included‘ in the estimation of

National Income, as it is a part of compensation of employees and it is an earned
income.
167
(ii) Pension paid after retirement is ‗not‘ included in the estimation of National Income as
it is a kind of deffered payment to employees.
27.Giving reason, explain how are the following be treated in estimation of

National Income by income method (All India 2010)
(i) Interest paid by banks on deposits.
Ans. (i) Interest paid by banks on deposits will be ‗included‘ while estimating National
Income by income method, as it is an income earned by depositors and bank uses
these deposits for commercial purposes.
(ii) National debt interest will ‗not be included‘ while estimating National Income by
income method, as the government takes loan for both productive and non-productive
activities.
28.Giving reason, explain how are the following treated in estimating

National Income method (Delhi 2010 c)
(i)Interest on a car loan paid by an individual.
(ii) Interest on a car loan paid by a government owned company.
Ans. (i) Interest on a car loan paid by an individual should not be ‗included‘ while
estimating National Income as the loan is taken for consumption purpose.
(ii) Interest on a car loan paid by a government owned company should included while
estimating National Income as it is a part of government final consumption expenditure.
6 Marks Questions
29. Calculate Net Domestic Product at Factor Cost and Net National
Disposable Income from the following (Delhi 2014)
168
30. Giving reason explain how should the following be treated in estimating
Gross Domestic Product at Market Price ? (Delhi 2014)
(i) Fees to a mechanic paid by a firm.
(ii) Interest paid by an individual on a car loan taken from a bank.
(iii) Expenditure on purchasing a car for use by a firm
Ans. (i) it is included in the GDPMP, as it is a part of government final consumption

expenditure.
(ii) It is not included in the estimation of GDPMP because loans are not used for
production purpose.
(iii) It is included in the estimation of GDPMP because it is a part of final expenditure by a
firm.
31. Calculate Net National Product at Factor Cost and private income from the
following (Delhi 2014)
169
32. Calculate National Income and Net National Disposable Income from the
following (All India 2014)
Ans. (a) National Income (NNPFc)= Private Final Consumption Expenditure +

Government Final Consumption Expenditure + Gross Domestic Fixed Capital Formation
+ Net Change in Stocks – Net Imports – Depreciation – Net Indirect Tax – Net Factor
Income to Abroad
= 500 + 100 +200 +50-40-70- 120- (- 10)
= 860 – 230
=Rs. 630 arab
(b) Net National Disposable Income (NNDI)

= NNPFc + Net Indirect Tax – Net Current transfer to Abroad
= 630 + 120 – 30 = Rs. 720 arab
33. Calculate Net National Product at Market Price and Gross National Disposable
Income from the following: ( All India 2014)
170
34. How should the following be treated in estimating National Income of a
country?
You must give reason for your answer.
(i) Taking care of aged parents
(ii) Payment of corporate tax
(iii) Expenditure on providing police services by the government
Ans. (i) It is not included in the estimation of National Income as it does not involve any
production of goods and services.
(ii) It is included in the estimation of National Income as it is a part of profit.
(iii) It is included in the estimation of National Income as it is a part of government final
consumption expenditure.
35. Calculate National Income: (Compartment 2014)
Ans. National Income (NNPFC)
= Government Final Consumption Expenditure + Private Final Consumption

Expenditure + Net Domestic Capital Formation + Net Exports – NIT + NFIA
= 300 + 600 +150 + 50-90 + (-20)
= Rs. 990 crore
171
36. How should the following be treated while estimating National
Income? (Foreign 2014)
You must give reason in support of your answer.
(i) Bonus paid to employees.
(ii) Addition to stocks during a year.
(iii) Purchase of taxi by a taxi driver.
Ans. (i) No, it is not included while estimation of National Income as it is not a factor
income.
(ii) Yes, it is included while estimation of National Income as it is considered as a
change in stock during the year.
(iii) Yes, it is included while estimation of National Income as it is an investment
expenditure by the producer.
37. Calculate National Income from the following data (Delhi 2013)
Ans. National Income (NNPFC)
= Private Final Consumption Expenditure + Government Final Consumption

Expenditure + Gross Domestic Capital Formation – Net Imports – Net Indirect Taxes –
Consumption of Fixed Capital + Net Factor Income from Abroad
= 900 + 400 + 250-30-100-20 + (-40)
= 1550 – 190 = Rs. 1360 crore
38. Calculate Gross National Product at Market Price from the following
data (All India 2013)
172
Ans. Net Domestic Product at Factor Cost(NDPFC) = Compensation of Employees +
Interest + Rent+ Profits + Mixed Income of Self Employed
= 2000 + 500 + 700 + 800 + 1500
= Rs. 5500 crore
Gross National Product at Market Price (GNPmp) = NDPFC + Net Indirect Taxes – Net
Factor
Income to Abroad + Consumption of Fixed Capital
= 5500 + 250- 150 + 100 = 5850- 150
= Rs. 5700 crore
Value Added Method/Product Method/Output Method By this method, the

total value of all the final goods and services produced in an economy during a given
time period are estimated to obtain the value of domestic income.
10. Computation of National Income (By Value Added Method)
11. Precautions While Using Value Added Method

(i) The value of intermediate goods should not be included.
173
(ii) Purchase and sale of second hand goods should not be included.
(iii) Imputed value of self-consumed goods should be included, but self-consumed
services should not be included.
(iv) Own account production should be included.
(v) Commission earned on account of sale and purchase of second hand goods is
included.
(vi) If sales are given, then exports are not included separately.
(vii) If intermediate purchases are given, then imports are not included.
Previous Years Examination Questions
3 Marks Questions
1. Calculate sales from the following data (All India 2013)
174
4. Calculate Gross Value Added at Factor Cost (Delhi 2012)
175
5. Calculate Net Value Added at Factor Cost (Delhi 2012)
176
6. Find Net Value Added at Market Price (Delhi 2012)
177
7. Find Net Value Added at Market Price (All India 2012)
8. Find Gross Value Added at Factor Cost (All India 2012)
178
Stock)-Purchase of
Intermediate Goods – Consumption of Fixed Capital – Indirect Taxes
= 3500 + 50 – 2000 – 500 – 350
= 3550-2850 = Rs. 700 crore
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Sales + Change in Stock (Closing
Stock- Opening Stock)- Purchase of Intermediate Goods – Consumption of Fixed
Capital – Indirect Tax
= 500+ (80-60)-350-90-50
= 520-490 = Rs. 30 crore
179
Stock) – Purchase of Intermediate Goods – Depreciation – Net Indirect Taxes
= 750+ (-30)-500-60-100
= 750 – 690 = Rs. 60 crore
12. Calculate value of output from the following data
Ans. Value of Output = Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) + Depreciation
+ (Excise Duty – Subsidy) + Intermediate Consumption
= 100+10+ (20-5) + 75
= 185+15
= Rs. 200 crore
13. Calculate intermediate consumption from the following data
Ans. Intermediate Consumption = Value of Output – Net Value Added

at Factor Cost (NVAFc)+ Depreciation + (Sales Tax-Subsidy)
= 200-[80+ 20+ (15 -5)]
= Rs. 90 lakh
180
14. Calculate sales from the following data
Ans. Sales = Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC)+ Intermediate Consumption –
Change in Stock+ Indirect Tax + Depreciation
= 300+ 200-(-50)+ 20+ 30
= Rs. 600 lakh
Stock) – Intermediate Cost- Depreciation – Net Indirect Tax
= [140+ (-10)]-90-20-(-5)
= 140-110 + 5
= 30 + 5 = Rs. 35 lakh
16. Calculate Gross Value Added at Factor Cost from the following data
181
Ans. Gross Value Added at Factor Cost (GVAFC) = Value of Output (Sales + Change in
Stock)- Purchase of Raw Materials – Indirect Tax (Sales Tax + Excise Duty)
= [400+ (-40)]-250-(20+ 30)
= 400 – 340 = Rs. 60 lakh
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Value of output (Sales + Change in
Stock) – Purchase of Raw Materials – Consumption of Fixed Capital + Subsidies
= [700 + (-30)] – 400 -20 + 50
= 750-450 = Rs. 300 lakh
18. From the following information about firm X, calculate Net Value Added at
Factor Cost
182
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Value of Output [Sales + Change in
Stock (Closing Stock – Opening Stock)] – Purchase of Raw Material – Depreciation
(Gross Capital Formation – Net Capital Formation) + Subsidies
= [800 + (40 – 50)] – 500 – [200 -180] + 60
= 790-500-20+60
= 850-520
= Rs. 330 lakh
Ans. Net Value Added at Factor Cost (NVAFC) = Sales + Change in Stock – Purchase of
Raw Materials- Consumption of Fixed Capital + Subsidies
= 500 + (-20) – 250 -40 + 30
= 530-310
= Rs. 220 lakh
4 Marks Questions
20.Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated in estimating

National Income
(i) Expenditure on fertilisers by a farmer.

(ii) Purchase of tractor by a farmer
183
Ans. (i) Expenditure on fertilisers by a farmer is ‗not included‘ in the estimation of
National Income as it is an intermediate consumption as fertilisers are meant for further
production.
(ii) Purchase of a tractor by a farmer is included in the estimation of National Income as
it is capital formation or investment expenditure.
21.Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated in the estimation
of National Income
(i) Payment of bonus by a firm.
(ii) Payment of interest on loan taken by an employee from the employer.
Ans. (i) Payment of bonus by a firm is not Included in the estimation of National Income
as it is not a part of factor income.
(ii) Payment of interest on loan taken by an employee from the employer will ‗not‘ be
included in the estimation of National Income as it will be treated as transfer income,
also loan is taken for consumption purpose.
22. Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated in estimation
of National Income
(Interest paid by banks on deposits by individuals.

Ans. (i) Interest paid by banks on deposits by individuals should be included in

estimation of National Income as it will be treated as factor income.
(ii) National debt interest should ‗not‘ be included in estimation of National Income as it
is assumed that government borrows for consumption and hence, it is treated as
transfer income.
23.Giving reason, explain how should the following be treated while

estimating National Income
(i) Expenditure on free services provided by government.
(ii) Payment of interest by a government firm.
Ans. (i) Expenditure on free services provided by government should be Included‘ in the
estimation of National Income, as it is a final expenditure of the government.
(ii) Payment of interest by a government firm should ‗not‘ be included in the estimation
of National Income, as it is a transfer payment.
24.How should the following be treated while estimating National Income?

Give reasons.
184
(i) Expenditure on education of children by a family.
(ii) Payment of electricity bill by a school.
Ans. (i) Expenditure on education of children by a family is ‗included‘ in the estimation

of National Income as it is a part of final consumption expenditure by the household.
(ii) Payment of electricity bill by a school is ‗included‘ in the estimation of National
Income as it is a part of final consumption expenditure.
25. Giving reason, explain the treatment assigned to the following while
(i) Family members working free on the farm owned by the family.
(ii) Payment of interest on borrowings by general government.
Ans. (i) Family members working free on the farm owned by the family should included‘
as it is a part of mixed income.
(ii) Payment of interest on borrowings by general government should ‗not‘ be included in
the estimation of National Income as it is not mentioned and not clear whether the
government has borrowed for consumption or production.
26.Giving reason, explain the treatment assigned to the following while

(i) Social security contributions by employees.
(ii) Pension paid after retirement.
Ans. (i) Social security contributions by employees is ‗included‘ in the estimation of

National Income, as it is a part of compensation of employees and it is an earned
income.
(ii) Pension paid after retirement is ‗not‘ included in the estimation of National Income as
it is a kind of deffered payment to employees.
27.Giving reason, explain how are the following be treated in estimation of

National Income by income method (All India 2010)
(i) Interest paid by banks on deposits.
Ans. (i) Interest paid by banks on deposits will be ‗included‘ while estimating National
Income by income method, as it is an income earned by depositors and bank uses
these deposits for commercial purposes.
(ii) National debt interest will ‗not be included‘ while estimating National Income by
income method, as the government takes loan for both productive and non-productive
activities.
185
28.Giving reason, explain how are the following treated in estimating
National Income method
(i)Interest on a car loan paid by an individual.

(ii) Interest on a car loan paid by a government owned company.
Ans. (i) Interest on a car loan paid by an individual should not be ‗included‘ while
estimating National Income as the loan is taken for consumption purpose.
(ii) Interest on a car loan paid by a government owned company should included while
estimating National Income as it is a part of government final consumption expenditure.
*****
186
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - ACCOUNTANCY (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
CHAPTER 2 (PART B) : ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Meaning of Financial Statement Analysis: The process of critical examination of the

financial information contained in the financial statements in order to understand and
make decisions regarding the operations of the firm is called the ‗Financial Statement
Analysis‘.
Basically, it is a study of the relationship among various financial facts and figures as
given in a set of financial statements.
→ ―Financial statement analysis is designed to indicate the strength and weaknesses of

business undertaking through the establishment of certain crucial relationship by
regrouping and analysis of figures contained in financial statements.‖ —J.N. Myres
→ ―Financial statement analysis is a judgemental process which aims to estimate

current and past financial position and the results of the operations of enterprises with
the primary objective of determining the best possible estimated and predictions about
future conditions.‖ —Bernstein
Thus, Analysis of Financial Statements is the process of identifying the financial

strengths and weaknesses of the firm by properly establishing a relationship between
the items of the Balance Sheet and Income Statement.
The term ‗Financial Analysis‘ includes both ‗analysis and interpretation‘. The term
analysis means simplification of financial data by the methodical classification given in
the financial statements. Interpretation means explaining the meaning and significance
of the data so simplified.
187
Significance of Financial Analysis: As we know that Financial Analysis is the process of
identifying the financial strengths and weaknesses of the firm by properly establishing
relationships between the items of the Balance Sheet and the Profit and Loss Account.
It can be undertaken by the management of the firm, or by parties outside the firm like
Creditors, Lenders, Investors, Unions, etc. The nature and technique used for analysis
will differ depending on the interests of the analysis.
Financial Analysis is useful and significant to different users in the following way:
1. To The Finance Manager: Financial Analysis focuses on the facts and relationships
related to managerial performance, corporate efficiency, financial strengths and
weaknesses, and credit worthiness of the company. The Finance Manager has to make
rational decisions for the firm, so he must be well equipped with the different tools for
analysis. These tools help him in studying accounting data, so as to determine the
continuity of the operating policies, the investment value of the business.
Credit rating and testing the efficiency of operations. The technique is equally important
in the area of financial control, enabling the Finance Manager to make constant reviews
of the actual financial operations of the firm as a whole and in part, to analyze the cause
of major deviations, which result in corrective action wherever indicated.
2. To The Management: It is the responsibility of the management to see that the

resources of the firm are used most efficiently and that the firm‘s financial condition is
sound.
Financial analysis helps the management in measuring the success or otherwise of the
company‘s operations, appraising the individual‘s performance, and evaluating the
system of internal control.
3. To The Trade Creditors: Trade Creditors are particularly interested in the firm‘s ability
to meet their claims over a very short period of time. Their analysis will, therefore,
confine to the evaluation of the firm‘s liquidity position.
4. To The Lenders: Lenders are mainly concerned with the firm‘s long-term solvency
and survival. They analyze the firm‘s profitability over time, its ability to generate cash to
be able to pay interest and repay principal, and the relationship between various
sources of funds. They do analyze the historical financial statements as well as
projected financial statements to make an analysis about its future solvency and
profitability.
5. To The Investors: Investors who invested their money in the firm‘s shares, are
interested to know about the firm‘s earnings. They mainly concentrate on the analysis of
the firm‘s present and future profitability. The investors evaluate the efficiency of the
188
management and determine whether a change is needed or not. In large companies,
the shareholder‘s interest is limited to decide whether to buy, sell or hold the shares.
6. To The Labour Unions: They analyze the Financial Statements to assess whether the
company is earning a fair rate of return on invested capital, whether it can presently
afford a wage increase and whether it can absorb a wage increase through increased
productivity or by rising the prices.
7. To the Economists, Government, etc.: The economists, researchers analyze the

Financial Statements to study the present business and economic conditions. The
Government agencies need financial analysis for price regulations, tax fixation, and
another similar purpose.
Purpose or Objectives of Financial Statement Analysis:
Financial Statement Analysis reveals important facts and relationships concerning the
managerial performance and the efficiency of the firms. The main objectives of the
analysis are to understand the information contained in financial statements with a view
to knowing the weaknesses and strengths of the firms and making a forecast about the
future prospects of the firm and thereby enabling the financial analysis to take different
decisions regarding the operations of the firm.
The following are generally considered to be the objectives of analysis:
1. To find out the financial stability and soundness of the business enterprises.
2. To assess and evaluate the earning capacity of the business.
3. To estimate and evaluate the Fixed Assets, Stock, etc. of the concern.
4. To estimate and determine the possibilities of future growth of the business.
5. To assess and evaluate the firm‘s capacity and ability to repay short-term and
long-term loans.
6. To evaluate the administrative efficiency of the business enterprises.
Tools of Financial Analysis.
1. Comparative Statement Analysis.

2. Common Size Statement Analysis.
3. Trend Analysis.
4. Ratio Analysis.
5. Cash Flow Analysis.
1. Comparative Statement Analysis: Comparative statements compares financial

numbers at two points of time and helps in deriving meaningful conclusions regarding
the changes in financial positions and operating results and to enable the reader to
understand the significance of such changes.
189
Such comparison of Financial Statements is accomplished by setting up a Balance
Sheet and Profit and Loss Account side by side and studying the changes that have
occurred in the individual figure therein from year to year and over the years. Thus,
Comparative Statements are those which summarise and present relating data for a
number of years incorporating therein the changes in individuals items of Financial
Statements. This analysis is also known as Florizontal Analysis.
2. Common Size Statement Analysis: These Statements indicate the relationship of

different items of Financial Statements with some common item by expressing each
item as a percentage of the common item. The percent thus calculated can be easily
compared with the corresponding percentages of some other firms, as the number is
brought to a common base. This analysis is also known as ‗Vertical Analysis‘.
3. Trend Analysis: It is a technique of studying several Financial Statements over a

series of years. Using the previous years‘ data of a business enterprise, trend analysis
can be done to observe the percentage changes over time in the selected data. Trend
analysis is important because, with its long-run view, it may point to basic changes in
the nature of the business. By looking at a trend in a particular ratio, one may find
whether the ratio is falling, rising, or remaining relatively constant.
4. Ratio Analysis: Accounting ratios measure the comparative significance of the

individual items of the income and position statements. It is possible to assess the
profitability, solvency, and efficiency of an enterprise through the techniques of ratio
analysis.
5. Cash Flow Analysis: It refers to the analysis of the actual movement of cash in and
out of an organization. Cash Flow Statements is prepared to project the manner in
which the cash received has been utilized during an accounting year. It is a statement,
which shows the sources of cash receipts and also the purposes for which payments
are made. Thus, it summarises the causes for the changes in the cash position of a
business enterprise between the dates of two Balance Sheets.
Comparative Financial Statements Analysis: Financial Statements include Income

Statements (Trading and Profit and Loss A/c) and Position Statement (Balance Sheet).
The study of financial statements with a view to indicating the trend of the profitability,
efficiency, and financial soundness of the business is known as a comparison of
financial statements.
Purpose:
1. To study the magnitude and direction of changes in the financial position and
performance of the enterprise.
2. To ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise in terms of liquidity,
solvency, and profitability.
190
Importance:
1. Inter-period and/or inter-firm comparisons are very much facilitated by such

comparative statements. t
2. With the help of Comparative Statements, weakness in the operating cycle,
financial health, etc. can be identified and suitable remedial steps may be taken.
3. These statements highlight the trends in a number of accounting data relating to
performance, efficiency, and financial position which are useful for future
estimates.
4. The Profit and Loss A/c of a business show the result of operation while a
Comparative Balance Sheet shows the effect of operations on its assets and
liabilities. Thus, the Comparative Balance Sheet contains a connecting link
between Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss A/c.
Comparative Balance Sheet: In the comparative balance sheet, the items and data of
balance sheets prepared at two different dates are presented in such a way that the
changes in each item between two dates are easily found out and determined.
→ ―Comparative balance sheet is the study of the trend of the same item, group of
items and computed items in two or more balance sheets of the same business
enterprise on different dates.‖—Prof. Foulkes.
Comparative Profit and Loss Account: A comparative income statement is prepared

to show the net profit or loss for a number of years in comparative form. A comparative
study of Income Statements for more than one period may enable us to have definite
knowledge about the progress of the business concern.
Steps:
The following steps may be followed to prepare the comparative statements:
1. Draw a table with the five columns like;
Comparative Statement
2. List out absolute figures in rupees at two different points of time.

3. Find out the change in absolute figures by subtracting the first year from the second
year and indicate the change as an increase (+) or decrease (-).
191
4. Calculate the Percentage change.
Common-Size Financial Statement Analysis: Common-Size Statement also known

as a component percentage statement, is a financial tool for studying the key changes
and trends in the financial position (Balance Sheet) and financial result (Profit and Loss
A/c) of a company.
These figures reported are converted into percentages of some common base. For
example, total assets may be chosen as a measured size for the Balance Sheet and
sales may act as a measured size for Profit and Loss A/c.
These statements are known as common size statements because all the figures are
converted into a common size.
Purpose: An analysis of the common size statement will help better to understand the
important changes which have occurred in the enterprise over a period of time. This
analysis constitutes a vertical study within one column of the comparative statement
therefore, it is also called vertical analysis.
Importance: An analysis of common size statement is of immense use which comparing

business enterprise which differs substantially in size as it provides an insight into the
structure of financial statements.
Common Size Balance Sheet

In Common Size Balance Sheet, each item of assets is shown as a percentage of total
assets and each item of liability is shown as a percentage of total liabilities. The total of
the assets and that of liabilities is taken as 100 percent and each item, appearing on the
assets side as well as liabilities side is shown as the proportion of the total of 100. It is
known as the Percentage Balance Sheet.
Common Size Income Statement: Income Statements are reduced to common size by
expressing each item as a percentage of net sales. Thus the common size Income
Statement captures the relationship between sales and expenses.
Steps:
The following steps may be followed to prepare the common size statements:
1. Draw a table with the five columns.
Common Size Statements
192
2. List out absolute figures in rupees at two different points in time.
3. Choose a common base (as 100) for example, Sales revenue total may be taken as a
base (100) in case of Profit and Loss A/c and total assets or total liabilities (100) in case
of Balance Sheet.
4. Convert all items of Col. 2 and Col. 4 as a percentage of that total. Columns 3 and 5
portray these percentages.
The purpose of the common-size analysis is to know the importance of each item in the
total. Hence, this analysis can be done for one year also.
Trend Analysis: The Financial Statements may be analyzed by computing trends

emeries of information. Trend analysis determines the direction upwards or downwards
and involves the computation of the percentage relationship that each item bears to the
same item in the base year. In Trend Analysis, we would like to know the behavior of
some item over the period, say during the last 5 years.
In other words, Comparative and Common Size Statements present the percentage of
each item to the total sum. These percentages could be calculated for a number of
successive years in order to understand the trend of the Financial Statement item and
this analysis is called trend analysis.
The trend in general term signifies a Tendency. The review and appraisal of tendency in
accounting data are nothing but trend analysis. It discloses the change in the financial
and operating data between specific period and makes possible for the analyst to form
an opinion as to whether favorable or unfavorable tendencies are reflected by the
accounting data.
Purpose and Importance:

1. It helps in future forecasts of various items as the basis of data of the previous year.
2. In this method, mass complex accounting data are converted into % and presented in
brief, so the direction of the business can be easily detected.
3. There is less chance of mistakes because changes in percentages can be compared
to changes in absolute data.
4. It is a very easy method to calculate that even a layman can also use this method.
193
Procedure: Generally, the first or the last year is taken as the base year. The figure for
the base year is taken as 100. The trend percentages are calculated in relation to this
base year. Each year‘s figure is divided by the base year figure.
Trend Percentage = Present year value Base year value × 100
The base period should be carefully selected. The accounting procedures and
conventions used for collecting data and preparation of Financial Statements should be
similar, otherwise, the figures will not be compared.
Limitations of Financial Analysis

Though financial analysis is quite powerful in determining the financial strengths and
weaknesses of a firm, the analysis is based on the information available in financial
statements. As such, financial analysis also suffers from the serious limitations of
financial statements.
Some other limitations of financial analysis are:
1. It does not consider price level changes.

2. It may be misleading an account of changes in accounting procedure followed by
a firm.
3. It is just a study of interim reports.
4. Monetary information alone is considered in financial analysis while non-monetary
factors are ignored.
5. The financial statements are prepared on the basis of ongoing concepts as such,
it does not give an exact position.
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CLASS -XII
SUBJECT – BUSINESS STUDIES (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
Chapter 2 : PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Very Short Answer Questions NCERT Business Studies Solutions

1. What makes principles of management flexible?
Management principles are varied and not one rule can be applied for all cases. Thus, a
manager has to assess the situation and then determine the best solution to the issue at
hand. For this reason, management principles are flexible.
2. State the main objective of time study.
Time study was undertaken to determine a standard time that is required to complete a
designated job. This time would then be set as the standard time for the job completion.
The benefit of this process is that it will help employers to determine the number of
resources required to complete a particular job and also determine their wages.
3. Name the principle that is an extension of the ‘harmony, not discord’.
It is cooperation, not individualism which is the extension of the ‗principle harmony, not
discord‘
4. State any two causes of fatigue that may create hindrance in the employee’s
performance.
Causes of fatigue that creates hindrance in performance of employees are:
1. Not having cordial relationship with the people in superior positions
2. Long working hours at the organisation
5. Sanaklal and Gagan started their career in Wales Limited (a printing press)
after going through a rigorous recruitment process. Since they had no prior work
experience, the firm decided to give them one year to prove themselves. Name
the principle of management followed by Wales Limited.
Wales Limited followed the principle of ‗Stability of Personnel‘.
6. Which technique is used by Taylor for distinguishing efficient and inefficient

workers?
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Taylor used the system of Differential Piece Wage System under which wages for
workers was determined using a set standard. The workers who performed better were
given higher wages than workers who performed below the standard.
Short Answer Questions NCERT Business Studies Solutions
1. How is the principle of ‗Unity of Command‘ useful to management? Explain briefly.

Unity of command is a principle of management that a person should be answerable to
only one of his superiors. It states that if a person receives command from two or more
people then this principle is violated. If such a principle is violated, it creates confusion
for the employee which can lead to instability and disturbance in work flow. Therefore,
to maintain a steady workflow and uninterrupted operations in the organisation, unity of
command is essential for management.
2. Define Scientific Management. State any three of its principles.
Scientific management is a theory of management that was developed by Frederick
Taylor in 1911. It is a classical theory of management which focused on ways of getting
work done in the best way possible to increase efficiency and effectiveness in work.
Scientific management is the use of tools and techniques and personnel specialised to
carry out the task for achieving quality and cost reduction.
Here are three principles of scientific management
1. Science, not rule of thumb: In this principle Taylor laid emphasis on focusing on
following management practices that are scientific in nature, and not deciding by rule of
thumb. As per rule of thumb practice, managers will be assessing a situation and use
trial and error to find a solution. Taylor suggested that instead of using such old
methods, the approach to a situation should be scientific. Following such practice will
result in a balanced result and improves efficiency and cost.
2. Harmony, not Discord: This principle states that there should be a harmonious work
environment between the managers and workers. The more they are at good terms with
each other, more will be the performance of the organisation. The workers should feel
that they are a part of the organisation and their contributions are very much essential
for the organisation to grow. Management shall respond to the needs of the workers
and in a similar way, the workers should respond back by giving their best for the
organisation. Taylor termed this as mental revolution and suggested that it will improve
harmony and propel the resources to work towards common goals of the organisation.
3. Cooperation, not individualism: As per this principle, the managers and workers
should cooperate each other in completing the activities. The work standards should be
jointly determined by them, it will increase the level of involvement and more productive
results can be achieved.
3. If an organisation does not provide the right place for physical and human
resources in an organisation, which principle is violated? What are the
consequences of it?
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In such a situation the principle that is violated is the principle of order. It states that
there should be right arrangement of resources. In other words, the right people at the
right place and at the right time. Following this approach helps in carrying out the tasks
effortlessly. Whenever that principle is violated it results in unnecessary delay at work
and ensures chaos. Delay in completing work will result in loss for the company.
4. Explain any four points regarding significance of Principles of Management.
Principles of management have the following significance
1. Management principles are based on years of observation and implementation into
real life issues. Hence, these principles guide the managers in tackling real world
problems easily.
2. Management principles are based on logic rather than on beliefs. These principles
are derived from real life situations and therefore are based on logic and reasoning. It
helps managers in making decisions which are devoid of personal bias.
3. Principles are the foundation of management education. It helped this to grow as a
discipline and such principles also offer basis on which further research programs can
be carried out to develop new methods and techniques.
4. Management principles helps organisations to perform at the best of its capacity or in
other words, ensures optimum utilisation of the available resources.
5. Explain the principle of ‘Scalar Chain’ and gang plank.
Scalar chains can be defined as the formal chain of authority that follows a straight line
from highest to lowest rank. It specifies the route through which information needs to be
communicated to the designated authority.
Gang plank is an alternative route which is used in case of emergencies. Its main aim is
to shorten the communication route. It facilitates communication with higher authorities
directly surpassing the defined chains of hierarchy.
Diagrammatically it can be represented as:
6. A production manager at top level in a resulted corporate, Mr. Rathore holds

the responsibility for ordering raw material for the firm. While deciding on the
supplier for the financial year 2017-18, he gave the order to his cousin at a higher
price per unit instead of the firm’s usual supplier who was willing to lower the
rates for the order. Which principle of management was violated by Mr. Rathore?
What are the positive impacts of following the above identified principle?
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In this case, Mr. Rathore has violated the principle of Subordination of individual interest
to general interest. As per this principle an individual should put organisational goals on
priority over any personal interest.
The positive impacts of this principle are:
1. Harmony in working environment and a good office culture
2. Increase in employee productivity
3. Employees feel they are a part of the organisation
4. Helps in achieving organisations goals
Long Answer Questions NCERT Business Studies Solutions
1. Explain the Principles of Scientific management given by Taylor.
Scientific management is a theory of management that was developed by Frederick
Taylor in 1911. It is a classical theory of management which focused on ways of getting
work done in the best way possible to increase efficiency and effectiveness in work.
Scientific management is the use of tools and techniques and personnel specialised to
carry out the task for achieving quality and cost reduction.
Here are three principles of scientific management
1. Science, not rule of thumb: In this principle Taylor laid emphasis on focusing on
following management practices that are scientific in nature, and not deciding by rule of
thumb. As per rule of thumb practice, managers will be assessing a situation and use
trial and error to find a solution. Taylor suggested that instead of using such old
methods, the approach to a situation should be scientific. Following such practice will
result in a balanced result and improves efficiency and cost.
2. Harmony, not Discord: This principle states that there should be a harmonious work
environment between the managers and workers. The more they are at good terms with
each other, more will be the performance of the organisation. The workers should feel
that they are a part of the organisation and their contributions are very much essential
for the organisation to grow. Management shall respond to the needs of the workers
and in a similar way, the workers should respond back by giving their best for the
organisation. Taylor termed this as mental revolution and suggested that it will improve
harmony and propel the resources to work towards common goals of the organisation.
3. Cooperation, not individualism: As per this principle, the managers and workers
should cooperate each other in completing the activities. The work standards should be
jointly determined by them, it will increase the level of involvement and more productive
results can be achieved.
4. Personnel Development: An organisation has to focus on developing its workers as
well as the organisation itself. Developed or skilled workers will be in a better position to
help an organisation grow. To increase competitiveness an organisation can announce
incentives in order to build competitiveness among workers. Employees should be hired
in a scientific manner which will put the best employee suited for a role as per the
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capability. Efficiency can be achieved with proper training to workers. In other words, a
properly trained resource will develop himself as well as the organisation.
2. Explain the following Principles of management given by Fayol with examples:
(a) Unity of direction
(b) Equity
(c) Espirit de corps
(d) Order
(e) Centralisation and decentralisation
(f) Initiative
a. Unity of Direction: This principle states that each unit of the organisation should be
working towards attaining a common business objective. It helps in avoiding work
overlapping and also increases profitability. For example, a company producing two
different products should have separate management for each.
b. Equity: This principle focuses on treating all the employees equally. The equality
should be based on religion, caste, creed etc. It will promote harmony among the
workers. For e.g.: Workers from different religions should be treated equally in a
company.
c. Espirit de corps: This principle states that employees in an organisation should work
with each other and maintain unity. The team spirit is improved when all resources are
working unitedly, and this feeling should be promoted by manager.
d. Order: There should be order in the work being done. The management should hire
right people at right place and right time. Doing such things helps in carrying out the
activities in a smooth manner. For e.g. if the user manual pages are arranged in a
sequence, shuffling them will result in delay in production.
e. Centralisation and Decentralisation: Centralisation is the concentration of power or
authority in hands of selected people in an organisation. Whereas decentralisation is
shifting the authority to middle and lower levels of management. For e.g. if CEO has all
decision-making powers it is centralisation whereas if the decision-making power is
distributed to managers of middle and lower levels then it is decentralisation.
f. Initiative: As per this principle, workers should be motivated and provided incentives.
They should be encouraged to suggest points for improvement, it will make them take
more initiatives for the development of organisation.
3. Explain the technique of ‘Functional Foreman ship’ and the concept of ‘Mental
Revolution’ as enunciated by Taylor.
Functional foreman ship is a extension to the principle of division of labour. It was
suggested by Taylor. According to his observation, it is not possible for a single worker
to be expert in every aspect of production, therefore he suggested that eight persons
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should be performing the duties of a foreman and therefore this came to be known as
functional foreman ship. Under this the following roles were present.
1. Instruction Card Clerk: Whose role is to give instructions to workers
2. Route Clerk: His role was to specify the route of production
3. Time and Cost Clerk: His role was to prepare the time and costs sheet
4. Disciplinarian: His role was to maintain discipline in the production facility
The above four roles were working under the planning supervisor.
Now the other four persons who work under the production supervisor are:
1. Speed Boss: Responsible for timely completion of the designated job
2. Gang Boss: Responsible to keep machines in a ready state for work
3. Repair boss: Was responsible to keep machines and tools in proper working
condition.
4. Inspector: This person was responsible to maintain the quality of the work.
Mental revolution: Mental revolution is the concept which revolves around bringing a
change in the attitude of the workers and managers. It aims to improve the thinking of
both in order to create a working environment that is conducive to both manager and
worker. The basic premise of this concept is that both the worker and the manager
should understand their importance in a organisation and both of them should work
towards achieving a common goal for the organisation. Management should be taking
care of the needs of its workers and periodically share the benefits in form of incentives
or bonuses to keep them motivated. Workers in return should do their best in order to
develop the organisation. Thus, we can say mental revolution is based on the mutual
trust and cooperation among the managers and workers which can bring about great
changes in an organisation.
4. Discuss the following techniques of Scientific Work Study:
(a) Time Study
(b) Motion Study
(c) Fatigue Study
(d) Method Study
(e) Simplification and standardization of work.
(a) Time Study: This study determines the standard time which is required in order to
perform a job. Multiple readings are taken to arrive at a standard time for a particular
task. Based on that it following things can be determined
1. Number of workers required to perform the task
2. Determine the costs associated with hiring such workers (i.e. wages)
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(b) Motion Study: This study was based on movements that needed to be taken while
performing a task. The purpose of this study is to eliminate unwanted movements in
order to complete a task in a shorter time. For this study Taylor along with his assistant
Frank Gilbreth studied the movements of a worker and then categorised the same into
three classes productive, incidental and unproductive. The purpose was to eliminate the
unproductive employee and reduce instances of incidental workers.
(c) Fatigue Study: Fatigue study was for determining the amount and frequency of rest
taken during the completion of a designated task. A worker without rest will be unable to
perform to his full capacity. Fatigue is detrimental to productivity hence this study is
conducted to understand the standard intervals of break that help a worker regain the
energy to carry on working with same efficiency.
(d) Method Study: The objective of this study is to find the best method of completing a
particular work. It takes into consideration all the activities involved in the completion of
a task. By determining the best method lower costs can be incurred along with more
productivity.
(e) Standardisation and Simplification of Work: Standardisation is based on the scientific
management techniques. It is the setting of standards or benchmarks for any activity.
The purpose of standardisation is to improve the quality of work and attain excellence. It
also determines standards of performance for both man and machines.
Simplification is all about eliminating the diversity in the products that are unnecessary
and utilizing the best of the resources, reducing the inventories and increasing turnover
of the organisation. In addition to reducing labour and machine cost. Simplification helps
in optimum uses of the resources and removes unnecessary costs for the organisation.
5. Discuss the differences between the contributions of Taylor and Fayol.
Basis of Taylor’s Contributions Fayol’s Contributions

Comparison
Contribution It was conceptualised by Frederick Taylor It was conceptualised by Henry

in 1911. Fayol in 1916
Concept Scientific theory of management It is a general theory of

administration
Personality Taylor was a practicing mechanical Fayol was working as a mining

engineer engineer.
Principles and Techniques like functional foremanship Principles of management such as

Techniques and scientific management were equity, espirit de corps etc were
introduced along with the different studies introduced by Henry Fayol in his
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such as motion study, time study etc. theory of 14 principles of
were introduced by Taylor management
Application of Principles suggested by Taylor are Principles suggested by Fayol are

Principles applicable in specialised situations universal in their applicability
Emphasis and Emphasis was on low level management Emphasis was on top level
Focus management
Approach The approach is that of an engineer The approach is that of a manager
6. Discuss the relevance of Taylor and Fayol’s contribution in the contemporary

business environment.
Principles of both Fayol and Taylor play a significant role in contemporary business
environment. These principles provide a guideline to managers for making decisions
and taking appropriate actions. Business situations can be best understood with the
application of these principles. Such principles are not used as it is described but
managers can take guidance from these and determine how to confront a situation. It
can be used in various scenarios and the decisions which are taken by managers will
be backed by facts and logic which makes it more applicable. By providing insight into
real word business cases they help managers in decision making. As these principles
have industry wide applicability and being based on human behaviour provides insight
between human and material resources. It helps in development of an organisation by
improving effectiveness and efficiency with minimum use of resources and cost.
7. ‘Bhasin’ limited was engaged in the business of food processing and selling its
products under a popular brand. Lately the business was expanding due to good
quality and reasonable prices. Also with more people working the market for
processed food was increasing. New players were also coming to cash in on the
new trend. In order to keep its market share in the short run the company directed
its existing workforce to work overtime. But this resulted in many problems. Due
to increased pressure of work the efficiency of the workers declined.
Sometimes the subordinates had to work for more than one superior resulting in
declining efficiency. The divisions that were previously working on one product were
also made to work on two or more products. This resulted in a lot of overlapping and
wastage. The workers were becoming undisciplined. The spirit of teamwork, which had
characterised the company, previously was beginning to wane. Workers were feeling
cheated and initiative was declining. The quality of the products was beginning to
decline and market share was on the verge of decrease.
Actually the company had implemented changes without creating the required
infrastructure.
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a. Identify the Principles of Management (out of 14 given by Henry Fayol) that were
being violated by the company.
b. Explain these principles in brief.
c. What steps should the company management take in relation to the above principles
to restore the company to its past glory?
1. Following principles of management were violated:
i. Unity of Command (employees working under more than one superior)
ii. Division of Work (employees made to work on more than one product)
iii. Discipline (workers not following discipline)
iv. Espirit de corps (workers lacked spirit of team work)
v. Initiative (workers were not feeling like taking initiative)
2. The principles are described below
a. Unity of command: The workers should be reporting to only one superior. Employee
receiving orders from more than one superior will result in confusion and affect work.
b. Division of work: Employees should be given specialised tasks so that it will be
completed effectively and efficiently.
c. Discipline: Organisation should be following rules and regulations and it should be
followed by both worker and management.
d. Espirit de corps: The team work motive should be developed among employees. It
will improve productivity.
e. Initiative: Motivation and incentive should be provided to workers and they should be
encouraged to provide suggestions for improvement.
3. Steps which can be taken by company are:
i. Scientific management should be applied.
ii. Only one superior should be there to provide instruction to subordinates in order for
smooth functioning.
iii. Individuals must be assigned tasks as per their specialisation. It increases
productivity.
iv. Motivation and proper incentives should be provided to workers
v. Team work and coordination among workers should be promoted for organisational
development.
8. (Further information related to the above question 7) The management of
company ‘Bhasin Limited now realised its folly. In order to rectify the situation, it
appointed a management consultant ‘Mukti Consultants- to recommend a
restructure plan to bring the company back on the rails. ‘Mukti Consultants
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undertook a study of the production process at the plant of the company Bhasin
Limited and recommended the following changes —
• The company should introduce scientific management with regard to
production.
• Production Planning including routing, scheduling, dispatching and feedback
should be implemented.
• In order to separate planning from operational management ‘Functional
foremanship’ should be introduced.
• ‘Work study’ should be undertaken to optimise the use of resources.
• ‘Standardisation’ of all activities should be implemented to increase efficiency
and accountability.
• To motivate the workers ‘Differential Piece Rate System’ should be
implemented.
(The above changes should be introduced apart from the steps recommended as
an answer to Part c – case problem 7 above.).
It was expected that the changes will bring about a radical transformation in the working
of the company and it will regain its pristine glory.
a. Do you think that introduction of scientific management as recommended by
Mukti consultants will result in intended outcome?
b. What precautions should the company undertake to implement the changes?
c. Give your answer with regard to each technique separately as enunciated in
points 1 through 6 in the case problem.
1. Yes, as suggested by the new management consultant i.e. Mukti Consultants
scientific management techniques will be helpful for the organisation. It will improve the
quality and quantity of the product with reduction in costs.
2. Following precaution need to be taken:
a. Specialised staff having training should be recruited and existing staff can be further
trained.
b. Production planning should be undertaken with in a systematic way
c. Functional foremanship should be introduced with proper incentive and motivation for
the employees.
d. Different other methods should be introduced apart from work study. It can be motion
study, method study, time and fatigue study.
e. Standardisation techniques can be used in case of different aspects of production
f. Employees can be offered monetary incentives so that they work more efficiently.
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CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - HISTORY (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
Chapter-2 (Kings, Farmers and Towns) (Theme-1)
Questions and answers carrying one mark:
Q.1. What are megaliths?

Ans. Megaliths were elaborate stone structures in central and south India in first
millennium BCE.These were kept on the burials. Dead were buried with a wide range of iron tools
and weapons.
Q.2. Why six century BCE often considered as a major turning point in Indian history?
Ans. It is an era associated with early states and cities, growing use of iron, the
development of coin.
It also witnessed the growth of diverse system of thoughts including Buddhism
and Jainism.
Q.3. Define Dhamma Mahamatta?

Ans. Special officers appointed by Ashoka.
Appointed to spread the message of Dhamma.
Q.4. Write any two sources of Mauryan history?

Ans. a. Arthashastra of Kautilya.
b- Ashoka‘s inscriptions.
Q.5. Who were Kushanas?

Ans. Kushanas were a clan of nomadic people living in China.
Kushanas ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to North-West
India.
First to issue gold coins in India.
Q.6. In which languages and script, Ashokan script were written?

Ans. a- Language- Prakrit, Aramaic and Greek.
b- Script- Prakrit in Brahmi, Greek , Aramaic and Kharosthi.
Q.7. Who was a Gahapati?

Ans. Gahapati was the owner, master or head of a household.
He was the owner of the resources- land, animals and other things that belonged
to the household.
Short Questions/Answers carrying 3 Marks:
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Q.8. Discuss factors responsible for the rise of Magadha.
· Powerful rulers- Bimbisara and Ajatasattu
· Availability of iron.
· Fertile soil
· Availability of elephants in forest.
· Strong capital – Rajgir and Pataliputra
(Note: Elaborate the points)
Q.9. Describe five features of Mahajanapadas?

1. Maximum Mahajanapadas ruled by kings but some ruled by Ganas or Sanghas.
Each had its own capital often fortified.
2. Permanent army recruited from the peasantry regular bureaucracies.
3. Dharmasutras laid down norms for kings and other people.
Function of king to collect taxes and tributes from people.
Q.10. Explain how Kharosthi was deciphered?
Ans. 1. The script used in inscriptions in the northwest, is different. Finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings
who ruled over the area (c. second-first centuries BCE) have facilitated matters. These coins contain the
names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.
2. European scholars who could read the former compared the letters. For instance, the symbol for ―a‖
could be found in both scripts for writing names such as Apollodotus.
3. With Prinsep identifying the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, it became possible to
read longer inscriptions as well.
th th
Q.11. How did the Maghdha become the most powerful Mahajanpada between 6 – 4 BCE?
Ans. 1. Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
2. Iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region. Also, The Ganga and
its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
3. The policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma
Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Q.12. Mention any three features of administrative system Mauryans
Ans. 1 Central administration- King had control over legislative, executive, judiciary, army and
finance.Provincial administration- The Empire was divided in to many provinces.Local Government- There
was a committee of 30 members to maintain rules and regulations in Pataliputra.King used to run the
administration with the help of high officials.
2. Five major political centres in the empireLaw and order system setup.Organised army- a committee
with six subcommittee for coordinating military activity.
3. To spread Dhamma , appointment of Dhamma Mahamattra.Officers were appointed to manage the

land revenue, irrigation and roads. Institution of spies was very strong and working effectively.
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Q.13. Explain main features of Ashoka’s Dhamma?
1. Respect to elders, love for young and kindness to servants.
2. Religious tolerance to other religions.
3. Liberal policies towards Brahmanas, Shramanas.
Appointment of Dhamma mahamattas.
Q.14.Describe important changes in agriculture during the period between 600 BCE to 600 CE .
1. For increase of agricultural production use of plough with iron tipped ploughshare.
Introduction of transplantation of crop (paddy).
Irrigation by wells, ponds and canals.
2. Hoe agriculture in semi-arid parts of Punjab, Rajasthan and hilly tracks in North-Eastern
and Central Parts.
3. Land lords and heads of village were more powerful and had control over farmers.
Land grants by kings to extend agriculture to new areas.
Q.15. How do inscription help in reconstruction of history?

· Knowledge about the rulers and their achievements.
· Scripts and language of that time.
· Land grant and economic condition.
· Extent of the empire.
· Social and religious condition of kingdom.
Long Questions/Answers carrying 8 Marks:
Q.16. Main features of Mauryan administration?

1. Central administration- King had control over legislative, executive, judiciary, army and
finance.
2. Provincial administration- The Empire was divided in to many provinces.
Local Government- There was a committee of 30 members to maintain rules and
regulations in Pataliputra.
3. King used to run the administration with the help of high officials.
Five major political centres in the empire
4. Law and order system setup.
Organised army- a committee with six subcommittee for coordinating military activity.
5. To spread Dhamma , appointment of Dhamma Mahamattra.
6. Officers were oppointed to manage the land revenue, irrigation and roads.
Institution of spies was very strong and working effectively.
7. Justice was administered by two sets of courts known as Dharmasthiya and Kartakashodhana.
The former courts were presided over by Dharmasthas generally Brahmans learned in law who
decided civil matters like debt and property disputes.
8. The Kartkashodhana Courts were presided over by royal officials and dealt with criminal offences.
At the village level the village elders decided petty disputes.
Assignments
Q.1. What are the various sources which have been used to reconstruct Mauryan history?
Q.2. Why were land grants given and to whom?
Q.3. Discuss the notion of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
Q.4.
( Source based questions):-
Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
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What the king’s officials did?
Here is an excerpt from the account of Megasthenes:
Of the great officers of state, some … superintend the rivers, measure the land, as is done in
Egypt, and inspect the sluices by which water is let out from the main canals into their
branches, so that every one may have an equal supply of it. The same persons have charge also
of the huntsmen, and are entrusted with the power of rewarding or punishing them according to
their deserts. They collect the taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land; as
those of the woodcutters, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the miners.
Q.1- Explain the duties of the officers of state.

Q2.- Explain the role of the sub-committees for coordinating military activities.
Q3- What did Ashoka do to hold his empire together?
Q.5.
(Map work)
On the political map of India mark and name the following:

a) Two places where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. (Meerut, Sopara)
th
b) Two major states which existed in 6 century C.E. (Chedi, Vatsa)
c) Two southern kingdoms. (Cholas,Pandyas)
----------------------
208
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT – POLITICAL SCIENCE (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
CHAPTER-1(CHALLENGES OF NATION BUILDING) (PART-II)
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

ONE MARK QUESTION
1. Special status had been accorded to the state of Jammu & Kashmir under:
a) Article 370 of the constitution
b) A treaty signed between the union government and state government at the time
of accession
c) Schedule of the constitution
d) None of above
Ans: Article 370 of the constitution
2. The institutional arrangement created by Nehru to achieve certain values was:

a) constitution
b) an elected parliament
c) a planning commission
d) all of above
Ans: All of above
3. How many princely states were in India at the time of the independence?
Ans: - 565 princely states in all.
4. The partition of which two princess of India caused the deepest trauma in 1947?
Ans: - Punjab, Bengal
5. When and by whom was the ‘tryst with destiny’ speech delivered?
Ans: - By Jawaharlal Lal Nehru at the midnight of 14-15 Aug 1947.
6. Mention any two challenges that India faced just after independence.
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Ans: - a. To tie India in unity & accommodation of diverse groups in the society Establish
democracy in the country.
7. What was the biggest obstacle in national building at the time of India’s
Independence?
Ans: - To retain unity & integrity of free India & to make a strong India
8. Which two princely states refused to join either Pakistan or India at the time of
Independence?
Ans :- Hyderabad & Travancore.
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by ‘two-nation Theory’? Who insisted on the partition of India?

Ans: - The two nation theory maintained that India consisted of not one but two people,
Hindu & Muslim. Muslim league insisted on the partition of India.
2. Explain the role played by Sardar Patel in the Unification of principle states in India
.
Ans:- As Home Minister of Independent India Sardar Patel got instrument of accession
drafted & synced by the rulers of almost all princely states.
3. Who was Potti Sriramula? What was the outcome of his indefinite fast?
Ans: - Potti Sriramula (1901-1952) was a Gandhi worker who left gast job to participate in
salt Satyagraha. He understands a fast demanding separate state of Andhra Pradesh. He
dies during the fast on 15-12-1952.
4. What was the task of the state reorganization commission.

Ans:- The central Govt had appointed a state reorganization commission in 1953 to look
into the question of redrawing of the boundaries of state.
5. What is the concept of partition?
Ans: According to the two-nation theory advanced by the Muslim league, Hindustan is
consisted of not one but two people Hindu & Muslim. Muslim league demanded Pakistan.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION
FOUR MARKS QUESTIONS:
210
1. Mention any four challenges faced by India at the time of out independence.
Ans: - 1. To tie India in Unity:-
Accession of Princely states (around 600 in number), merge their framework of stately
laws with union of India. . Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel took upon himself the task of
integrating these princely state, which was sometimes completed in stages. Except
Jammu & Kashmir, all states were merged with Indian Union.
2. To established democracy:-
India adopted representative democracy based on the parliamentary form of govt.
challenge was to evolve democratic norms, values, practices & principles in accordance
with the constitution.
3. To ensure the Development and Well being of the Society:-
The third challenge came in the way to evolve effective policies for economic
development and radication of poverty and unemployment. The Indian constitution set out
in the Directive Principles of state policy the welfare goals that democratic polities must
achieve.
4. To rehabilitate Refugees:-
There was a great problem in front of India to rehabilitate the refugees who came from
Pakistan. To provide them the economic basic facilities was a great challenging task for
India. But India able to manage everything patiently.
2. How many princely states were there at the time of India’s independence? Which
document was to be signed by the rulers Indian Union? Which princely states
refused to join?
Ans: 565 States
The Instrument of Accession
Four princely states refused to join
a) Junagadh b) Hyderabad c) Kashmir d) Manipur
(Note: Write yourself in detail from the book why these four states were not ready to join
in India in the begining.)
3. Describe briefly any four problems faced in the process of partition of India.
Ans: Problems faced by new India during the process of partition
i) Communal riots.
ii) Second challenge was to shape a nation that was united & accommodate the
diversity in our society.
iii) Ensure the development & well being of the entire society & not only of some
sections.
iv) Effective policies for economic development and eradication of poverty.
4. Describe how the princely states of Manipur & Junagarh acceded to India.
Ans: MANIPUR:-
Few days before independence, the maharaja of Manipur, Boddha Chandra Singh signed
the instrument of accession with the Indian Government Maharaja held election in
Manipur in June 1948 & state become a constitutional Monarchy. In the Legislative
Assembly of Manipur there were sharp differences over the question of merger of
Manipur with India.‖The Govt of India succeeded in pressurizing the Maharaja into
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signing a merger agreement in Sept. 1949 without consulting the elected legislative
assembly of Manipur.
JUNAGARH:-
The ruler of Junagarh desired to merge with Pakistan or wanted to remain independent.
The ruler of most of the states signing a document called the ―Instrument of accession
which meant that their state agreed to become a part of the Union of India. Accession of
the princely states of Junagarh proved more difficult than the rest. The issue of Junagarh
was resolved after a plebiscite confirmed people‘s desire to join India.
5. Mention the role of Sardar Vallabh Bhai towards India’s integration .

Ans: The role of Sardar Vallabh Bhai towards India‘s integration –
1. He played a historic role in negotiating with the rulers of princely states firmly
but diplomatically and bringing most of them into Indian union. It was a very
complicated task which required skilful persuasion.
2. With his capacity as Home Minister of independent India Sardar Patel got –
Instrument of Accession drafted and signed by the rulers of almost all princely
states.
3. He explained rulers of 565 princely states ―the selfish interest hidden in Govt. of
India Act, 1935 and that of Independence of India Act 1947 passed by the British
in due course of time. He stressed the need of unity and integrity among all people
of India.
4. Some states rigid in their approach to maintain them free from Indian Union
later these were merged with Indian union by Patel using plebiscite, creating public
awareness.
6. How did the states of Hyderabad become a part of the India union?
Ans:1. Hyderabad, the largest of the princely states was surrounded entirely, by the
Indian territory. Its ruler carried the title Nizam.
2.He wanted an Independence status for Hyderabad. In the mean time Oppressive
women also joined in large numbers. The Nizam‘s paramilitary force Razakars
murdered, maimed raped and looted particularly the non-Muslims.
3.The Central Govt had to order the army to tackle the situation. In Sept 1948- Indian
army reached there and after a few day s the Nizam had surrendered.
4.This led to Hyderabad accession to India.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
SIX MARKS QUESTIONS
1. What is reorganization of state? When did it take place?

Ans: In India princely states after independence won in 1947 were annexed to Indian
union through the instrument of Accession except Jammu & Kashmir. Soon after this,
some leaders in these states raised demand of new state with different demarcation &
language prevalent at that time. It had therefore becomes necessary for Govt of India to
212
recognize then. In brief, it was first the process of organization or assimilation & then
that of reorganization.
II) When did it take place –
Ans: In 1952 – when Potti Shrisamula of Madras province – raised demand of new state
namely Andhra Pradesh for which sat on hunger strike till his last breath. Govt of India
acceded to his demand & new state of A Pradesh was reorganized. Thus a commission
named states reorganized commission (SRE) was constituted. Subsequently 14 states &
6 union territories were constituted as per the provinces of the Act of 1956.
2. What were the major challenges of building democracy in India?

Ans: Multi party System & Stability of Govt at both levels i.e. centre and state. Due to
this system coalition Govt is working at centre but always is a very unstable position.
Communalism:-
In spite of the secular native of our polity, communalism is thriving in the country & now it
constitutes a serious threat to the unity & integrity of the nation. The major religious
communities in India are the Muslim, the Sikhs, The Christians, the Anglo-Indians parses
& Buddhists. Muslim constitution the largest minority community. Most Hindus deny they
are a religious community. Some Hindu political leaders even claim the instead of being
a religious community they are the real native, the real Bhai‘s.
Casteism:-
As a result of universal Adult Franchise even those social groups who stand low in social
hierarchy have realized that they yield enormous power. They have become conscious
because various political parties compete to solicit their support. Even while distributing
the election tickets & formulation of ministers, caste considerations do come in. It has
been observed that generally people of the same caste group vote for candidate of their
own caste.
It is not caste alone which influences the polities. The politics also transfer the caste &
effects its solidarity & hierarchy. In other words, caste politicization has two ways & there
by opened new vistas for the study of politics in India.
In other words, caste politicization has two way traffic. The two have effected each other
& thereby opened new vistas for study of politics in India.
3. What were the main consideration for bringing princely states with Indian Union?
Who played the historic role in the task?
Ans: Background and problem of Integration of princely States: - Just before
Independence, the British rule had declared that with the end of their rule the British
crown over Princely states would also lapse. This meant that in all 565 princely states
become legally independent.
The British rule took the view that all these states were free to join either India or
Pakistan or remain independent.
The problem started when the ruler of Travancore declare that the state had declared
independence.
After few days Nizam of Hyderabad made a similar declaration. This response of the
rulers of princely states response meant that after independence there was a very real
possibility of that India would get further divided into a number of small countries.
Consideration for bringing princely state with Indian union:
The people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to become part of the Indian
union.
The government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions.
213
In the backdrop of partition which brought into focus the content over demarcation of
territory, the integration, consolidation of the territories boundaries of the nation had
assumed supreme significance.
Sardar Patel who was the deputy Prime Minister & Home Minister of India during the
crucial period played a historic role in negotiation with the rules of princely state firmly
but diplomatically & bringing most of them into the Indian Union.
4. What were the consequences of the partition of India in 1947?

Ans: 1947 – year of one of the largest unplanned tragic transfers of population in human
history. Killing & atrocities on both sides of the borders.
Immense sufferings- minorities on both sides of the border fled their home & secured
themselves in refugee camps women were killed to preserve the families‘ honor.
Children separated from their parents.
Partition not merely a division of properties, liabilities & assets or a political division of
the covered & the administrative appetitive what also get divided were the financial
assets, books & musical instrument. The employees were also divided. So lakh people
migrate across the new border.
Partition poses another deeper issue. The leaders of the Indian national struggle did not
believe in the two –nation theory and yet partition on religion basis had taken place. The
partition had already created several conflicts between the two communities.
ASSIGNMENTS:
Q.1. Under what circumstances did India gain independence?
Q.2. Examine the significance of linguistic reorganisation of Indian states to the nation- building.
QUESTIONS ON PASSAGES:
3. Read the following excerpt carefully and answer the questions given below it :
―Tomorrow we shall be free from the slavery the British domination. But at midnight India will
be partitioned. Tomorrow will thus be a day rejoicing as well as of mourning‖.
QUESTIONS:
1. Who said these lines? Write his full name.
2. When and where he was born?
3. Explain the excerpt of Mahatma Gandhi, which he delivered in Kolkata on the same
day.
214
CLASS -XII
SUBJECT - PAINTING (CLASS NOTES – MAY 2022)
UNIT – 1
RAJASTHANI SCHOOL OF PAINTING
(16TH TO 19TH CENTURY A.D.)
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Class - IX, X and XII Notes May 2022

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ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL GWALIOR

COMPILED NOTES MAY 2022

SUPPLEMENTARY READER- MOMENTS

CH-2 THE ADVENTURES OF TOTO

Short Answer Questions (2 marks each)

Long Answer Type Questions (4 marks each)

TASK- 1 DIARY ENTRY

Format of Diary Entry

Salutation [ Dear Diary]

Signature/ Name of the writer

 Top left – Date, day and time.

SUBJECT- HINDI (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)

उत्तय हहॊद ू सॊस्कृतत भें ऐसी भान्मता है कक वऩतऩ

प्र3. गगरहयी के घामर फच्चे का उऩचाय ककस प्रकाय ककमा गमा?

प्र5. गगल्रू को भक्

उत्तय इस कथन का आशम मह है कक सफ

अन्य महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न

प्र1. रेखखका को अकस्भात ककस छोटे जीि का स्भयण हो आमा औय कैसे?

उत्तय रेखखका ने दे खा कक सोनजह

प्र2. कौए की काॉि-काॉि के फाद बी भनष्ु म उसे कफ आदय दे ता है औय क्मों?

उत्तय कौए की काॉि-काॉि के फाद बी भनष्ु म उसे वऩतऩ

प्र3. कौए अऩना सर

प्र4. रेखखका की अनऩ

उत्तय रेखखका की अनऩ

प्र6. रेखखका ने कैसे जाना कक गगल्रू उसकी अनऩ

उत्तय रेखखको एक भोटय दघ

प्र7. बोजन के सॊफध

उत्तय रेखखका अत्मॊत सदम, सॊिेदनशीर तथा ऩयदख

SUBJECT- MATHS (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)

Cartesian plane & Coordinate Axes

Cartesian Plane: A cartesian plane is defined by two perpendicular number lines, A

Points in different Quadrants.

Signs of coordinates of points in different quadrants:

II Quadrant: ‘-’ x – coordinate and ‘+’ y – coordinate. E.g. (-1,4)

III Quadrant: ‘-’ x – coordinate and ‘-’ y – coordinate. E.g. (-3,-5)

IV Quadrant: ‘+’ x – coordinate and ‘-’ y – coordinate. E.g. (6,-1)

Representation of a point on the Cartesian plane

Position of a point in a plane

Here, (x,y) = (15, 25)

. Write the answer of each of the following questions:

Q2. See Fig. and write the following:

1. The co-ordinates of B is (−5, 2).

 (– 2, 4): Second Quadrant (II- Quadrant)

SUBJECT- SCIENCE (CLASS NOTES –MAY 2022)

Equation of motion by graphical methods

Ch.1 Matter In Our Surroundings

Basis of Classification of Matter:

→ Based upon particle arrangement

→ Based upon energy of particles

→ Based upon distance between particles

Three States of Matter:

Temperature: Common and SI units

→ Common unit: Degree Celsius (oC)

→ SI unit: Kelvin (K)

→ Relation between common unit and SI unit of temperature:

1. By changing the temperature

2. By changing the pressure

Interconversion of states of matter:

1. Effect of Change of Temperature: