Chapter 1

Preliminaries

Chapter 1 Topics
• Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages
• Programming Domains
• Language Evaluation Criteria
• Influences on Language Design
• Language Categories
• Language Design Trade-Offs
• Implementation Methods
• Programming Environments
 Chapter 1
Preliminaries

Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages

• Increased ability to express ideas.
• It is believed that the depth at which we think is influenced by the expressive
power of the language in which we communicate our thoughts.
• It is difficult for people to conceptualize structures they can’t describe, verbally
or in writing.
• Language in which they develop software places limits on the kinds of control
structures, data structures, and abstractions they can use.
• Awareness of a wider variety of programming language features can reduce
such limitations in software development.
• Can language constructs be simulated in other languages that do not support those
constructs directly? Associative arrays in Perl vs. C

• Improved background for choosing appropriate languages

• Many programmers, when given a choice of languages for a new project, continue
to use the language with which they are most familiar, even if it is poorly suited to
new projects.
• If these programmers were familiar with other languages available, they would be
in a better position to make informed language choices.

• Greater ability to learn new languages

• Programming languages are still in a state of continuous evolution, which means
continuous learning is essential.
• Programmers who understand the concept of object oriented programming will
have easier time learning Java.
• Once a thorough understanding of the fundamental concepts of languages is
acquired, it becomes easier to see how concepts are incorporated into the design
of the language being learned.

• Understand significance of implementation

• Understanding of implementation issues leads to an understanding of why
languages are designed the way they are.
• This in turn leads to the ability to use a language more intelligently, as it was
designed to be used.
• For example, programmers who know little about how recursion is implemented
often do not know that a recursive algorithm can be far slower than an equivalent
iterative algorithm.
• Ability to design new languages
• The more languages you gain knowledge of, the better understanding of
programming languages concepts you understand.

• Overall advancement of computing

• In some cases, a language became widely used, at least in part, because those in
positions to choose languages were not sufficiently familiar with programming
language concepts.
• Many believe that ALGOL 60 was a better language than Fortran; however,
Fortran was most widely used. It is attributed to the fact that the programmers
and managers didn’t understand the conceptual design of ALGOL 60.
Programming Domains

• Scientific applications
– In the early 40s computers were invented for scientific applications.
– The applications require large number of floating point computations.
– Fortran was the first language developed scientific applications.
– ALGOL 60 was intended for the same use.
• Business applications
– The first successful language for business was COBOL.
– Business languages are characterized by facilities for producing elaborate
reports, precise ways of describing and storing decimal numbers and character
data, and the ability to specify decimal arithmetic operations.
– The arrival of PCs started new ways for businesses to use computers.
– Spreadsheets and database systems were developed for business.
• Artificial intelligence
– Symbolic rather than numeric computations are manipulated.
– Symbolic computation is more suitably done with linked lists than arrays.
– LISP was the first widely used AI programming language.
– An alternative approach to AI applications: Prolog
– Scheme, a dialect of LISP
• Systems programming
– The OS and all of the programming supports tools are collectively known as its
system software.
– Need efficiency because of continuous use.
– A language for this domain must provide fast execution. Furthermore, it must
have low-level features that allow the software interfaces to external devices to
be written.
– The UNIX operating system is written almost entirely in C.
• Scripting languages
– Put a list of commands, called a script, in a file to be executed.
– The language, named sh (for shell), began as a small collection of commands that
were interpreted as calls to system subprograms that performed utility functions,
such as file management and simple file filtering.
– awk, another scripting language, began as a report-generation language but later
became a more general-purpose language.
– The Perl language, developed by Larry Wall, was originally a combination of sh
and awk.
– The use of Perl rose dramatically, primarily because it is a nearly ideal language
for Common Gateway Interface (CGI) programming.
– JavaScript (Flanagan, 1998) is a scripting language developed by Netscape.
– JavaScript is used mostly as a client-side scripting language.
– JavaScript is embedded in HTML documents and is interpreted by a browser
that finds the code in a document that is being displayed.
 – PHP is a scripting language used on Web server systems. Its code is embedded
in HTML documents. The code is interpreted on the server before the document
is sent to a requesting browser.
• Special-purpose languages
– A host of special-purpose languages have appeared over the past 40 years.
– They range from RPG, which is used to produce business reports, to APT, which
is used for instructing programmable machine tools, to GPSS, which is used for
system simulation.
– This book does not discuss special-purpose language.
Language Evaluation Criteria
Readability
• The most important criteria for judging a programming language is the ease with which
programs can be read and understood.
• Language constructs were designed more from the point of view of the computer than the
users.
• Because ease of maintenance is determined in large part by the readability of programs,
readability became an important measure of the quality of programs and programming
languages. The result is a crossover from focus on machine orientation to focus on human
orientation.
• The most important criterion “ease of use”
• Overall simplicity “Strongly affects readability”
– Too many features make the language difficult to learn. Programmers tend to learn a
subset of the language and ignore its other features.
– Multiplicity of features is also a complicating characteristic “having more than one
way to accomplish a particular operation.” Ex “Java”:
count = count + 1
count += 1
count ++
++count
– Although the last two statements have slightly different meaning from each other and
from the others, all four have the same meaning when used as stand-alone
expressions.
– Operator overloading where a single operator symbol has more than one meaning.
– Although this is a useful feature, it can lead to reduced readability if users are allowed
to create their own overloading and do not do it sensibly.
– Most assembly language statements are models of simplicity.
– This very simplicity, however, makes assembly language programs less readable.
Because they lack more complex control statements.

• Orthogonality
– Makes the language easy to learn and read.
– A relatively small set of primitive constructs can be combined in a relatively small
number of ways to build the control and data structures of the language.
– Every possible combination is legal and meaningful.
– The more orthogonal the design of a language, the fewer exceptions the language
rules require.
– Example: In C language, parameters are passed by value, unless they are arrays, in
which they are, in effect, passed by reference (because the appearance of an array
name without a subscript in a C program is interpreted to be the address of the
array’s first element).
– Example: Adding two 32-bit integer values that reside in either memory or registers
and replacing on of two values with the sum.
• The IBM mainframes have two instructions:
 A Reg1, memory_cell
//Reg1 <- contents (Reg1) + contents(memory_cell)
AR Reg1, Reg2
//Reg1 <- contents (Reg1) + contents(Reg2)
where Reg1 and Reg2 represent registers.

• The VAX addition instruction for 32-bit integer value is:

ADDL operand_1, operand_2
//operand_2 <- contents(operand_1) + contents(operand_2)
In this case, either operand can be a register or a memory cell.
• The VAX instruction design is orthogonal in that a single instruction can use
either registers or memory cell as the operands. The IBM design is not
orthogonal.
– Too much orthogonality can also cause problems.
– Example: the most orthogonal programming language is ALGOL 68. Every
language construct in ALGOL 68 has a type, and there are no restrictions on those
types.
• For example, a conditional can appear as the left side of an assignment, along
with declarations and other assorted statements, as long as the result is an
address.
• This form of orthogonality leads to unnecessary complexity.

• Control Statements
– It became widely recognized that indiscriminate use of goto statements severely
reduced program readability.
– Example: Consider the following nested loops written in C
while (incr < 20)
{
while (sum <= 100
{
sum += incr;
}
incr++;
}

if C didn’t have a loop construct, this would be written as follows:

loop1:
if (incr >= 20) go to out;
loop2:
if (sum > 100) go to next;
sum += incr;
go to loop2;
next:
incr++;
go to loop1:
 out:

– Basic and Fortran in the early 1970s lacked the control statements that allow strong
restrictions on the use of gotos, so writing highly readable programs in those
languages was difficult.
– Since then, languages have included sufficient control structures. The control
statement design of a language is now a less important factor in readability than it
was in the past.

• Data Types and Structures

– The presence of adequate facilities for defining data types and data structures in a
language is another significant aid to reliability.
– Example: suppose a numeric type is used for an indicator flag because there is no
Boolean type in the language. In such a language, we might have an assignment such
as

timeout = 1

• Whose meaning is unclear, whereas in a language that includes Boolean types

we would have

timeout = true

• Syntax Considerations
– The syntax of the elements of a language has a significant effect on readability.
– The following are examples of syntactic design choices that affect readability:
• Identifier forms: Restricting identifiers to very short lengths detracts from
readability.
– Example: In Fortan 77, identifiers can have six characters at most.
– Example: ANSI BASIC (1978) an identifier could consist only of a
single letter or a single letter followed by a single digit.
• Special Words: Program appearance and thus program readability are strongly
influenced by the forms of a language’s special words (while, class, for).
– Example: C uses braces for pairing control structures. It is difficult to
determine which group is being ended.
– Example: Fortran 95 and Ada allows programmers to use special
names as legal variable names. Ada uses end if to terminate a selection
construct, and end loop to terminate a loop construct.
• Form and Meaning: Designing statements so that their appearance at least
partially indicates their purpose is an obvious aid to readability.
• Semantic should follow directly from syntax, or form.
– Example: In C the use of static depends on the context of its
appearance.
– If used as a variable inside a function, it means the variable is created
at compile time.
– If used on the definition of a variable that is outside all functions, it
means the variable is visible only in the file in which its definition
appears. It is not exported from that file.
Writability
• It is a measure of how easily a language can be used to create programs for a chosen
problem domain.
• Most of the language characteristics that affect readability also affect writability.
• Simplicity and orthogonality
– A smaller number of primitive constructs and a consistent set of rules for
combining them (that is, orthogonality) is much better than simply having a large
number of primitives.
– A programmer can design a solution to a complex problem after learning only a
simple set of primitive constructs.
• Support for abstraction
– Abstraction means the ability to define and then use complicated structures or
operations in ways that allow many of the details to be ignored.
– Programming languages can support two distinct categories of abstraction,
process and data.
– A simple example of process abstraction is the use of subprogram to implement
a sort algorithm that is required several times in a program. Without the
subprogram, the sort code would have to be replicated in all places where it was
needed.
– As an example of data abstraction, consider a binary tree that stores integer
data in its nodes. In Fortran 77, three parallel integer arrays, where two of these
integers are used as subscripts to specify offspring nodes. In C++ and Java, theses
trees can be implemented by using an abstraction of a tree node in the form of a
simple class with two pointers (or references) and an integer.
• Expressivity
– It means that a language has relatively convenient, rather than cumbersome, ways
of specifying computations.
– Ex: ++count ⇔ count = count + 1 // more convenient and shorter
Reliability
• A program is said to be reliable if it performs to its specifications under all conditions.
• Type checking: is simply testing for type errors in a given program, either by the
compiler or during program execution.
– The earlier errors are detected, the less expensive it is to make the required
repairs. Java requires type checking of nearly all variables and expressions at
compile time.
• Exception handling: the ability to intercept run-time errors, take corrective measures,
and then continue is a great aid to reliability.
• Aliasing: it is having two or more distinct referencing methods, or names, for the same
memory cell. In C, union members and pointers set to point to the same variable.
– It is now widely accepted that aliasing is a dangerous feature in a language.
• Readability and writability: Both readability and writability influence reliability.
Cost
– Categories
– Training programmers to use language
– Writing programs
– Compiling programs
– Executing programs
– Language implementation system “Free compilers is the key, success of Java”
– Reliability, does the software fail?
– Maintaining programs: Maintenance costs can be as high as two to four times as
much as development costs.
– Portability “standardization of the language”
– Generality (the applicability to a wide range of applications)
Influences on Language Design
• Computer architecture: Von Neumann
• We use imperative languages, at least in part, because we use von Neumann machines
– Data and programs stored in same memory
– Memory is separate from CPU
– Instructions and data are piped from memory to CPU
– Results of operations in the CPU must be moved back to memory
– Basis for imperative languages
• Variables model memory cells
• Assignment statements model piping
• Iteration is efficient

Programming methodologies
• Late 1960s: Procedure-oriented
– People efficiency became important; readability, better control structures
– Structured programming
– Top-down design and step-wise refinement
• Late 1970s: Procedure-oriented to data-oriented
– data abstraction
• early 1980s: Object-oriented programming
Language Categories
• Imperative
– Central features are variables, assignment statements, and iteration
– C, Pascal
• Functional
– Main means of making computations is by applying functions to given parameters
– LISP, Scheme
• Logic
– Rule-based
– Rules are specified in no special order
– Prolog
• Object-oriented
– Encapsulate data objects with processing
– Inheritance and dynamic type binding
– Grew out of imperative languages
– C++, Java

Language Design Trade-offs

• Reliability vs. cost of execution
• Example: C programs execute faster than semantically equivalent Java programs,
although Java programs are more reliable.
– Java demands all references to array elements be checked for proper indexing but
that leads to increased execution costs.
– C does not require index range checking
Implementation Methods
• The major methods of implementing programming languages are compilation, pure
interpretation, and hybrid implementation
– Compilation: Programs are translated into machine language
– Pure Interpretation: Programs are interpreted by another program known as an
interpreter
– Hybrid Implementation Systems: A compromise between compilers and pure
interpreters
• The operating system and language implementation are layered over machine interface
of a computer.
• These layers can be thought of as virtual computers, providing interfaces to the user at
higher levels

Figure 1.2 Layered View of Computer

Layered interface of virtual computers, provided by a typical computer system
Compilation
• Translate high-level program (source language) into machine code (machine language)
• Slow translation, fast execution
• C, COBOL, and Ada are by compilers.
• Compilation process has several phases:
– lexical analysis: converts characters in the source program into lexical units
• The lexical units of a program are identifiers, special words operators, and
punctuation symbols.
– Syntax analysis: transforms lexical units into parse trees
• These parse trees represent the syntactic structure of program
– Semantics analysis: generate intermediate code
• Intermediate languages sometimes look very much like assembly
languages and in fact sometimes are actual assembly language.
– Symbol table: the type and attribute information of each user-defined name in
the program
– Optimization: improve programs by making them smaller or faster or both
– Code generation: machine code is generated

Figure 1.3 The Compilation Process

• Fetch-execute-cycle (on a von Neumann architecture)

initialize the program counter

repeat forever
fetch the instruction pointed by the counter
increment the counter
decode the instruction
execute the instruction
end repeat

• Von Neumann Bottleneck

– The speed of the connection between a computer’s memory and its processor
determines the speed of a computer.
– Instructions often can be executed a lot faster than they can be moved to the
processor for execution.
– This connection speed is called the von Neumann bottleneck; it is the primary
limiting factor in the speed of computers
Pure Interpretation
• Programs are interpreted by another program called an interpreter, with no translation.
• Advantage: easy implementation of many source-level debugging operations, because all
run-time error messages can refer to source-level units.
• Disadvantage: slower execution (10 to 100 times slower than compiled programs)
• Bottleneck: Statement decoding, rather than the connection between the processor and
memory, is the bottleneck of a pure interpreter.
• Significant comeback with some Web scripting languages (e.g., JavaScript and PHP).

Figure 1.4 Pure Interpretation Process

Hybrid Implementation Systems
• A compromise between compilers and pure interpreters
• A high-level language program is translated to an intermediate language that allows
easy interpretation
• Faster than pure interpretation
• Examples:
– Perl programs are partially compiled to detect errors before interpretation
– Java were hybrid: the intermediate form, byte code, provides portability to any
machine that has a byte code interpreter and a run-time system (together, these are
called Java Virtual Machine)

Figure 1.5 Hybrid Implementation System

Programming Environments
• The collection of tools used in software development
• UNIX
– An older operating system and tool collection
• Borland JBuilder
– An integrated development environment for Java
• Microsoft Visual Studio.NET
– A large, complex visual environment
– Used to program in C#, Visual BASIC.NET, Jscript, J#, or C++
Summary
• The study of programming language is valuable for a number of important reasons:
– Increases our capacity to use different constructs in writing programs
– Enables us to choose languages for projects more intelligently
– Makes learning new languages easier
• Among the most important criteria for evaluating languages are:
– Readability
– Writability
– Reliability
– Overall cost
• The major methods of implementing program languages are
– Compilation
– Pure interpretation
– Hybrid implementation