ASSIGNMENT 1 – BOI 102

NAME MATRIC NUMBER

NORHIDAYATI BINTI MD GHAZALI 158767

- Precise distribution of ecosystem

(IMAGE FROM JAKE ADAMS)

Malaysian oceans are regarded to be one of the richest areas for marine life. There are

more than 70 species of coral in this area, as well as a wide variety of fish. Malaysia's coral

reefs extend from the well-known "Coral Triangle," which connects the country to Indonesia,

the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Australia.

country's outer-island islands. Atolls, barrier reefs, and patch reefs make up the rest. More

than 612 different species of coral have been recorded in East Malaysia (Sarawak and Sabah),

whereas Peninsular Malaysia contains over 480 different varieties. Approximately 77% of the

world's coral species can be found here. Since 2007, a yearly reef check survey has been

carried out. Nearly 46% of the surveyed locations had living corals in 2015, compared to just

184% in 2014, demonstrating that the high amount of living corals continues to be an issue.

Non-marine parks and marine parks can be considered separate categories when discussing

the distribution of coral in Malaysia. Marine parks and national parks are considered marine

parks. It is challenging to get a clear picture of the distribution of individual coral species in

Malaysia, but in general, coral species look to be fairly evenly distributed across the oceans

of Malaysia. Coral reefs can be found off the coast of almost every Malaysian peninsula. To

give just a few examples, there is Tanjung Tuan in Port Dickson, Kendi Island in Penang, and

Langkawi Island off the coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Coral reefs may be found on the East

Coast of Peninsular Malaysia in practically all of the islands, including those that are located

along the coast of Pahang and Johor. The majority of the coral reefs in Sarawak are

submerged, and their locations along the coast may be found at depths ranging from 20 to 40

metres. This gives Sarawak's coral coverages a distinctive appearance (from Kuching till

Lawas). In terms of land area, Sarawak is the most extensive state in Malaysia. In Malaysia,

Sarawak possesses the second-longest coastline at 1,051 kilometres. There are a great number
of coral species, and they can be found in a wide variety of habitat types, ranging from

shallow nearshore locations to deeper offshore shelf-edge reefs. On the other hand, some

coral species have a restricted distribution, and they only inhabit certain habitat types, where

they might only be found in low densities. The state of Sabah is the second largest in

Malaysia, and it also contains the second largest marine area of any state in Malaysia.

Another thing that sets Sabah apart from other states in Malaysia is the fact that it is encircled

by three different bodies of water: the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Celebes Sea

(East of Sabah).

Main physical abiotic components and chemical parameters and their possible cyclic

variations

Corals are only able to grow and mature to

their full potential in water that is both clean

and between 28 and 30 degrees Celsius (with

a salt level of 32 to 34 percent). In

Peninsular Malaysia, the vertical distribution

of living corals spans from 1 to 30 metres,

but in

(image from Flickr)

Sarawak and Sabah, they can grow as deep as 40 metres. A hermatypic and an ahermatypic

variety of coral can be distinguished from one another. While the hermatypic corals can be

further subdivided into reef-building coral and non-reef building coral, the scleractinian

corals are not used in the construction of reefs. The classes of Cnidarians known as

anthozoans and hydrozoans both contribute to the formation of stony corals by secreting
calcium carbonate skeletons. Cnidarians are characterised by a sac-like body cavity known as

the coelenteron, which has a single aperture that functions as both the mouth and the anus.

Tentacles that contain stinging cells surround the aperture of the organism. The body wall is

composed of two layers that are separated by a mesoglea that has a jelly-like consistency. The

animal, which is known as a polyp, is stationary and may live alone. However, nearly all

species of coral are colonial, with individual polyps connected to one another through a

network of tubes. Polyps can be as little as 1 millimetre in diameter or as large as more than

250 millimetres. Corals are invertebrates that have a simple body structure in the form of a

tube. The length of the tube can range anywhere from a few millimetres to a few centimetres,

depending on the species. It's possible that different sexes exist in corals, however most of

them have both male and female reproductive systems (hermaphrodites). Recent studies

suggest that corals may also be capable of reversing the sex or sex transition process.

Typically, the coral life cycle begins with mature corals releasing male and female

gametes into the ocean. These cells often go through sexual reproduction (although they can

also go through asexual reproduction), which is then followed by external fertilisation near

the surface, after which the coral colony sinks back down to the ocean floor and begins to

form a new coral colony. The process can be broken down into four significant steps, which

include reproduction, the development of eggs, settling in, and budding. During the earliest

stage of the coral reef life cycle, clusters of column-shaped marine invertebrates (called

polyps) release huge volumes of sperm cells from the reef's surface. Millions of coral eggs

are discharged at the same moment. After the egg and sperm are released into the water, they

come together and float to the surface of the ocean where they split apart and fertilise. Coral

spawning is a once-in-a-lifetime event in which trillions of germ cells rise to the top at the
same time, and only scientists and experts know exactly when it will occur.

(during reproduction)

During egg development, after the fertilisation, eggs divide and develop quickly. Planula

larvae can float on the ocean's surface for days. Larvae can float for weeks. It will collect

symbiotic algae to help it grow till the following stage. Reproduction and fertilisation can

occur internally. The sperm will be discharged through another polyp's mouth to produce a

larva. Once mature, the larva will be released.

(during egg development)

Next, during settlement, mature larvae sink to the ocean floor. It sometimes lands on a reef.

Where it lands will influence the reef's size and expansion. As the larva settles (on the ocean

floor or a reef), it metamorphoses into a polyp or module. The polyp will grow, divide in half,
and make genetic copies to form a coral colony.

(settling down)

During budding, which lasts the longest, the coral polyp will keep growing until it has a

mouth and tentacles. Tiny marine algae called zooxanthellae will attach to the settled polyp.

This starts a mutually beneficial relationship called symbiosis, which leads to the production

of calcium carbonate and helps the polyp harden (calcify). This kind of algae also helps reefs

stay alive even after they are fully grown. The polyp will keep growing into a column and

making buds near the bottom until it starts to look like a full-bloom coral. This can happen

right on the seabed around the coral to make a new reef or right on top of an existing reef to

make it bigger. Corals, like most other living things, have to wait a while before they can

make babies. Branching corals usually take a few years to reach sexual maturity, while brain

corals, which grow more slowly, could take up to eight years. When they do, they can make

more gametes and start the coral's life cycle all over again.
 (budding)

Most representative and/or abundant species

The question regarding the size of the population is the one that is the most

challenging to answer. To begin, the majority of corals live in groups called colonies, and

only a small percentage of corals are solitary individuals. Because of this, it can be

challenging to estimate the total number of individual animals known as "polyps." The

worldwide population number of individual species is exceedingly difficult to determine due

to the fact that coral reefs are home to a diverse range of organisms, some of which

predominate the ecosystem while others are quite uncommon either globally or in specific

regions. There are around 471 to 590 different species of corals that have been described in

Malaysia. Due to the fact that the distribution of a single coral species can be random,

clumped, or patchy, and that numerous species will typically exist together, it is impossible to

estimate the total size of a population of a single species across large areas. In addition, it is

possible for a certain species of coral to be difficult to locate in one region, while being

highly common in another. Some examples of this would include the several species of the

genus Fungia, as well as Diaseris and Trachyphyllia. Zarinah provided a summary of the

distribution, abundance, and population structure of the corals found in the state of Sabah in

Malaysia (2011).

There are a variety of approaches that have been utilised in order to determine the

prevalence and dispersion of corals. An estimate of the % cover of corals is one of the most

straightforward methods, and it has been carried out in a few areas in Malaysia at the level of

growth type, genus, and species that are less common. This is one of the most straightforward
procedures. The Line Intercept Transect (LIT), belt transects, and a variety of photographic

approaches were utilised in the process of generating these estimates. Coral cover and

abundance by growth type are both poor metrics for estimating the amount of corals that are

present and determining the maximum levels at which they can be harvested in a sustainable

manner. Coral cover will not be able to provide any information that is useful regarding the

number of colonies, and growth form will not be able to identify the abundance of individual

genera either because numerous genera may have the same growth form. There has been a

recent uptick in interest in applying protocols developed for reefs in the western Atlantic to

reefs in the Pacific. These protocols require at the very least observations on the number of

colonies of individual genera found within a particular area, which are then categorised

according to their size or size class. For instance, Bruckner and Borneman (2006) utilised this

method to classify the population dynamics of corals throughout Malaysia's largest collection

region. This area is located in Malaysia. They carried out belt transects all the way through

the principal types of habitat and along depth gradients. These data gave quantitative

information on the overall numbers of each taxon as well as their size-frequency within each

habitat category. This was then extrapolated to estimate the total abundance throughout the

collecting area by computing the area of each habitat type and multiplying it by the

abundance per unit area of each taxon. This was done in order to arrive at an estimate of the

total abundance. Although it is not possible to provide quantitative data on the total number

of each coral taxon found within Malaysia, the majority of studies have identified large

declines in coral condition. These declines have been identified through measures of losses of

living coral cover as well as mortality of individual corals.

Spatial organization of biodiversity within the ecosystem

of current. On the other hand, most other corals in Indonesia are found on the fringe reefs, the

barrier reefs, atolls and patch reefs. Soft-bottom corals, on the other hand, are home to a

number of commercially significant species. If you're looking for a shallow or deep water

habitat, you'll likely find Catalaphylia, Nemenzophyllios, Diaseris, Goniopora and

Trachyphyllia. In murky water, many coral species, particularly those with large polyps, are

able to thrive. It is not uncommon to see the coral Galaxea in mangroves or river mouths.

Research on corals that live in turbid waters has shown that they have naturally adapted by

altering the RNA/DNA ratio in their genomes. In Malaysia, there are a variety of unique

habitats. One theory is that the area's particularly high coral variety is a result of this great

unpredictability. For example, some habitats have fine sand substrates, whereas others have

dead coral rubble substrates. Overhangs, caves, and other features are common on the outer

portion of the reef, which may slope gently or nearly vertically to a depth of 300 metres or

more. Coral may develop in both the open ocean and in the more enclosed bayments of

oceanic reefs. Many of the branching corals that are found on reef flats and reef crests on

outer barrier reefs or oceanic islands are examples of species that may be more adapted to

high currents and wave action. Certain genotypes within a species may also be more suited to

high currents and wave action. Other types of corals favour more tranquil and protected

conditions, such as those found in the back reef. Corals belonging to the genera Pocillopora

and Acropora are more likely to thrive in open water that experiences high to moderate wave

intensity. The corals belonging to the genera Porites and Goniopora, in particular, favour

sheltered environments. One such way in which corals can be classified is according to the

amount of sunshine they require. Others, such as Cynarina, Blastomussa, and Plerogyra,

dwell in protected places in the back of enormous coral colonies or reside in a deeper portion
of the ocean. Sun-loving corals are characterised by their preference for an open site or

shallow area that is bathed in full sunlight.

Some possible trophic interactions

The function that corals play in the environment is quite significant. Corals play an

important role in the food chain since they are both main producers and primary consumers.

The majority of corals have a symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates called

zooxanthellae. These dinoflagellates are single-celled "algae" that produce lipid and

carbohydrates through photosynthesis. These nutrients are then passed on to the coral and

directly utilised by the coral for its growth. In addition to that, corals are able to snag

zooplankton, phytoplankton, small fish, and debris as additional sources of nutrition. The

significance of zooplankton varies from species to species; nonetheless, larger polyp corals

are more dependent on plankton than smaller ones.

On the other hand, coral polyps are the primary source of nutrition for a wide variety of

marine organisms, which are collectively referred to as corallivores. Some examples of

corallivores include the sea star Acanthaster planci, the gastropod Drupella, and certain

species of fish such as butterflyfish and parrotfish.

In addition, corals are the primary agent responsible for the construction of reefs and the

provision of safe havens for other creatures that live in coral reefs. The coral skeleton

provides a location for other species to lay their eggs, as well as acting as a nursery ground, a

temporary home, and a feeding ground for the animals that are related with the coral. The

hard skeleton that corals have serves as the primary structural support for the ecology that is

found in reefs. The powerful structure of the coral reef acts as a wave breaker and slows

down the flow of the water. Corals are another organism that contribute to the formation of
land because their skeletons are destroyed by storms and then gather and become fixed in

place. Coral is utilised not just for tourism but also as a construction material, a source of

food, and a component in the production of medicines.

References :

Mohd Saad, J. (2014). State of the coral triangle: Malaysia. Asian Development Bank.

Rahim, A. (2020). (rep.). Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea
MALAYSIA. Retrieved June 20, 2022, from
http://www.unepscs.org/components/com_remository_files/downloads/National-
Report-Coral-Reefs-Malaysia.pdf.

Shah, R. (2016, May 2). Coral reefs: Definition, components and types. Biology Discussion.
Retrieved June 20, 2022, from https://www.biologydiscussion.com/invertebrate-
zoology/coral-reefs/coral-reefs-definition-components-and-types/28746

Waheed, Z. (2016). Patterns of coral species richness and reef connectivity in Malaysia.
Koptekst. Gildeprint, Enschede. Retrieved June 20, 2022, from
http://eprints.ums.edu.my/id/eprint/29904/1/Patterns%20of%20coral%20species
%20richness%20and%20reef%20connectivity%20in%20Malaysia.pdf.