ELEMENTARY  
MATHEMATICS  I 
 
 

 
1 
 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS I

CONTENTS

SET : Definition and examples, Operations on set, Applications, Binary

operations on sets, numbers system: Real numbers, integers, rational and
irrational numbers, etc. Sequence and series , Principles of mathematical
inductions, theory of quadratic equations, counting principles : binomial
theorem, algebra of complex numbers, circular measure, trigonometric
functions- addition, product and factor formulas.

SETS

What is a set?

Intuitively, a set S can be referred to as any well-defined collection of objects.

The objects which are called elements of S can be distinguished from each
other. If an element a is in S, write a S and if a is not in S write a S.

Methods of representation

The elements of S can be listed by enclosing them under a pair of braces. The
following methods are used in the process of representing a set.

1. Listing method: Here we list all the elements of a given set. Example: V,
the set of all vowels in the English alphabet can be written as:
V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
2. Descriptive method: A set can be described by certain rules or properties.
Thus, V as given above can formally be described as the set of all letters
and such that and is a vowel. This is better expressed as fellows:
V = { α | α is a vowel}
P = {x | x2 – 4 = 0, x is positive} .Then, p = {2}
2 
 
 W = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet}

3. The use of Venn diagram

CLASSIFICATION OF SETS

In general, there are two main categories of sets. A set is either finite or infinite.

Finite set: A set S is said to be finite if the process of counting the elements of
S terminates.

If otherwise, then we say that the set is infinite. For example, the English
alphabet is a finite set ;while the set of all integers, counting numbers (natural
numbers) are infinite.

Types of sets

1. Empty or Null set: A set is said to be empty if it contains no elements . If

a set P is empty, we write P =
Examples (i) P = { x | x R and x2 + 1 = 0} =

Since x2 + 1 = 0 = x2 = -1, x = ± i = ± √-1

This is not a real number but complex
∴ since x ∉ R, P = Ф
(ii) T = {states in Nigeria whose governor is under twenty}.
2. Singleton set: This is a set consisting of a single element.
Examples include :
(i) Q = {Prime members between 0 and 2. Inclusive} = { 2}.
(ii) X = {Vice president of the federal Rep of Nig. }.
3. Subset: This is a set which is contained in another set called the
superset. Example.
A = {real numbers}, = {National numbers}

3 
 
 N is a subset of A, and we write R or R . This is the case
what there is at least one element of set A which is not in the superset B
and we say that A is a proper subset of B. Otherwise it is called improper
A R and we write.
Example. The set {1, 2, 3} has the following proper subsets, {1, 2}, {1, 3}
e.t.c. and one improper subset {1, 2, 3}.
Equal and equivalent sets
The sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
elements, the order of the elements is immaterial e.g.
A = {a, e, i, o, u}, B = {e, a, u, i, e, a}
A = B. In practice, we write A B and B A.
Two sets P and Q are equivalent if they have the same cardinality
i.e. n(P) = n(Q)
Cardinality: This is the number of elements present is a given set S and
it is denoted by n(S) .
Power Set: This is the family of all subsets of a set S. Thus if n (S) = m
Then, n( (S)) = 2m

Union and Intersection

The intersection of two sets S and T is the set of all elements common to both S
and T. This is denoted by S T. Thus S |

If S T = Φ, we say that S and T are disjoint.

The union of sets S and T written as SUT is defined as the set of elements
which are either in S or T. Thus, S UT = { x | x S or x T }.

Difference: The difference of two sets S and T

Written S – T is the set of elements which are in S but not in T.

Example: If S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10}, and T = {2, 7, 5, 9, 11}. S = T = {1, 3, 10 }

4 
 
Universal set: This is a set containing every element of all the sets under

discussion. The symbol or or denotes

universal set.

Complement of a set: The complement of a set A is the set which contains all
the elements of the universal set, which are not elements of A. It is denoted by
Ac or A1. Ac = {x | x U but x A}

Symmetric differences of two sets A and B is given by (A U B) – (A .

This is written as A Δ B

Laws involving sets

1. Commutative law:
(i) A
2. Associative law
(i) A .
3. Distributive law
(i) A .
(ii) A
4. De Morgan’s law.
(i) ( c = c c

(ii) (A c = Ac c

Also, note that μc = Φ , Φc = μ

(Ac)c = A

Exercises

5 
 
 1. Prove the set theoretic laws.
2. The set of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A
(A). Given that A = {a, b, e}, B = {b, c, d}
C = {c, d, e, f} (i) write out the elements of the sets (A), (B), (C),
(A .
(iii) Prove that if n(A) = m, then in general n( (A) ) = 2m
3. Prove that the null set is a subset of every given set
4. Prove that every set is a subset of itself.
5. If P and Q are two sets and if R is a set such that R P and R Q, show
that R P

Venn Diagram

Let n be a positive integer. A Venn diagram named after John Venn (1834 –
1923) for n sets consists of n circles (each representing a set) drawn inside a
rectangle which represents the universal set relative to which the sets are being
consistent. It is used to solve problems relating with sets.

Examples 1: In a sample of 1000 foodstuffs stores taken at Ayobo market, 200

stock rice, 240 stock beans, 250 stock flour, 64 both beans and rice, 97 both
rice and flour, while 60 stock beans and flour. If 430 do not stock any, how
many stock all?

2. In a class of 40 students, 32 are good in math, 24 in physics, 4 do not

take any, how many are good in math and physics.

3. At a conference of 100 people, there are 29 Nigerian, women, 23 Nigerian

men, 4 are Engineers and 24 are either men or engineers.

If there are no foreign engineers, how many women engineers are in the
conference.

6 
 
Binary Operation: Suppose that there is a law of composition " “ such that
for all a, b S, a * b = c S, we say that the law of composition " “ is
closed and S is under the operation " “ . Now, since two elements are
involved one calls such an operation a binary operation.

Example. Define AΔb = a + b + ab. Estimate the correct value

of: (i) 5 Δ 6 (ii) -7 Δ 12 (iii) 18 Δ -9
Cartesian product: (Product set) The Cartesian product of two sets S &
T written S x T is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) .
Example : Let S = c, d , T = 4, 7, 9 , P = 1, 2, 3
Determine the value of : (i) S X T, (ii) S X P, (iii) T X P, (iv) S X T X P

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

A set of numbers which can be obtained by a definite law is called a sequence. Each
number in the sequence is called a term. It is called a series when the terms are
added.

Examples

Sequence Series

1. 1, 2, 3, 4, ... 1 + 2 + 3 + 4...
2. 1, 9, 17, 25. 1 + 9 + 17 + 25.
3. 4, 7, 10, 13. 4 + 7 + 10 + 13.

Sum of an Arithmetic Progression

The sum of an arithmetic progression may be obtained as follows:
Let Sn = the sum of n-term
a = the first term
d = the common difference
l = the last term
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) ... + (L – d) + L ………. (i)

7 
 
Reversing the order we have
Sn = L + (L– d)+ (L– 2d) + (L – 3d) + … + (a + d) + a ……….. (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) together, we have :
2Sn = (a + L) + (a + L) + (a + L) + (a + L) + (a + L) + …. ( n—places )
= n (a + L)  

But L = a + (n – 1) d, since the number of terms is n

1 2 1  
2 2

Example

1. Sum the series 1, 2, 3,... to forty terms

Solution

First term a = 1, common difference d = 1, numbers of terms n = 40

40
2 1 2 1 39 1 20 2 39 820 
2

2. If the n-th term of A.P. is 3n+2, write out the terms and find the sum of n-
terms.

Solution

nth term = 3n + 2

the terms are 5, 8, 11, 14,...

Let last term l = 3n + 2, ,     5 3 2       3 7

The sum of n-terms of an A.P. is given by : Sn = n(n + 1). Find the A.P.

Solution

Sn = n(n + 1)

an = Sn – Sn-1 = n (n + 1) – (n-1)n = 2n

8 
 
  The A. P. is 2, 4, 6, 8,...

EXERCISE: How many terms of an A.P. 3 1 2, 5 1 2, 7 1 2 … should be taken to give

the sum of 51 ? 

Geometric Progression

A geometric progression is a sequence in which each term is obtained from the

preceding term through multiplying or dividing by a constant quantity called the

common ratio r . e. g 3 , 6 , 12 , 24 , . . . (r = 2) , 16 , 4 , 1 , ¼ , . . . (r = 1/4)

The general term is given by: Tn = arn-1 and the sum is given by:

Sn = if r < 1 , and if r > 1

SUM TO INFINITY

1
This is given by : lim = lim , which in the long
1
run, becomes: S =

Discrete Mathematics

The title of this part refers to the fact that the topic to be discussed is related to
the discrete collection of natural numbers. We open the discussion with a
presentation of the axiom of mathematical induction, which makes it
possible to prove statements concerning the natural numbers whose
proofs are otherwise unmanageable. Most notable among sequences are
arithmetic sequences and geometric sequences.

9 
 
 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
To set the stage for this axiom, let us consider sums of consecutive odd
positive integers:
1=1
1+3 = 4
1+3 +5=9 (1)
1 +3 + 5 + 7 = 16
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25

From the equations above, can you guess a formula for the sum
1 + 3 + 5 + …+(2n – 1)
of the smallest n odd positive integers? If we notice that the right sides of the
respective equations in (1) are 12, 22, 32, 42, and 52, then it becomes apparent
that each of those equations has the form
1+ 3 + 5…+ (2n – 1)= n 2 (2)
This suggests that (2) should be valid for any positive integer n. But how
can we prove that a formula such as (2) is valid for every positive integer n? For
a specific value, such as n = 11. we could compute the value of each side of (2)
and check that the two values are the same. But it would be impossible to
check (2) in this way for every positive integer n, since that would require
infinitely many calculations. This is where the new axiom plays its role.
Informally, the axiom of mathematical induction state that we can
prove a formula such as (2) for every positive integer n by verifying two
statements:
i. The formula is true for n = 1.
ii. For any given positive integer k, if the formula is true for n = k. then it is
also true for n = k + 1.
Let us verify (i) and (ii) for the formula in (2). In the first place, for n = 1
we have 2n — 1 = 1, so that (2) becomes 1 = 12, which is true. This verifies (i).
Now to verify (ii), we suppose that any positive integer k is given and that the

10 
 
formula is true for n = k, that is,
1+ 3 + 5 + … + (2k - 1) = k 2 (3)

From this we will prove that the formula is true for n = k + 1; that is, we will
prove that : 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2k - 1) + [2(k +1)-1] = (k +1) 2
which can be rewritten as : 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2k - 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 (4)

We accomplish this by adding 2k + 1 to both sides of (3) and then combining terms
to obtain (4). Thus (ii) is verified.
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2 K − 1) + (2 K + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1)
= (k + 1) 2
We have proved (i) and (ii) for the formula in (2), so our version of mathematical
induction above would imply that (2) is true for every positive integer n.
Now let us state the axiom of mathematical induction formally.

The Axiom of Mathematical Induction

For each positive integer n, let a statement (or formula or equation)
S (n) be given. Suppose that
i. S(1) is true.
ii. For any positive integer k, if S(k) is true, then S(k + 1) is true.
Then S(n) is true for every positive integer n.

Step (ii) is frequently called the inductive step.

Mathematical induction is often used to prove that formulas are true for all
positive integers. We will illustrate its use now.
EXAMPLE 1: Use mathematical induction to prove that for any positive
integer n,
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n( n + 1) (5)
2
Solution: Let S(n) be the equation in (5). We must verify (i) and (ii) in the axiom of

11 
 
 1
mathematical induction. First, S(1) is the equation given by : 1= (1)(1 + 1)
2
which is true. Therefore (i) is verified. To verify (ii), we assume that S(k) is true, that
is,
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = k ( k + 1) (6)
2
From S(k) we will prove that S(k + 1) is true, that is,
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) = (+1)(k + 2)
2
To accomplish this, we add k + 1 to both sides of (6) and rearrange the right
side:

Thus from S(k) we have obtained S(k + 1), thereby verifying (ii). Consequently

mathematical induction implies that (5) is valid for any positive integer n. □
Caution: Let us emphasize that in applying mathematical induction correctly,
we must verify that both conditions (i) and (ii) hold. If we neglect one or the other
of the conditions, we can be led to false statements. Moreover, in the verification
of (ii), we do not prove that S(k + 1) is true. We prove only that if S(k) is true,
then S(k + 1) is also true.

EXAMPLE 2: Use mathematical induction to prove that for any positive

integer n,
n n − 1 = ( x − 1)(1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n −1 ) (7)
Solution: In order to verify (i) and (ii) of the mathematical induction axiom, we
let the equation in (7) be S(n). Then S(l) is the equation
x1 − 1 = ( x − 1)(1)
Since x1 = x, S(l) is true. Thus (i) is verified. For (ii) we let k be any given positive
integer and assume that S(k) is valid, that is,
x k − 1 = ( x − 1)(1 + x + x 2 + ... + x k −1 ) (8)
From S(k) we will prove that S(k + 1) is valid, that is,

12 
 
 x k +1 − 1 = ( x − 1)(1 + x + x 2 + ... + x k −1 + x k ) (9)
Applying (8), we alter the right side of (9) as follows:

(x − 1)(1 + x + x 2 + ... + x k −1 + x k )
= ( x − 1)[(1 + x + x 2 + ... + x k −1 ) + x k ]
= ( x − 1)(1 + x + x 2 + ... + x k −1 ) + ( x − 1) x k
14444244443
⇓( 8 )

= (k k − 1) +( x − 1) x k
= x k − 1 + x k +1 − x k
= x k +1 − 1

Thus from S(k) we have obtained S(k + 1), so (ii) is verified. Consequently

mathematical induction implies that (7) is valid for all positive integers n. □
Mathematical induction can also be used in order to prove that
inequalities are valid.

EXAMPLE 3: Use mathematical induction to prove that for any

positive integer n,
If x < 1, then x n < 1 (10)

Solution: Here we let S(n) be the statement in (10). To verify (i) in the axiom,
we notice first that S(1) is the statement
If x < 1, then x1 < 1

Since x1 = x, S(l) is true, so (i) is verified. To verify (ii), we let k be any given
positive integer and assume that S(k) is valid, which means that
If x < 1, then x k < 1 (11)

From S(k) we will prove that S(k + 1) is valid, which means proving that
If x < 1, then x k +1 < 1 (12)

Using properties of the absolute value and then (11), we find that

13 
 
 If x < 1, then x k +1 = x k x < 1.1 = 1 (13)

Thus from S(k) we have obtained S(k + 1), thereby verifying (ii). By

mathematical induction, (10) is true for all positive integers n. □

Extended Mathematical Induction

Occasionally we wish to prove that a statement or formula S(n) is true for all
integer values of n greater than or equal to some integer m, where m 1.
There is an extended version of mathematical induction that can be used to
accomplish this. The inductive step (ii) remains essentially unchanged, and in
step (i) we simply replace S(1) by S(m).

Axiom of Extended Mathematical Induction

Let m be an integer. For each integer n > m, let a statement (or formula or
equation) S(n) be given. Suppose that
i. S(m) is true.
ii. For each integer k > n, if S(k) is true, then S(k + I) is true.
Then S(n) is true for every integer n > m.

To illustrate extended mathematical induction, we prove one of the

Laws of Logarithms
EXAMPLE 4: Let a be a positive number. Prove that
In an = n 1n a for any integer n > 0 (14)

Solution: Let S(n) be the statement in (14). Here we have n = 0. so S(n) is the
statement
In a° = 0 In a (15)
Since a° = 1 and 1n 1 = 0, (15) is true, and hence S(m) is true. This verifies (i).
Now we let k be an integer greater than or equal to 0 and suppose that S(k)
is valid, that is,
In a k = k 1n a (16)

14 
 
From this we will prove that S(k+1) is true.
S(k+1) = In ak+1 = 1n (ak.a) = 1n ak + 1n a = k ln a + ln a = (k+1)ln a,
which is S (k +1). Thus , from S(k) we have obtained S(k+1). Thereby verifying
(ii). By extended mathematical induction, (14) is true for all nonnegative

integers n. □

EXERCISES 2.1
In Exercises 1-16, use mathematical induction to prove the given formula for
every positive integer n.
1. 2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2n = n( n + 1)

2. 1 + 4 + 7 + ... + (3n − 2) = 12 n(3n − 1)

3. 1 + 5 + 9 + ... + (4n − 3) = n( 2n − 1)

4. 1 + 2 + 2 2 + ... + 2 n −1 = 2 n − 1
5. 1 + 3 + 3 2 + ... + 3 n −1 = 12 (3 n − 1)

6. 1 + 4 + 4 2 + ... + 4 n −1 = 13 ( 4 n − 1)

1 1 1 1 1
7. + 2 + 3 + ... + n = 1 − n
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1⎛ 1 ⎞
8. + 3 + ... + n = ⎜1 − n ⎟
3 3 3 2⎝ 3 ⎠
1 1 1 1 n
9. + + + ... + =
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1) n + 1
1 1 1 1 n
10. + + + ... + =
1.3 3.5 5.7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1

11. 12 + 2 2 + 3 2 + ... + n 2 = 16 n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)

12. 13 + 2 3 + 33 + ... + n 3 = 14 n 2 (n + 1) 2

13. 12 + 3 2 + 5 2 + ... + ( 2n − 1) 2 = 13 n( 2n − 1)(2n + 1)

14. 13 + 33 + 53 + ... + (2n − 1) 3 = n 2 (2n 2 − 1)

15. 1.2 + 3.4 + 5.6 + ... + (2n − 1)(2n) = 13 n(n + 1)(4n − 1)

15 
 
16. 1.3 + 2.4 + 3.5 + ... + n(n + 2) = 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 7)

17. Show that n 2 − n + 11 is a prime number for n = 1,2,...,10 but not for n = 11 .

18. Consider the proposed equation 2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2n = n 2 + n + 2

a. Under the assumption that the equation is valid
for a given positive integer k, prove that it is valid
for k + 1.
b. Show that the equation is not valid for n = 1, 2,
or 3.
c. Show that the equation is not valid if n is a multiple of 4, and use parts (a)
and (b) to conclude that the equation is false for each positive integer n. (Hint:
Show that if n is a multiple of 4. then the left side is divisible by 4 but the
right side is not.)
In Exercises 19-37, use induction or extended mathematical induction to prove
the given inequality or statement for the given values of n.
19. n < 2 n−1 for n >1

20. 4 n > 2 n + 3n for n > 3

21. n 3 > (n + 1) 2 for n > 3

n −1
⎛3⎞
22. ⎜ ⎟ > n for n > 5
⎝2⎠

Theory of quadratic equations

Suppose  that     and   are the roots of x2‐12x+7 = 0 find the values of  

i.  2
 + 2    ii.  +   iii.   +          iv.  ( 1)( ‐1) 

If , are the roots of x2 px q 0,find the condition for which

i. ii. 3 iii. 4

16 
 
 In each of the two cases given below, determine the possible values of k for
which each of the equations has equal roots.

i. X2 k‐2 x k 1 0
ii. X2 3 k 3 ‐ k 0

COUNTING TECHNIQUES

Suppose that a 7-member committee sets out to pick 3 of its members to be

officers. The first member picked will be chairman, the next vice-chairman,
and the third secretary. The following two questions typify the kind of
question we will discuss in this section.

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

Question A: In how many different ways can the set of officers be formed from
the committee?
Question B: How many different sets of officers can be formed if we
disregard which officer has what title?

As we set out to answer these questions, let us list the 7 committee

members as a, b, c, d, e, f, and g. Question A is equivalent to asking in how

17 
 
many ways we can write down an ordered triplet consisting of 3 of the letters a
through g. For example, (a,b,c), (d,f,e), (g,e,b), and (b, e, g) are four
such triplets. Here we let the first letter of each triplet denote the chairman, the
second letter the vice chairman, and the third letter the secretary. Each of the
triplets listed above is considered to be distinct from the others with respect to
Question A (even though the last two contain exactly the same letters), because
the order of the letters in the triplet is taken into account.
By contrast, Question B is equivalent to asking in how many ways we can
write down a triplet of 3 of the letters a through g without regard to the order of
the letters. In this case, (b, e, g), (b, g, e), (e, b, g), (e, g, b),
(g, b, e), and (g, e, b) are identified, because they contain exactly the same
letters and because order is irrelevant for Question B. In this case our sole
concern is which 3 people are selected.
It follows from the discussion above that the answers to Questions A and B
are different. Before we set out to find the numerical answers to the
questions, let us put the questions into a more general setting:
i. How many distinct ordered sets of k objects can be chosen from a
collection of n objects?
ii. How many distinct sets of k objects may be chosen from a collection of n
objects without regard to the order of the objects?
We apply the terms "permutations" and "combinations" to the sets in (i)
and (ii), respectively. These terms are defined formally now.

DEFINITION
Let k and n be integers with n positive and 0 < k < n. A permutation
of n objects taken k at a time is an ordered set of k objects from the set of n
objects. A combination of n objects taken k at a time is a set of k objects from the
set of n objects (without regard to order).
The difference between a permutation and a combination is that order is
all-important with respect to a permutation but is irrelevant with respect to a
combination.

18 
 
A Counting Principle
Before proceeding further in analyzing permutations and combinations,
we discuss a method of counting sets of objects. To illustrate the method, let us
count the number of full names that can be formed by using Banke or Sade as
the first name and Lere, Lonpe or Seyi as the last name. We may regard the
selection of such a full name as a 2-stage, process, and we display the
possibilities in the following diagram, called a tree diagram:

19 
 
 First Stage Second Stage

Lere

Banke Lonpe
Seyi

Lere

Sade Lonpe
Seyi

We see that there are 6 possible full names. Indeed, there are 2 possible first
names and 3 possible last names, making a total of 2 x 3 = 6 possible full
names. Thus the total number of possible names is the product of the number of
choices at the first stage and at the second stage.
Now let us count the number of full names that can be formed by using
Dehinde or Aliyu as the first name, "Charles" or "Christopher" as the
middle name, and George, “Janet” or “Modupe” as the last name. Here we
regard the selection of such a full name as a 3-stage process, displayed in the
tree diagram:

First Stage Second Stage Third Stage

George

Charles Janet
Modupe

Dehinde George

Christopher Janet
Modupe

George

Charles Janet
Modupe

Aliyu George

Christopher Janet
Modupe

20 
 
 This time we see that there are 12 possible full names. After all, there are
2 possible first names, 2 possible middle names, and 3 possible last names,
making a total of 2 x 2 x 3 = 12 possible full names. Thus the total number of
possible full names is the product of the number of choices at each of the 3
stages.
In general, if the items to be counted may be selected in k stages, and if
we know the number of choices at each of the k stages, then the total number
of items is the product of the number of choices at each stage. We now state
this result formally.

Counting Principle
Suppose that k objects are to be selected. Assume that the first object
can be selected in n1 distinct ways, and after the first object has been selected
the second object can be selected in n2 distinct ways, and so on, with the kth
object selectable in any of nk distinct ways after the first k – 1 objects have
been selected. Then the total number of distinct ways of selecting the k
objects is the product.
n1 n2 n3…nk
In the following example we illustrate the use of the Counting Principle.

EXAMPLE 1: How many 7-digit telephone numbers are there if neither 0 nor
1 can be used as the first or second digit?
Solution: For each of the first and second digits of the telephone number,
there are 8 possible choices: 2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9. Therefore n1 = n2 = 8.

For each of the remaining digits of the telephone number there are 10
possibilities: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9. Therefore n3 = n4= n5= n6= n7 = 10.
By the Counting Principle, the total number N of permissible 7-digit
telephone numbers is given by

N = n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 = 8.8.10.10.10.10.10 = 64 x 105 = 6,400,000 □

21 
 
PERMUTATIONS
The number of permutations of n objects taken k at a time is often
written symbolically as nPk (or sometimes Pkn or P (n,k). In this notation of the

number of permutations of 7 objects taken 3 at a time is 7P3.

Suppose now that we wish to determine the numerical value of nPk, where n is
any positive integer and k is any integer with 0 < k < n. We define nP0 = 1. For
k > 1 we consider the process of forming a permutation of n objects taken k at
a time as a k-stage process. In the first stage we select the first object, with n
possible choices for this object. In the second stage we select the second
object, with only n – 1 choices for this object, since the object selected first is
no longer available. Similarly, there are only n – 2 choices for the third object,
since the objects selected first and second are no longer available. Thus we
have the following setup:
Object Number of Choices
First n
Second n–1
Third n–2
: :
. .
kth n – (k – 1)

Therefore by the Counting Principle, it follows that the number nPk of

ways of choosing k objects from the total collection of n objects is given by the
product of the possible choices just listed. That is,

n Pk = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...[n − (k − 2)][n − (k − 1)] (1)

We are now in a position to answer question A. Indeed, by (1),

7 P3 = 7.6.5 = 210

This tells us that there are 210 ways of choosing a chairman, vice-
chairman, and secretary from the 7-member committee. This also answers the
question posed in the introduction to Chapter 12.

22 
 
EXAMPLE 2: Suppose 9 horses are set to run the Kentucky Derby. How many
ways are there of the horses occupying the first three places in the order of
finish?
Solution: Since we are interested in determining the number of ordered sets
of 3 horses selected from 9 horses (corresponding to the order in which the
first 3 horses cross the finish line), we seek 9P3. By (1) with n=9 and k=3, we

have 9P3 = 9.8.7 = 504 □

If we let k = n, then (1) becomes nPn=n (n – 1) (n – 2) …2.1=n!
So that the number nPn of permutations of n objects taken n at a time is
n!. But notice that a permutation of n objects taken n at a time corresponds to
an ordering of the n objects. Thus we have the following result:
There are n! ways of ordering a set of n objects.
We can obtain a simpler version of (1) by noticing that
n(n − 1)(n − 2)...[n − −(k − 1)]
(n − k )[n − (k + 1)]...2.1
= n(n − 1)(n − 2)...[n − (k − 1)]
(n − k )[n − (k + 1)]...2.1
n(n − 1)(n − 2)...[n − (k − 1)](n − k )[n − (k + 1)]...2.1
=
(n − k )[n − (k + 1)]...2.1
n!
=
(n − k )!

Consequently
n!
Pk = (2)
(n − k )!
n

EXAMPLE 3: Calculate 6F4 by means of (2).

Solution: By (2),

6! 6! 720
P4 = = = = 360 □
(6 − 4)! 2!
6
2

23 
 
 Next, suppose that we have 5 marbles, including 3 indistinguishable
black ones and 2 indistinguishable white ones. Let us denote the black
marbles by Bl, B2, and B3, and the white marbles by Wl and W2. Then the two
ordered sets
B1B2B3 W1W2 and B2B3B1W2W1
would be indistinguishable, since both have 3 black marbles followed by 2
white marbles. Thus of the 5! ordered sets of the 5 marbles, which are
indistinguishable from one another, it can be proved that there are only
5!
3!2!

or 10, distinguishable ordered sets of the 5 marbles, rather than the 5!, or 120,
that would exist if all 5 marbles were different.
More generally, suppose that there are n objects, but nl of them are of
one type and are indistinguishable, n2 are of a second type and are
indistinguishable, and so on, with a final kth type of nk indistinguishable
objects. Then it can be proved that the number of distinguishable ordered
sets that can be formed from the n objects is
n!
(3)
n1!n2 !...nk !

EXAMPLE 4: Suppose 6 indistinguishable nickels, 4 indistinguishable dimes,

and 2 indistinguishable quarters are drawn out of a bowl, one by one. How
many distinguishable ordered sets can be formed from the coins?
Solution: There are 12 coins in all, so using (3) with n = 12, n1 =6, n2 = 4,
and n3 =2, we find that there are
12!
= 13,860 distinguishable ordered sets of the 12 coins. □
6!4!2!

Combinations
With permutations we were able to determine in how many ways 3
officers could be selected from 7 committee members. Now we will study the

24 
 
number of sets of 3 officers that can be chosen from the 7 committee
members, without regard to which officer has what office. This will involve
combinations.
The number of combinations of n objects taken k at a time is written
symbolically as nCk. We will derive a formula for nCk from formula (2) for nPk.
To that end we observe that the number nPk of permutations of n objects
taken k at a time takes into account the order in which the k objects are
selected. By contrast, for the number nCk of combinations the order in which
the k objects are selected is irrelevant, so that each distinct combination
counted in nCk corresponds to k! distinct permutations in nPk (the k! ways the k
elements can be ordered). Therefore

Pk
n Ck = n

k!

Together with (2), this means that

n!
Ck = (4)
k!(n − k )!
n

From (4) we conclude that

7! 7! 7.6.5.4! 7.6.5
c3 = = = = = 35
3!(7 − 3)! 3!4! 3.2.1.4! 3.2
7

Since the number of sets of 3 officers that can be chosen from a 7-

member committee is 7C3, it follows that there are 35 such sets of officers
possible. This then answers Question B posed at the beginning of the
section.
EXAMPLE 5: Determine the number of 5-card hands that can be dealt from a
52-card deck.
Solution: Since the order in which cards are dealt into the hand is immaterial
to the composition of the hand, what we seek is 52C5, and by (4) with n = 52 and
k = 5, we have

25 
 
 52! 52!
C5 = =
5!(52 − 5)! 5!47!
52

52.51.50.49.48(47!) 52.51.50.49.48
= =
5.4.3.2.1(47!) 5.4.3.2

=2,598,960 □

As we will see in the following section, when the nth power (x + y)n of the binomial
x + y is written out, the coefficients of the terms that appear in the formula are
equal to nCk for various values of k. But in that context they are normally
⎛n⎞
written in the alternative notation ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and are called binomial coefficients.
⎝k ⎠
From (4) we find that
⎛n⎞ n!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (5)
⎝ k ⎠ k!(n − k )!
⎛8⎞
EXAMPLE 6: Find the numerical value of ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.
⎝ 5⎠
Solution: By (5),
⎛8⎞ 8! 8.7.6(5!) 8.7.6
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = = = 56 □
⎝ 5 ⎠ 5!(8 − 5)! (5!)3.2.1 3.2
Since 0! = 1 by definition, it follows from (5) that
⎛n⎞ n! n! n!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = = =1
⎝ 0 ⎠ 0!(n − 0)! n!0! n!
and
⎛n⎞ n! n! n!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = = =1
⎝ n ⎠ n!(n − n)! n!0! n!
Similarly, since 1! = 1, we have
⎛n⎞ n! n(n − 1)!
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = = =n
⎝ 1 ⎠ 1!(n − 1)! (n − 1)!
⎛ n ⎞
and likewise, ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = n
⎝ n −1⎠

26 
 
In Exercises 1-24, calculate the given number.
1. The number of permutations of 5 objects taken 3 at a time.
2. The number of permutations of 6 objects taken 2 at a time.
3. The number of permutations of 7 objects taken 5 at a time.
4. The number of combinations of 5 objects taken 3 at a time.
5. The number of combinations of 6 objects taken 2 at a time.
6. The number of combinations of 7 objects taken 5 at a time.
⎛6⎞
7. 4P1 15. 6C6 21. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4⎠
⎛7⎞
8. 4P3 16. 5C3 22. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4⎠
⎛17 ⎞
9. 5P5 17. 5C2 23. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝15 ⎠
⎛ 40 ⎞
10. 7P3 18. 8C5 24. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝3⎠
⎛ 2⎞
11. 12P3 19. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝1⎠
⎛ 4⎞
12. 100P2 20. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 3⎠
13. 4C2

14. 6C3

25. Let n be an integer greater than 1.

⎛ n ⎞
a. Find a formula for ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟.
⎝ n − 2⎠
n
⎛ n + 1⎞
b. Show that ∑ j =⎜⎜ n − 1⎟⎟.
j =1 ⎝ ⎠
26. Show that 2n+1Cn= 2n+1Cn+1 for any positive integer n
27. Let n and j be integers with 0 < j < n. Show that
⎛n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ j⎠ ⎝n − j ⎟⎠

28. Show that (12 C5 )( 7 C 4 ) = (12 C 4 )( 8 C5 ).

29. A student is eligible for 3 mathematics courses and 4 physics courses. In

27 
 
 how many ways can the student choose one mathematics course and
one physics course?
30. A department store has 4 entrances on the first floor, 3 escalators from
the first floor to the second floor, and 2 escalators from the second
floor to the third floor. In how many ways can a customer enter the
store and ascend to the third floor by escalator?
31a. How many distinct license plate numbers are there that have 2 letters
(neither of which may be I or 0) followed by 3 digits?
b. If in part (a) the letters must be distinct and so must the digits, how many
distinct license plate numbers are there?
32. At a sandwich bar there are 3 kinds of bread. 4 kinds of cold cuts, 2
kinds of cheese, and 3 kinds of dressing. How many different kinds of
sandwiches can be prepared with one kind each of bread, cold cuts,
cheese, and dressing?
33. A corporation president must choose a vice-president and a treasurer
from among 10 young executives.
a. In how many ways can the president choose two executives to fill the
positions (without regard to which executive gets which position)?
b. In how many ways can the president choose two executives to fill the
positions (considering which executive gets which position)?
34. Find the number of permutations of 4 letters selected from the
word "rainbow."
35. A classroom contains 20 seats; in how many ways can a teacher
assign seats to 15 students? Leave your answer in factorial form.
36. How many sets of three volunteers are possible from a
group of 10 people?
37. In how many ways can 5 patients be given appointments with a
doctor if there are 7 appointments available?
38. A doctor must reschedule 4 of 7 appointments. In how many
ways can the 4 appointments be chosen?
39. On Halloween a trick-or-treater is offered any 3 of 5 different
28 
 
 kinds of candy bars. In how many ways can the choices be made?
40. Find an expression for the number of distinct 13-card bridge hands
that can be dealt from a deck of 52 cards.
Do not carry out the arithmetic operations.

THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

Consider the following formulas for (x + y)2 and (x + y)3:
( x + y ) 2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 (1)

( x + y ) 3 = x 3 + 3x 2 y + 3 xy 2 + y 3 (2)
Now we will derive a formula for (x + y)n for any positive integer n.
In preparation for the formula of (x + y)n, let us analyze the right
sides of the equations in (1) and (2). Notice that each of their terms has the
form (coefficient) xiyj for suitable integers i and j. For the terms in (1), i + j =2,
whereas for the terms in (2), i + j = 3.
Now let us consider the expansion of (x + y)4. Notice that
( x + y ) 4 = ( x + y )( x = y )( x + y )( x + y )
= ( xx + xy + yx + yy)( xx + xy + yx + yy)
= xxxx + xxxy + xxyx + xxyy + xyxx
+ xyxy + xyyx + xyyy + yxxx + yxxy
+ yxyx + yxyy + yyxx + yyxy + yyyx + yyyy
Because xy = yx, this can be condensed to
( x + y) 4 = x 4 y 0 + x 3 y1 + x 3 y1 + x 2 y 2 + x 3 y1
+ x 2 y 2 + x 2 y 2 + x1 y 3 + x 3 y 1 + x 2 y 2 (3)
+x y + x y + x y + x y + x y + x y
2 2 1 3 2 2 1 3 1 3 0 4

Observe that the term x4y0 appears only once on the right side of (3) because it
arises by choosing x from each of the four expressions x + y occurring in (x + y)4
and never choosing y. Analogously, x3y appears four times in (3) because we can
pick exactly one y from any of the four expressions x + y occurring in (x + y)4. In
general, the coefficient of xi yj (with i + j = 4) is equal to the number of ways of
choosing j y's from the four expressions x + y (the remaining choices being x's).

29 
 
 ⎛ 4⎞
Thus the coefficient of xiyj is ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , and consequently (3) can be rewritten as
⎝ j⎠
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
( x + y ) 4 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 4 y 0 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 3 y 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 2 y 2
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x1 y 3 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 0 y 4
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
= x 4 + 4 x 3 y + 6 x 2 y 2 + 4 xy 3 + y 4

In general, if n is a positive integer and we expand (x + y)n by writing

n exp ressions ( x + y )
644 474448
( x + y ) = ( x + y )( x + y )...( x + y )
n
(4)

and then multiplying out, the result is a sum of terms of the form
(coefficient) x i y j , where i + j = n. The coefficient of x i y j is equal to the
number of ways of choosing j y's from the n expressions x + y (the
remaining n — j choices being x's) in the parentheses on the right side
of (4).
⎛n⎞
Thus that coefficient is ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . The resulting formula for (x + y)n, which we state
⎝ j⎠
below, is known as the Binomial Theorem. It was one of the first theorems of
Isaac Newton, proved in 1665, yet it was discovered nearly 600 years earlier
by the great Persian poet and mathematician Omar Khayyam (1044-1123?).

THEOREM Let x and y be any real numbers and let n be any positive integer.
Then The Binomial Theorem
⎛n⎞ ⎛n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
( x + y ) n = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x n + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x n−1 y + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x n −2 y 2 + ...
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
(5)
⎛ n ⎞ n −1 ⎛ n ⎞ n
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ xy + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ y
⎝ n − 1⎠ ⎝n⎠
or more succinctly,

30 
 
 n
⎛ n⎞
( x + y ) n = ∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x n− j y j (6)
j =0 ⎝ j ⎠

The right side of (5) or (6) is known as the binomial expansion of the
binomial (x + y)n. The Binomial Theorem is also valid if x or y is complex.
EXAMPLE 1: Find the binomial expansion of (x + y)6.
Solution: By (5) with n = 6, we have

⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞ ⎛6⎞

( x + y ) 6 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 6 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 5 y + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 3 y 3
⎝0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
⎛6⎞ ⎛ 6⎞ ⎛6⎞
+⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 2 y 4 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ xy 5 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ y 6
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝6⎠
= x 6 + 6 x 5 y + 15 x 4 y 2 + 20 x 3 y 3 + 15 x 2 y 4 + 6 xy 5 + y 6

EXAMPLE 2: Find the binomial expansion of (2r2 - 3s)5.

Solution: By (5) with n = 5, and with x replaced by 2r2 and y replaced by — 3s, we
have
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛5⎞
(2r 2 − 3s ) 5 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(2r 2 ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(2r 2 ) 4 (−3s ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(2r 2 ) 3 (−3s ) 2
⎝ 0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
+⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (2r 2 ) 2 (−3s ) 3 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(2r 2 )(−3s) 4 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(−3s ) 5
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 5⎠
= 32r 10 + 5(16r 8 )(−3s) + 10(8r 6 )(9s 2 ) □
+10(4r 4 )(−27 s 3 ) + 5(2r 2 )(81s 4 ) + (−243s 5 )
= 32r 10 − 240r 8 s + 720r 6 s 2 − 1080r 4 s 3 + 810r 2 s 4 − 243s 5
Sometimes it is necessary to isolate the kth term in the binomial expansion
⎛ n ⎞ n −k +1 k −1
of (x + y)n. By (6) the kth term is ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x y .
⎝ k − 1 ⎠
12
⎛1 ⎞
EXAMPLE 3: Write the sixth term in the binomial expansion of ⎜ + y ⎟
⎝x ⎠
Solution: By our observation above, with n = 12 and k = 5, the sixth term is

31 
 
 12 −5
⎛12 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ y5
⎝ 5 ⎠⎝ x ⎠

Since
⎛12 ⎞ 12! 12.11.10.9.8(7!)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
⎝ 5 ⎠ 7!5! (7!)5.4.3.2.1
12.11.10.9.8
= = 792
5 .4 .3 .2

and
12 −5 7
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = x −7 the sixth term can be written more simply
⎝x⎠ ⎝ x⎠

as 792x-7y5.□
EXAMPLE 4: Let a be a positive number and n a positive integer.
Use the Binomial Theorem to prove that (1 + a)n > 1 + na.
Solution: By (5), with x replaced by 1 and y by a, we have

(1 + a )n = ⎛⎜⎜
n ⎞ n ⎛ n ⎞ n−1 ⎛n⎞
⎟⎟1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟1 a + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟1n− 2 a 2 + ...
⎝0⎠ ⎝1⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ n ⎞ n−1 ⎛ n ⎞ n
+⎜⎜ ⎟⎟a + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟a
⎝ n − 1⎠ ⎝n⎠
⎛n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ n−1 ⎛ n ⎞ n
= 1 + na + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟a 2 + ... + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟a + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟a
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ n − 1⎠ ⎝n⎠
Since a is positive by hypothesis, all terms on the right side are positive, so
it follows that (1 + a) n is greater than the sum, 1 + na, of the first two

terms. □
Pascal’s Triangle If we write down the values of the binomial coefficients of
(x+ y)n for n = 0, 1,2, 3, 4, and 5 in the following fashion, we obtain a
triangular array:
Coefficients Binomial

1
( x+)0
1 1
( x + y)1
1 2 1 32 
 
( x + y)2
1 3 3 1 ( x + y)3
6 4 1 ( x + y)4
The triangular array that arises from writing out the binomial coefficients of (x +
y)n for n = 0,1,2,3, . . is called Pascal's triangle, after the French mathematician
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), who wrote a treatise on properties of the triangular
array.* Notice that the borders of the array consist of 1's, and any number in
the array not on the border is the sum of the two closest numbers in the
preceding row. *The triangular array is not actually due to Pascal, and in fact the
array appeared even as early as 1303 in a work by a Chinese mathematician, Chu
Shi Kei. Nevertheless, Pascal's name is attached to it because of his treatise on
the triangular array.
Exercises 1-10, use the Binomial Theorem to expanded given power of the
given binomial.

1. ( x + y) 5 7. (a − 1a )5
2. ( x − y) 3 8. (z 2
−1 ) 7

8
⎛ 1 ⎞
3. ( x + 2) 3
9. ⎜⎜ x + ⎟⎟
⎝ x⎠

4. ( 2 x − 1) 6 10. (x 3
− x −3 )
6

5. ( x − y) 7

6. ( 2 x − 12 ) 5

In Exercises 11-14, use the Binomial Theorem to calculate the value of the
given expression.

11. ( 2 +1 ) 4

12. ( 2 + 1) + (
4
2 −1 ) 4

13. (2 − i )5
14. (2 − i )5 − (2 + i) 5
15. Find the fourth term of ( x + y ) 8 .

16. Find the seventh term of (2 x − 3)10 .

33 
 
17. Find the coefficient of x 6 y 9 in the binomial expansion of (2 x 2 − y 3 ) 6 .

18. Find the coefficient of x 4 in the binomial expansion of (1 − 2 x ) 7 .

1
19. Find the constant term in the binomial expansion of ( x − )10 .
x
20. a. Fill in the seventh row of Pascal's Triangle. (Hint: See Example 1.)
b. Fill in the eighth row of Pascal's Triangle.
21. Use the first three terms of the expansion of (1 - 0.02)7 to
approximate (0.98)7.
22. Without the use of a calculator, prove that (1.012)30 > 1.36.
23. In the binomial expansion of a certain binomial, the
. . .
fifth term appears before simplification as  
. . .

a. Write the original binomial. 

b. Determine the seventh term in the binomial expansion. 
24. The coefficients of the sixth and eleventh terms in the binomial
expansion of are the same. Determine the value of n. 

25.a. Show that the sum of the coefficients in the binomial expansion of
is 2n. (Hint; Let x= y= 1.) b. Show that the sum of the
coefficients in the binomial expansion of is 0.
26. Show that the sum of the numbers in the nth row of Pascal's Triangle is
twice the sum of the preceding row. (Hint: Use Exercise 25(a).)

KEY FORMULAS

∑   ,   ∑  , ∑ for | |

! !
1 ! 1 2 … 2.1   ,  ,  
! ! !

∑  

REVIEW EXERCISES
In Exercises 1-4, use mathematical induction to prove the given formula for all

34 
 
positive integers n.
1. 1 3 5 2 1  
2. 2 5 8 3 1 3 1  
3. 1 5 5 5 5 1  

4.  
. . .

5. Prove by induction that 3 is a factor of n3 + 2n for every integer n > 0.

6. Let
…
√ √ √
√2  
Show that an <2 for each n > 1. (Hint: Let 1 √2 and 1

√2 for 1. Use mathematical induction to prove that an < 2 for n > 1)

a. For n > 1 let 1 1 1 … 1 Use the fact that

for each positive integer k, 1     to rewrite the formula for an. Then

cancel where possible to discover a formula that shows that an is an integer. 

b. Use mathematical induction to prove the formula you obtained in
part (a).
7. Use mathematical induction to prove that 4n >n2 for every integer n > 0.
∞
In Exercises 9-12, find the first five terms of the sequence 1. 
8. 4 1  
9. 2 2  
10. 3; 2 4 
11. 0; 2  
In Exercises 13-20, find the indicated partial sum.
12. ∑ 2       17. ∑ 5 7  

13. ∑ 1      18. ∑

14. ∑ 19. ∑ 2

15. ∑ 20. ∑ 2
21. Find the nth term an of the arithmetic sequence whose first
term is 5 and whose common difference is . 

35 
 
 22. Find the nth term an of the arithmetic sequence whose second
term is 7 and whose common difference is -3. 
23. Find the nth term an of the arithmetic sequence whose fifth
term is 13 and whose ninth term is 5. 
24. Find the nth term an of the geometric sequence whose first
term is 2 and whose common ratio is . 
25. Find the nth term an of the geometric sequence whose fifth term
is and whose common ratio is - . 
26. Find the nth term an of the geometric sequence whose third
term is — 5 and whose sixth term is 625. 
In Exercises 27-30, find the numerical value of the geometric series.

27. ∑ 3   29. ∑ 6

28. ∑ 30.  ∑ 0.8  

31. Express 0.151515 … as a fraction.

32. Express 3.062062062 . . . as a fraction.
In Exercises 33-42, calculate the given number.
33. The number of permutations of 6 objects taken 3 at a time.
34. The number of permutations of 8 objects taken 6 at a time.
35. The number of combinations of 4 objects taken 2 at a time.
36. The number of combinations of 8 objects taken 5 at a time.
⎛8⎞
37.           41. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  
⎝ 4⎠

⎛15 ⎞
38.          42. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟  
⎝12 ⎠

39.  

40. 10 c7  

In Exercises 43-46, use the Binomial Theorem to expand the given

power of the binomial.

36 
 
43. ( x + y) 8 45. (− 3 x + 4 )3
44. ( x − y) 6 46. (2 x 2 − y) 5
47. Use the Binomial Theorem to calculate

a. ( 2− 3 + ) (
4
2+ 3 )4

b. (1 − 4i ) 3 − (1 + 4i ) 3

48. Find the fifth term of (πx − y ) 6 .

49. Find the coefficient of the third term in the binomial expansion of
( x + 2 y )16 .
50. Suppose a university receives $1,000,000 in contributions in 1988,
and each year thereafter the amount of contribution increases by
$100,000. How much will the university have received in
contributions by the end of 1997?
51. Which is more valuable—a gift consisting of one dollar each day for
100 days, or a gift consisting of 10¢ the first day, 20¢ the second day,
40¢ the third day, and so on for 10 days?
52. Suppose a king grants a peasant one grain of wheat the first day, 2
grains of wheat the second day, 4 grains of wheat the third day, and so
on for 30 days. Use a calculator to compute the number of grains of
wheat the peasant would receive.
53. How many 7-digit telephone numbers are there that neither begin nor
end in 0?
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions
Consider the equation given by: x 2 + 1 = 0 , Where we have that x 2 = −1 .

Then, since the square of every real number is nonnegative, the equation
x 2 = −1 has no real roots. Faced with this difficulty, some 16th century
algebraists began to use what they called an "imaginary" number − 1 for
which they postulated ( − 1) 2 = −1 but in all other respects treated as an

ordinary number. This "imaginary" − 1 was used in this manner for centuries

37 
 
in all sorts of algebraic calculations, often uneasily but usually with good,
results. A geometric interpretation of imaginary quantities was given in the
early part of the 19th century. With it came a collective sigh of relief. The

number − 1 made sense after all. The symbol − 1 came to be written i, and
combinations of the form a + bi, with a and b real, came to be known as
complex numbers. Today complex numbers and complex functions play a
prominent role, not only in algebra and most branches of mathematics, but
in all the quantitative sciences and in engineering.

Complex Numbers and the Complex Plane

To introduce the complex numbers we begin with Figure B.1.1. Just as the
real numbers can be thought of as points of the number line, the complex
numbers can. By the celebrated Carl Friedrich Gauss, and independently by the
French-Swiss mathematician Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822). In electrical

engineering − 1 is written j, the symbol i being reserved for current be

thought of as points of the coordinate plane. For x-axis write real axis; for y-
axis write imaginary axis; for the point (a, b) write a + bi.

y imaginary axis

(a,b) (a+b)

b b

x real axis
a a

the point (a,b)

the complex number a + bi

FIGURE B.1. 1.

38 
 
 Some complex numbers are plotted in Figure B.1.2.

imaginary axis

4 + 3i
- 4 + 3i
real axis

- 4 – 3i 4 – 3i

Figure B.1.2

If b = 0, then a + bi reduces to a + 0i, which we write simply as a. In this sense

the set of real numbers forms a subset of the set of complex numbers: if x is
real, then x = x + Oi. If a = 0, then a + bi reduces to 0 + bi, which we write
simply as bi. Complex numbers of the form bi are called purely imaginary. A
complex number a + bi is thus determined by two components: a real part a and
an imaginary part b. By definition two complex numbers are equal if their real
and imaginary parts are equal: a + bi = c + di if a = c and b = d. (1.1)
Vector-like Properties
In many respects complex numbers behave as two-dimensional vectors. To
add complex numbers we add the real arid imaginary parts separately:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i. (1.2)
This is vector addition according to the parallelogram rule. (Figure B.1.3)

imaginary axis

(a + c) + (b + d)i

c + di

a + bi
real axis

Figure B.1.3

39 
 
For each real number  we set (a +bi) = a + bi. (1.3)
This is just scalar multiplication of a two-dimensional Vector. The complex
number 0 + 0i is written 0, Clearly 0(a + bi) = 0. By - (c + di) we mean the
product (-1)(c + di); that is, -(c + di) = -c – di By (a + bi) - (c + di) we mean
(a + bi) + [-(c + di)]; thus (a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i.
Here are some examples:
(2 + 3i ) + (6 − 5i ) = 8 − 2i, (2 + 3i ) − (6 − 5i ) = −4 + 8i
(2 + 3i ) − (2 + 3i ) = 0 + oi = 0, − (1 − 2i ) = −1 + 2i
5 − (3 + 12 i ) = 2 − 12 i, (3 + 4i ) − 5i = 3 − i
3(1 − i ) − 4(2 + 3i ) = (3 − 3i ) − (8 + 12i ) = −5 − 15i.

The absolute value (or modulus) of a complex number z — a + bi is defined by

setting

z = a2 + b2 (1.4)

If b = 0, then z is real and z is simply the absolute value of a real number:

z = a + 0i = a 2 + 0 2 = a 2 = a .

In general, z gives the distance from z to the origin and z − w gives the

distance between z and w. (Figure B.1.4)

imaginary axis imaginary axis

z = a + bi z

z  z
z−w 

real axis real axis

w
w

If r, > 0 and z0 is some complex number, the complex numbers z such that
z − z0 = r

40 
 
form a circle of radius r centered at z0. The inequality z − z0 < r gives the

interior of this circle and z − z 0 > r gives the exterior.

Problem: Describe the set of complex numbers z such that (1) r2 < z < r2 .

(2) z − z1 = z − z 2 .

SOLUTION
1. Equations z = r1 and z = r2 represent circles about the origin with radii r1

and r2, respectively. The inequality r1 < z < r2 represents the closed annular

region (the closed ring) bounded by these circles. (Figure B.1.5).

2. The left side of the equation is the distance between z and z1; the right
side is the distance between z and z2. A complex number z satisfies the
equation if it is equidistant from z1 and z2. The set of all z equidistant
from z1 and z2 forms a straight line, the perpendicular bisector of the line

segment that joins z1 to z2. (Figure B.1.6) □

3.

imaginary axis imaginary axis

z1
r2

r1 real axis real axis

z2

Figure 20.1.6
Figure 20.1.5

A imaginary axis

The absolute value of a complex number z = a + bi is the norm of the two-

dimensional vector z = ai + bj: a + bi = a 2 + b 2 = ai + bj .

Obviously then

41 
 
1. z > 0 and z = 0 if z = 0,

2. az = a z for all real ,

3. z + w < z + w (the triangle inequality) (1.5)

Multiplication
In all that we've discussed so far complex numbers can be viewed as two-
dimensional vectors clothed in special notation. We come now to an
operation that has no analog in the world of vectors: complex number
multiplication. By definition, (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc)i.
If b is zero, the formula gives a(c + di) = ac + adi, (1.6)
the usual rule for multiplying a complex number by a real number. If b and d
are both zero, both sides reduce to ac, the ordinary product of two real
numbers. Thus complex number multiplication generalizes both
multiplication by scalars (1.3) and real number multiplication. Here are two
routine multiplications carried out:
(2 + 3i )(6 + 5i ) = [(2)(6) − (3)(5)] + [(2)(5) + (3)(6)]i = −3 + 28i.
□
(2 + 3i )(6 − 5i ) = [(2)(6) − (3)(−5)] + [(2)(−5) + (3)(6)i = 27 + 8i

The special merit of the multiplication defined in (1.6) is that it gives us a

square root of - 1. In fact, it gives us two of them: +i.
i 2 = −1 and ( −i ) 2 = −1 (1.7)
PROOF
i 2 = (0 + i )(0 + i ) = [(0)(0) − (1)(1)] + [(0)(1) + (1)(0)]i
= − 1 + 0i = −1,
□
(−i ) = (0 − i )(0 − i ) = [(0)(0) − (−1)(−1)] + [(0)(−1) + (−1)(0)]i
2

= (−1 + 0i = −1.

Not only can we take the square root of — 1, but we can take the square root
of any negative number. If p > 0, the equation x2 = – p has two purely
imaginary roots: x =+ pi. (1.8)

PROOF

42 
 
( p i ) 2 = (0 + pi )(0 + pi )
= [(0)(0) − p p ] + [(0)( p ) + ( p )(0)]i
= − p + 0i = − p.
□
( − p i ) 2 = (0 − pi )(0 − pi )
= [(0)(0) − (− p )(− p )] + [(0)(− p ) + (− p )(0)]i
= − p + 0i = − p.

Now that we can take the square root of every real number (positive, zero, or

− b + b 2 − 4ac
negative), we can apply the general quadratic formula ; x =
2a
to all real quadratic equations ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Example: For the quadratic equation x 2 − 3x + 5 = 0 , nwe have

b 2 − 4ac = 9 − 20 = −11 < 0, but that is no deterrent. The roots are

3 + − 11 3 11
x= = + i.
2 2 2
You can check these roots by substituting them into the quadratic

equation.□
It's not hard to verify that the complex numbers, with addition and
multiplication as now defined, satisfy the familiar rules of arithmetic:
z1 + z 2 = z 2 + z1 , z 2 z1 (commutative laws)

z1 + ( z 2 + z 3 ) = ( z1 + z 2 ) + z 3 , z1 ( z 2 z 3 ) = ( z1 z 2 ) z 3 (associative laws)

z1 ( z 2 + z 3 ) = z1 z 2 + z1 z 3 = ( z 2 + z 3 ) z1 . (distributive laws)

Moreover, for all complex numbers z

0+z=z+0=z and 1. z = z.1= z.
Once you've accepted these familiar rules, you can multiply complex
numbers a + bi and c + di without recourse to Formula (1.6). Simply treat a
+ bi and c +di as linear polynomials in i, set i2 = – 1, and collect terms:
(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i.
Thus, for example,

43 
 
 (6 + 2i )(3 − 5i ) = 18 − 30i + 6i − 10i 2 = 28 − 24i,
(1 − 32 i )(6 − 5i ) = 6 − 5i − 9i − 152 = − 32 − 14i, □
(2i )(3i )(2 − 5i ) = 6i 2 (2 − 5i ) = −6(2 − 5i ) = −12 + 30i.

In working with complex numbers it is reassuring to know that there are no

"divisors of zero": If zw = 0, then either z = 0 or w=0. (1.9)
PROOF. Set z = a + bi, w = c + di and assume that (a + bi)(c + di) = 0;
that is, assume that (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc)i = 0 + 0i.
Since two complex numbers are equal if their real and imaginary parts are
equal, we have ac - bd = 0 and ad + bc = 0.
Therefore
0 = (ac − bd ) 2 + (ad + bc) 2
= a 2c 2 + b 2 d 2 + a 2d 2 + b 2c 2
(a 2 + b 2 )(c 2 + d 2 )

And so either a2 + b2 = 0 or c2 + d2 = 0.This means that either a and b are

zero, in which case z = a + bi = 0, or c and d are zero, in which case w=c+i=0.

□
Buried in the proof of (1.9) you'll find the identity (ac - bd)2 + (ad + bc)2 = (a2

+b2) (c2 + d2). Stated in terms of z and w, the identity reads zw = z w .

2 2 2

Taking square roots, we have zw = z w . (1.10)

This is an important relation.

Conjugation and Division
The complex conjugate z of a complex number z = a + bi is defined by setting
z = a − bi. (1.11)
As illustrated in Figure B.1.7, z can be obtained z by a reflection in the
real axis.

imaginary axis

z =a + bi

real axis

z =a - bi 44 
 
FIGURE B.1.7
Division of complex number is based on a simple relation between conjugates

and absolute value. For real numbers, r 2 = r . The analog for complex numbers
2

reads zz = z .
2
(1.12)

zz = (a+ bi )(a − bi ) = a 2 − abi + abi − b 2 i 2 = a 2 + b 2 = z . □

2

In the exercises you are asked to show that for z ≠ 0 zw1=zw2 implies w1= w2.
It follows that there can be at most one complex number w satisfying the
equation zw =1. For z ≠ 0 we defined the reciprocal 1/z (sometimes
written z - 1 ) as the unique number w that satisfies the equation zw
z
= 1. To calculate 1/z, note that for z ≠ 0 the relation zz = z = 1.
2
gives z. 2
z

It follows then from the very definition of reciprocal that, for z ≠ 0,

1 1
= 2 z. (1.13)
z z

Examples
1 1 1
1. = = (3 − 4i ).
3 + 4i 3 + 4i (3 + 4i ) 25
2

1 1
2. = i = −i. □
i i2

Division of complex numbers is now clear: for complex numbers z1, and z2 with
z2 ≠ 0, we set

z1 1
= z1 . (1.14)
z2 z2
Then of course

45 
 
 z1 1 1
= z1 . 2 z 2 = zz .
2 1 2
z2 z2 z2

Problem: Calculate the quotient

3 − 2i
1 + 4i
SOLUTION
3 − 2i ⎛ 1 ⎞
= (3 − 2i ) ⎜ ⎟
1 + 4i ⎝ 1 + 4i ⎠ □
1 1 1
= (3 − 2i ) (1 − 4i ) = (3 − 2i )(1 − 4i ) = (−5 − 14i ).
17 17 17
A division can be carried out by multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator:
z1
z2

z1 z1 z 2 z1 z 2 z1 z 2
= . = = 2
.
z2 z2 z2 z2 z2 z2

Thus we can write

3 − 2i 3 − 2i 1 − 4i (3 − 2i )(1 − 4i ) − 5 − 14i
= . = = .
1 + 4i 1 + 4i 1 − 4i (1 + 4i )(1 − 4i ) 17
In the exercises you will be asked to verify that conjugation has the
following special properties:
1. z = z if z is real.
2. z = z.

3. z + w = z + w.
4. zw = zw.

5. (1 / z ) = 1 / z ; ( z / w) = z / w .

Some of these properties are obvious; some are not. All should be remembered.
Finally, a word on notation. One consequence of the commutative law for
multiplication is that for any real number b, ib = bi. Where typographically
46 
 
advantageous, we'll write a + ib instead of a + bi. Thus, for instance, the
decomposition of a complex number z into its real and imaginary parts will be
displayed by writing.
z = Re(z ) + i Im(z ). (1.16)
Exercises
Calculate.
*1. (5 + i ) + (3 − 2i ). 2.(5 + i ) − (3 − 2i ).
* 3. (6 − 4i ) − (5 − 3i ) + i. *4.3(2 − 7i ) − 2(1 + i ).
5. i (5 + i ). *6.i (5 − i ).
* 7. (1 + i )(1 − i ). 8.(1 + i ) 2 .
* 9. (5 + i ) (3 + 2i ). *10.(5 + i )(3 − 2i ).
11.i 3 . *12.i 4 .
*13. (1 − i ) 3 . 14.1 + i + i 2 + i 3 .
*15.i (1 + i )(2 + i ). *16.[ 12 2 (1 + i )]2 .
17. [ 12 2 (1 + i )]4 . *18.(5 + i )(3 + 2i )(5 − i )(3 − 2i ).
1 1
*19. . 20. .
1− i 5 + 2i
1 3 + 2i
* 21. . *22. .
7 − 3i 2+i
i 2 + 5i
23. . *24. .
3 − 5i 5 − 2i
1 1+ i
25. . 26. .
(2 − i )(3 − 2i ) (1 − i )
i 3 −i
27. . 28.
(1 − i )(3 + 2i ) (1 + i )( 3 + i )
29. Taking z = 1 - i plot the following points:
(a) z. (b) – z. (c) 1
2 z. . (d) 2z.

(e) z . (f) z2. (g) 1/z. (h) 1 / z .

*30. A rectangle with sides parallel to the coordinate axes has opposite vertices
at 1 + 6i and 4 + 2i. (a) Where are the other vertices? (b) What is the length
of a diagonal? (c) What is the area of the rectangle? (d) Where is the center
of the rectangle?
31. Find the distance between z and w:

47 
 
 *(a) z = 2 + 3i, w = - 1 + i. (b) z = 3i, w = 1 - 8i.
Solve the following quadratic equations.
*32. x2 + 4 = 0. 33. x2 + 2x + 9 = 0.
*34. 3x2 + 2x + 10 = 0. 35. 5x2 - 2x + 5 = 0.
Solve for all real values of x and y.
7 + 24i 1 + iy
* 36. = 1. 37. = y − 2i
( x + iy ) 2 2 + 3i

*38. Calculate in for all positive integers n.

39. Describe the set of points z that satisfy the condition:
*(a) z < 1. (b) 0 < z < 1. *(c) z − i < 2.

*(d) z + 2i = z − 2i . (e) 1 + z = 1 − z . *(f) z + i < z + 1.

*(g) 2 z − 5i < 1. (h) z < z + 2 . *(i) Re[3 + 4i) z ] = 0.

40. Using z1 = a + bi, z 2 = c + di, z 3 = r + si, verify that the following laws hold for

complex multiplication (20.1.6):

(a) 1.z1 = z1 .1 = z1 .

(b) z1 z 2 = z 2 z1 . (commutative law)

(c) z1 ( z 2 + z 3 ) = z1 z 2 + z 1 z 3 . (distributive law)

(d) z1 ( z 2 z 3 ) = ( z1 z 2 ) z 3 . (associative law)

41. Verify the following identities:

1 1
(a) Re( z ) = ( z + z ). (b) ( z − z ).
2 2i

* 42. Verify the following "cancellation law” for z ≠ 0,

zw1 = zw2 implies w1 = w2.
43. Show that
(a) z = z if z is real. (b) z = z.

(c) z + w = z + w. (d) z w = z w .

(e) 1 / z = 1 / z . (f) z / w = z / w.
*44. Use the identity z w = z w to show that zw = z w .

48 
 
45. (a) Show that for each complex number z z n = ( z ) n .

(b) Let P ( x ) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ... + a1 x + a 0 be a polynomial with real

coefficients, and let z be a fixed complex number. Show that

P( z ) = 0 if P( z ) = 0.

Polar Forms; Complex Functions of a Real Variable

We defined complex number multiplication in a formal, purely algebraic manner
and gave no geometric interpretation to it. Most of us would find it rather difficult
to derive much geometric information directly from Formula (1.6). But what is
difficult in one coordinate system can be easy in another. In this section we bring
polar coordinates to the complex plane and through these arrive at a totally
geometric characterization of complex number multiplication.We begin with a
complex number z, which we view as a point of the complex plane. To this point
we assign polar coordinates [r ,θ ] taking r > 0; which means, in effect, taking

r = z . We have, Re(z ) = r cos θ , Im(z ) = r sin θ . . These two relations give

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ , which we write as   z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ).         (2.1)

This representation of z is illustrated in Figure (B.2.1).

imaginary axis

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )  
r

θ real axis

FIGURE B.2.1

The angle θ 0 is called an argument for z. We write θ = arg z.

The notion has no meaning if z = 0. On the next page you'll find the expression

49 
 
cos θ + i sin θ written as eiθ. We'll explain here how this comes about.
The complex-valued function
f (θ ) = cos θ + i sin θ , θ real differs from the vector function
f (θ ) = cos θ + i sin θ j, θ real only in notation. Since f can be
differentiated component by component. Differentiating f we have
d d
f '(θ ) = (cosθ ) i + (sin θ ) j = − sin θ i + cosθ j.
dθ dθ
Differentiating f we have
d d
f ' (θ ) = (cos θ ) + i (sin θ ) = − sin θ + i cos θ .
dθ dθ
The advantage of complex number notation is that we need not stop here.
Replacing — sinθ by i2 sin θ , we have

f ' (θ ) = i 2 sin θ + i cos θ = i (cos θ + i sin θ ) = i f (θ ).

Note also that f(0) = cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1.
We have found that the function f (θ ) = cos θ + i sin θ satisfies the initial value
problem f ' (θ ) = i f (θ ), f (0) = 1.

For k real the only function to satisfy the initial value problem
f ' (θ ) = kf (θ ), f (0) = 1 is the exponential e kθ In recognition of this we
define
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ . (2.2)
Formula 2.1 can now be written
z = reiθ (2.3)
This is called the exponential polar form of z.
The point z = re iθ lies at a distance r from the origin along the ray θ. See

Figure 2.2. The exponential e iθ has period 2π :

ei
(θ + 2π ) = cos (θ + 2π ) + i sin (θ + 2π ) = cos θ + i sin θ = e iθ .

50 
 
As the argument θ varies over an interval of length 2π , z = e iθ traces out the unit

circle and z = reiθ traces out the circle z = r. If θ is kept fixed, then, as r

imaginary axis

increases, z = reiθ moves out along the ray θ.rayθ  

z = reiθ
r 
z = reiθ
real axis
1

Figure B.2.2

Problem: Write z = 3 3 + 3i in exponential polar form taking θ ∈[0, 2π ).

SOLUTION: We begin by setting
r = z and r cosθ = Re(z ), r sin θ = Im(z ).

Here, r = (3 3 ) 2 + 32 = 36 = 6. It follows that 6 cos θ = 3 3, 6 sin θ = 3 and

therefore cos θ = 1
2 3, sin θ = 12 . . The only value of θ in [0,2π ) to satisfy these

relations is 0 = 16 π . The polar form we want is z = 6ei 16 π . □

1 1 − iθ ,
If z = re iθ , then i. z = re −iθ and ii. = e z ≠ 0. (2.4)
z r
PROOF
i. The complex conjugate z can be obtained from z by a reflection in the
real axis. It follows that z = z = r and − θ is an argument for z .

Thus we can write z = re −iθ .

ii. With z ≠ 0
1 1
= 2 z = r12 re −iθ = 1r e −iθ . □
z z
by (1.13) by (1.13)
51 
 
 1
Applying (ii) to z = e iθ we have = e − iθ . (2.5)
e iθ
The complex exponential e iθ has many of the properties of the real exponential
e x . In particular,

iθ1 iθ 2 i (θ1 +θ 2 ), e iθ1

i. e .e =e (ii) iθ 2
= e i (θ1 −θ 2 ) .
e
PROOF: real that
cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) = cosθ1 cosθ 2 − sin θ1 sin θ 2 ,
sin (θ1 + θ 2 ) = sin θ1 cosθ 2 + cosθ1 sin θ 2 .

Formula (i) follows readily from these identities:

iθ 2
e iθ1 . e = (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ 2 + sin θ 2 )
= (cos θ1 cos θ 2 − sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ 2 + cos θ1 sin θ 2 )
= cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 )'
= e i (θ1 +θ 2 ).
Formula (ii) follows directly from (2.5) and Formula (i):
e iθ1 1
iθ 2
= e iθ1 . iθ 2 = (e iθ1 )(e −iθ 2 ) = e i (θ1 − θ 2 ). □
e e
Exponential polar forms provide a transparent geometric description of
multiplication and division of complex numbers. For complex numbers z1 , z 2
with polar forms
z1 = z1 e iθ1 , z 2 = z 2 e iθ 2 ,

we have
θ1 + θ 2 );
z1 z 2 = ( z1 e iθ1 )( z 2 e iθ 2 ) = ( z1 z 2 )(e iθ1 . e iθ 2 ) = ( z1 z 2 )e i (

by (2.6)
namely, we multiply complex numbers by multiplying absolute values and
adding arguments.

z1 z1 i (θ1 −θ 2 );
Similarly, you can see that, if z2 ≠ 0, then = e
z2 z2

52 
 
in taking quotients, we divide absolute values and take the difference of the
arguments
Example: We begin with a nonzero complex number z; in exponential polar
i 1π i (θ + 12 π ).
form: z = reiθ . To obtain iz from z we rotate by 12 π radians: iz = e 2 re iθ = re

To obtain — z from z we rotate by  radians: − z = (−1) z = e iπ re iθ = re i (θ +π ) . †

i ( − 12 π ) i (θ − 12 π )
To obtain — iz from z we rotate by − 12 π radians: − iz = e re iθ = re .

These operations are illustrated in Figure B2.3. □

† The relation e iπ = −1 can be written e iπ + 1 = 0. This little equation connects

what can be viewed as the five most important numbers in mathematics.

imaginary axis

θ
θ + 12 π   z = reiθ
iz  
r 

real axis
− iz
−z  θ − 12 π  
θ +π

FIGURE B.2.3
Powers and Roots
The following result is important in the study of powers and roots.
De Moivre's Theorem. †
For θ real (e iθ ) n = e inθ for all positive integers n.
PROOF: We proceed by induction on n. The case n = 1 is clear. Suppose
that the formula holds for n = kr Then

53 
 
 (e iθ ) k +1 = [(e iθ ) k ][e iθ ]
= [e ikθ ][e iθ ]
(induction hypothesis) (2.6)
=e i ( kθ +θ )
= e i ( k +1)θ ,
and thus the formula holds for n = k + 1. The general formula now holds by

induction. □
†Named after its discoverer, Abraham De Moivre (1667-1754), a French
Huguenot who settled in London after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
Supporting himself by giving private lessons in mathematics and games of
chance, De Moivre made many contributions to analytic trigonometry and
probability theory. In terms of sines and cosines De Moivre's formula reads
(cosθ + i sin θ ) n = cos nθ + i sin nθ . (2.8)
One consequence of De Moivre's theorem is an elegant formula for positive
integral powers of z: If z = re iθ , then z n = r n e inθ . (2.9)
PROOF
z n = (re iθ ) n = r n (e iθ ) n = r n e inθ . □
i 1π i ( 3. 13 π )
For example, (4 + 4 3i ) 3 = (8e 3 ) 3 = 512e = 512e iπ = −512. □

Given a positive integer n and a complex number z, we define an nth root of z to

be any complex number w such that (*) wn = z.
We'll use polar representations to derive the formulas for nth roots. We begin
with z ≠ 0. Setting z = reiθ , w = seΦ and substituting into (*), we obtain
s n e inΦ = reiθ . . Equating absolute values, we have s n = r , s = n r , and thus w = n z .

Considering arguments, we see that nø is an argument for z. Since all arguments

for z are of the form θ + 2kπ , k an integer, we have nø= θ + 2kπ and thus ø
θ 2kπ
= + By choosing k = 0,1, 2, ..., n − 1 we obtain n different values for ø, none of
n n
which differ from another by an integral multiple of 2. All other integral values
for k will give a value for ø which differs from one of these n values by an integral
multiple of 2. (We conclude that there are precisely n distinct nth roots of z:

54 
 
 (θn + 2 knπ )
z1/ n = n z e i , k = 0,1, 2, ..., n − 1. ..(2.10) Or b 2 x12 + a 2 y12 = a 2 b 2 …(2

Circular Measure

The Theory of Trigonometric Ratio Compound Angles and product formulae

 
Fig. 1

Consider the diagram in Fig.7,1

;

Take a point C on OQ. Draw a perpendicular from C to meet OX at F.

Draw a perpendicular from C to meet OP at D.

Draw a perpendicular from D to meet CF at G.
Lastly, draw a perpendicular from D to meet OX at E.
From Fig 1.
90 , since GDE 90
Also 90 since 90
.
Our target is to find expressions for sin (A + B),
cos (A+B), sin (A – B) and cos (A – B) in terms of sin A, sin B, cos A and cos B.

sin (A + B)

55 
 
From Fig 1.

sin (A +B) = sin

sin . cos cos . sin sin sin . cos cos . sin

Replacing B by –B sin(A - B) = sinA cos B – cos A sin B Hence,

sin(A - B) = sinA cos B – cos A sin B , cos (A + B) cos

- = Cos A cosB – sinAsinB

cos , Replacing B by –B, Cos(A-B) = cosAcos(-

B)-sinAsin(-B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB. Hence , Cos(A – B) = cosAcosB

÷sinAsin(B) tan(A±B) tan(A+B) = = Dividing both

numerator and denominator by cosAcosB

A B A B
tan(A + B) = , On simplification
A B A B

tan(A+B) = 1 - tan , Replacing B by –B

tan tan

The formulae which we have established above are called Addition formulae.
The addition formulae are not only true for acute compound angles but they
are also true for any compound angle. The addition formulae can be
summarized as: sin(A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB,
sin(A - B) = sinAcosB – cosAsinB, cos(A + B) = cosAcosB – sinAsinB
cos(A - B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
Example 1
Using addition formulae evaluate each of the following in simple and forms:
(a) Sin75o (b) cos75o (c) sin15o (d) cos15o (e) sin105o (f) cos105o (g) tan75o
(h) tan15o (i) sin255o (j) cos 195o (k) sin345o (l) tan195o
Solution

(a) sin750 = sin(30° + 450) = sin30° cos45° + cos30° sin 45°

56 
 
 √ √ √
= x = √2 √6 , cos75o = cos(30o + 45o)
√ √ √
= cos30o cos45o – sin30osin45o = x = √6 √2
√ √ √
(b) Sin15o = sin(45o-30o) = sin45ocos30o-cos45osin30o = x

= √6 √2 (c) Cos15o = cos(45o – 30o) = cos45ocos30o+sin45osin30o

√ √ √
= x = √6 √2
(d) Sin105o = sin(60o+ 45o) = sin 60ocos45o+ cos60osin45o
√ √ √
= x = √6 √2
(e) Cos105o = cos(60o + 45o) = Cos60ocos45o – sin60osin45o
√ √ √
= x = √2 √6
√ √
° ° √
(f) tan75o = tan(30o + 45o) = = √
= √
=
° ° √

√
tan75°
√
√ √
° ° √
(g) tan15° tan 45° 30° = = √
= √
=
° ° √

(h) sin255o = sin(180o + 75o) = sin180ocos75o+cos180osin75o

= 0 – sin75o = √6 √2
(i) cos195o = cos(180o + 15o) = cos180ocos15o-sin180osin15o
= -cos15o-0 =- √6 √2

(j) sin345o = sin(360o-15o) = sin360ocos15o-cos360osin15o

= 0–1x √6 √2 =- √6 √2
° ° ° √
(k) tan195o = tan( + 15o) = = = tan15o =
° ° √

Multiple Angles Double angle formulae

Recall that sin(A+B) = sinAcosE + cosAsinA, putting B = A
sin2A = sin(A + A) = sinAcosA + ccsAsinA = 2sinAcosA
cos(A + B) = cosAcosB -sinAsinB , Putting B = A.
cos2A = cos(A +A) = cosAcosA-sinAsinA = cos2A - sin2A = cos2A -(1-cos2A)

57 
 
= cos2A + cos2A – 1 cos2A= 2cos2A - 1 or cos2A = cos2A - sin2A
= (1 - sin2A) - sin2A = l-2sin 2 A
Hence, cos2A –sin2A
cos2A = 2cos2 A-1
1-2sin2A

tan2A = tan(A + A) = =

Triple angle formulae

sin3A - sin(2A + A) = sin2AcosA + cos2AsinA
= 2sinAcosAcosA + (1 - 2sin2A)sinA = 2sinAcos2A + (1-2sin2A)sinA
= 2sinA - 2sin3 A + sinA - 2sin3A = 3sinA-4sin3A sin3A = 3sinA-4sin3A
cos3A = cos(2A + A) = cos2AcosA - sin2AsinA = (2cos2A – 1)cosA –
2sinAcosAsinA = (2cos2A-1)cosA -2cos sin2A = (2cos2A – 1)cosA-2cosA(1-cos2A)
= 2cos3A – cosA – 2cosA + 2cos2A 3 4 3A – 3cosA , 3A = tan(2A + A)

= =

= tan3A =

Half angle formulae

sinA = sin( A+ A) = sin A sin sinA = 2sin

cosA = cos( = cos2 = 2cos2 1 = 1 – 2sin2

tanA = tan( + ) = Let t = A sinA = 2sin Acos A

A

1
A A
= . Dividing the numerator and denominator through by A
A A

A A
A
sinA= = = SinA =

58 
 
 Similarly, cosA=cos( A + A) = =

Dividing the numerator and denominator through by cos2 A we have,

cosA = = = =

Example 2

If α and β are acute angles such that sin α = and tanβ = . Find without using

tables.
(a) sin(α+β) (d) cos(α-β) (g)sin2α
(b) cos(α+β) (e) tan(α+β) (h) cos 2β
(c) sin(α-β) (f) tan(α-β) (i)tan2α
Solution

13
5 3 5
 
a β
4 12
Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3

12
sin sin β  cos cos β   tan tan β
13

a. sin β sinα cosβ cosα sinβ x      

b. cos cosαcosβ sinαsinβ x x    

c. sin β sinα cosβ cosα sinβ x x    

d. cos cosαcosβ sinαsinβ x x    

e. tan       tan x  

.

f. tan        
.

g. sin 2 2sinαcosα 2x   

59 
 
h. 2     2

i. 2 x  

Example 3

If cos , where is an acute angle, evaluate

Solution

13
5

 
12
Fig.
    2    

     

Example 4
Show that tan22.50 = √2 1
Solution
.
Let t = tan22.5° 45 But tan 45° = 1
.

√ √
1   2 1 0        1 √2

Since 22.5° is in the first quadrant, tan22.5° is positive. Hence,

22.5 1 √2  √2 1

Example 5

Show that

Solution
1 2

60 
 
Also, 2 cos      

Example 6
Show that 40 8 8 1

Solution
4 cos 2 2   2 2   2 1 2
2 1 4   2 1 4 1
4 4 1 4 4   8 8 1

Product Formulae
From the addition formulae, sin(A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB ... (1)
sin( A - B) = sinAcosB - cosAsinB .. .(2)
Adding (1) and (2), sin(A+B) + sin(A-B) = 2cosAcosB ... (3)
Subtracting (2) from (1), sin(A + B) - sin(A - B) = 2cosAsinB ….(4)
Put P =A+B, Q = A - B
P Q P Q
P Q 2A A P Q 2B B
P Q
From (3) sinP sinQ 2sin cos … 5

From (4) sinP sinQ 2 … 6

Also, cos …. 7 cos

…. 8 If we put , Then, ,

Hence from (7) + (8) 2 … 9

From (8)-(7) 2 … 10

The formulae (5), (6), (9) and (10) are called Product formulae and can be

summarized as follows: 2 sin ,

2 sin , 2 ,

Example 7

61 
 
 Express each of the following as product of two trigonometric ratios:
a. 4 2 c. 6 4
b. 8 2 d. 4 2
Solution
a. 4 2 2 2 3
b. 8 2 2 2 5 3
c. 6 4 2 2 5
d. 4 2 2 2 3

Example 8
Express each of the following as sum of two trigonometric ratios:
a. 5 3 c. 9 3
b. 7 5 d. 3

Solution

a. 2

1
2 2 2
Put 5 and 3 10 … . . 1

And 3   6 … 2

Adding(l)and(2) 2 16   8
Subtracting (2) from (1) 2 4   2
Hence,
5 3

Similarly,

b. 7 5 where 7 14 … . 1

and e 5 10 … . 2

Solving for P and Q simultaneously 12 , 2

Hence , 7 5

62 
 
 c. 9 3 , Where 9 18

3 6 . Solving for P and Q simultaneously , 12 , and 6

9 3

d. 3   Where  3 ,   4 , and  2  

Hence, 3
Exercise
1. Using the addition formulae, evaluate each of the following:
a. sin1950 d. tan2550
b. tan1050 e. tan3450
c. cos2550 f. cos3450
2. If α and β are acute angles such that and , find without using
tables:
a. cos f. tan
b. cos g.
c. sin h.
d. sin i.
e. tan
3. Write each of the following as product of two trigonometric ratios:
a. 8 6 c. 14 2
b. 12 4 d. 4 6
4. Express each of the following as a sum of two trigonometric ratios:
a. 7 3 c. 5 3
b. 11 5 d. 13

5. Show that

6. If x and y are acute angles such that and cos , without using

tables:
i. sin ii. cos
Also show that: cos 30 sin 60 1 √3

(b) Show that: sin  

63 
 
7. Given that: cos and 1

i. show that 2 (ii) find the value of 2 if √2 1

8. (a) Given that: and cos

i. Show that 2 2
ii. Without using tables, find the value of cos 15°, leaving your answer in
surd form.

(l) If ,where θ is an acute angle, evaluate

9. (a) Show that 1 2 is a factor of 8 4 1

If θ=360 is a solution of f(θ) = 0, deduce that 36 √5 1

(b) In a triangle ,| | 7cm and 120 . if the area of the

triangle is 14√3cm , calculate the remaining sides of the tri angle.
10. (a) Given that: cos and
show that:
i. 15 √6 2 ii. 75 √2 √3 1

(b) Using 1, or otherwise, find all values of θ(0° < 6 < 360°)
which satisfy the equation 8sin2θ + 6cosθ-9=0
11. (i) Use the identities
sin(A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB cos(A + B) = cosAcosB - sinAsinB
sin2A + cos2A=l to express sin3 A in terms of sinA only and also cos3 A
in terms of cosA only.
(ii) Find the truth set of the equation
tan3x + tanx = 0 where 00<x< 1800
Linear Algebra

Matrix : A rectangular array of numbers enclosed within a pair of curved or

square brackets. Generally, a matrix A of order m by n is of the form :
a
A = , or simply put, A = (aij)

64 
 
Types of matrices.

(i) Row matrix or row vector (ii) Column matrices or column vector

(ii) Zero or null matrices (iv) Diagonal matrices

(iii) Transpose of a matrix (vi) symmetric matrix

(iv) Identity matrix (viii) Equal matrix

OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

Addition of matrices, multiplication of matrices

The Laws involving matrices are : Commutative , Associative, Distributive

1 2 2 3
laws . Example: Given that A = and B =
3 4 4 6
10 15 11 16
Then, AB = , But BA = , AB ≠ BA
22 33 22 32
Determinant of a matrix:

Given that A = , then, det(A) = ∆A = |A| =

= a11 a22 - a2, a12

Singular matrix. A singular matrix has determinant which is equal to

1 2
zero e.g. = 4–4 = 0
2 4
Inverse of a matrix:

1 3
Suppose that a matrix A is given by: A = , we take the
2 4
following steps in computing the inverse:

|1| |3| 4 2
step 1: minor(A) = =
|2| |4| 3 1
4 2
step 2: cofactor of A =
3 1
4 3
step 3: Ad joint of A = (cof(A))T =
2 1

step 4: Inverse of A = A-1 = Adj(A)

|A|

65 
 
 4 3 2
= =
2 1 1

General Applications of Matrices to solve problems

System of linear equations

Consider the following equations:

giving rise to the following:

i.e AX = B , where A = , X = , and B =

X = A-1B.

2 1
Exercise:1. Suppose that P =
1 1
(i) show that : P2 – 3PI + 3I = 0 (ii)Deduce that

P-1 = I - P, (iii) Hence or otherwise, calculate P-1

2. Solve the system of equations given by : , (x = 1, y =4)

Cramer’s rule

3x 2y z 0
Example : Solve: 5x 2y z 2
7x 5y 2z 1

3 2 1 0
We have, 5 2 1 2 , AX = B, and |A | = 2
7 5 2 1
0 2 1 3 0 1 3 2 0
X = 2 2 1 , Y = 5 2 1 =2 , Z = 5 2 2 = -1
1 5 2 7 1 2 7 5 1

x – 2y 8
Exercise: (1). solve :
2x y 5

2 3 6
(2) If A + I3 = 4 0 3 , evaluate (A+I3) (A – I3)
4 2 1

66 
 
3. Suppose that A and B are square matrices of the same order simplify:

(a) (A + B) (A – B) – (A – B) (A + B). (b) (A + B)2 (c) (A – B)2

6 2 7
4(a). Find the values of P and q so that :
5 1 3
6 9 2 12
4 (b). If A = and B = ,
12 15 16 14
show that A2 – B2 = (A – B) (A + B)

5. Show that : 2 2 2 = 0
3 3 3

6. Use any known method in matrices to solve the following systems of

equations.

(i) 7x + 4y = 11 (ii) 5x - 7y = 9

5x + 3y = 4 3x – 4y = 7

(iii) x + y = -1 (iv) x+y–Z =1

2x – 3z = -1 x – y + 22 = 3

Y + 4z = 4 2x – y + Z = 5

67