MATRICES AND CALCULUS

Case study

NAME: K.MURALI KRISHNAN

DEPARTMENT: 1ST YEAR (CSBS)
SUBJECT: MATRICS and calculus
Subject code: ma3151
 Contents:

• introduction
• Derivative
• History of differentiation
• Application of derivatives
• See also
• Notes
• reference
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Introduction:
In mathematics, differential calculus is a subfield of calculus that studies the rates at
which quantities change. It is one of the two traditional divisions of calculus, the other
being integral calculus—the study of the area beneath a curve.

The primary objects of study in differential calculus are the derivative of a function, related
notions such as the differential, and their applications. The derivative of a function at a chosen
input value describes the rate of change of the function near that input value. The process of
finding a derivative is called differentiation.

Differential calculus and integral calculus are connected by the fundamental theorem of
calculus, which states that differentiation is the reverse process to integration.

Derivatives are frequently used to find the maxima and minima of a function. Equations
involving derivatives are called differential equations and are fundamental in describing natural
phenomena. Derivatives and their generalizations appear in many fields of mathematics, such
as complex analysis, functional analysis, differential geometry, measure theory, and abstract
algebra.

Differentiation has applications in nearly all quantitative disciplines. In physics, the derivative of
the displacement of a moving body with respect to time is the velocity of the body, and the
derivative of the velocity with respect to time is acceleration. The derivative of the momentum of a
body with respect to time equals the force applied to the body; rearranging this derivative
statement leads to the famous F = ma equation associated with Newton's second law of motion.
The reaction rate of a chemical reaction is a derivative. In operations research, derivatives
determine the most efficient ways to transport materials and design factories.

The graph of a function, drawn in black, and a tangent line to that function, drawn in red.
The slope of the tangent line equals the derivative of the function at the marked point.
 DERIVATIVE:
The derivative of f(x) at the point x=a is the slope of the tangent to (a, f(a)). In order to gain an
intuition for this, one must first be familiar with finding the slope of a linear equation, written in the
form y=mx+b.The slope of an equation is its steepness. It can be found by picking any two points
and dividing the change in y change in x meaning that slope=change in y/change in x. For, the
graph of Y=-2X+13 has a slope of -2, as shown in the diagram,

The graph of y=-2x+3

change in y/change in x = -6/3=-2

The slope of a linear equation is constant, meaning that the steepness is the same
everywhere. However, many graphs such as y=x2 vary in their steepness. This means that you
can no longer pick any two arbitrary points and compute the slope. Instead, the slope of the graph
can be computed by considering the tangent line—a line that 'just touches' a particular point. The
slope of a curve at a particular point is equal to the slope of the tangent to that point. For
example=x2 has a slope of 4 at x=2 because the slope of the tangent line to that point is equal to
4:

The graph of y=x2 with a straight line that is tangent to (2,4). The slope of the tangent line is equal to 4.
The derivative of a function is then simply the slope of this tangent line. Even though the tangent
line only touches a single point at the point of tangency, it can be approximated by a line that goes
through two points. This is known as a secant line. If the two points that the secant line goes
through are close together, then the secant line closely resembles the tangent line, and, as a
result, its slope is also very similar:

The dotted line goes through the points (2,4) and (3,9) which both lie on the curve y=x2 . Because
these two points are fairly close together, the dotted line and tangent line have a similar slope. As
the two points become closer together, the error produced by the secant line becomes vanishingly
small.

History of differentiation:
The concept of a derivative in the sense of a tangent line is a very old one, familiar to
ancient Greek mathematicians such as Euclid (c. 300 BC), Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC)
and Apollonius o Perga (c. 262–190 BC). Archimedes also made use of indivisibles, although
these were primarily used to study areas and volumes rather than derivatives and tangents.

The use of infinitesimals to study rates of change can be found in Indian

mathematics, perhaps as early as 500 AD, when the astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata (476–550) used infinitesimals to study the orbit of the Moon. The use of
infinitesimals to compute rates of change was developed significantly by Bhāskara II (1114–1185);
indeed, it has been argued that many of the key notions of differential calculus can be found in his
work, such as "Rolle's theorem”.

The modern development of calculus is usually credited to Isaac Newton (1643–

1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), who provided independent] and unified
approaches to differentiation and derivatives. The key insight, however, that earned them this
credit, was the fundamental theorem of calculus relating differentiation and integration: this
rendered obsolete most previous methods for computing areas and volumes,[f] which had not been
significantly extended since the time of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen). For their ideas on derivatives,
both Newton and Leibniz built on significant earlier work by mathematicians such as Pierre de
Fermat (1607-1665), Isaac Barrow (1630–1677), René Descartes (1596–1650), Christiaan
Huygens (1629–1695), Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) and John Wallis (1616–1703). Regarding
Fermat's influence, Newton once wrote in a letter that "I had the hint of this method [of fluxions]
from Fermat's way of drawing tangents, and by applying it to abstract equations, directly and
invertedly, I made it general. Isaac Barrow is generally given credit for the early development of
the derivative. Nevertheless, Newton and Leibniz remain key figures in the history of
differentiation, not least because Newton was the first to apply differentiation to theoretical
physics, while Leibniz systematically developed much of the notation still used today.
Since the 17th century many mathematicians have contributed to the theory of differentiation. In
the 19th century, calculus was put on a much more rigorous footing by mathematicians such
as Augustin Louis Cauchy (1789–1857), Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866), and Karl
Weierstrass (1815–1897). It was also during this period that the differentiation was generalized
to Euclidean space and the complex plane.

Application of derivatives:
If f is a differentiable function on R (or an open interval) and x is a local
maximum or a local minimum of f, then the derivative of f at x is zero.

If f is twice differentiable, then conversely, a critical point x of f can be

analysed by considering the second derivative of f at x:

• if it is positive, x is a local minimum;

• if it is negative, x is a local maximum;
• if it is zero, then x could be a local minimum, a local maximum, or neither.

This is called the second derivative test. An alternative approach, called the first derivative test.
Taking derivatives and solving for critical points is therefore often a simple way to find local minima
or maxima, which can be useful in optimization. By the extreme value theorem, a continuous
function on a closed interval must attain its minimum and maximum values at least once. If the
function is differentiable, the minima and maxima can only occur at critical points or endpoints.
This also has applications in graph sketching: once the local minima and maxima of a
differentiable function have been found, a rough plot of the graph can be obtained from the
observation that it will be either increasing or decreasing between critical points.
In higher dimensions, a critical point of a scalar valued function is a point at which the gradient is
zero. The second derivative test can still be used to analyse critical points by considering
the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix of second partial derivatives of the function at the critical
point. If all of the eigenvalues are positive, then the point is a local minimum; if all are negative, it
is a local maximum. If there are some positive and some negative eigenvalues, then the critical
point is called a "saddle point", and if none of these cases hold (i.e., some of the eigenvalues are
zero) then the test is considered to be inconclusive.

See also:
• Differential (calculus)
• Numerical differentiation
• Techniques for differentiation
• List of calculus topics
• Notation for differentiation
• Mathematics portal
Notes:
• This is not a formal definition of what a tangent line is. The definition of the derivative
as a limit makes rigorous this notion of tangent line.
• Though the technical definition of a function is somewhat involved, it is easy to
appreciate what a function is intuitively. A function takes an input and produces an
output.
• The term infinitesimal can sometimes lead people to wrongly believe there is an
'infinitely small number'—i.e. a positive real number that is smaller than any other real
number. In fact, the term 'infinitesimal' is merely a shorthand for a limiting process.
• Not every function can be differentiated, hence why the definition only applies if 'the
limit exists'. For more information, see the Wikipedia article on differentiability.

• Newton began his work in 1666 and Leibniz began his in 1676. However, Leibniz
published his first paper in 1684, predating Newton's publication in 1693. It is possible
that Leibniz saw drafts of Newton's work in 1673 or 1676, or that Newton made use of
Leibniz's work to refine his own. Both Newton and Leibniz claimed that the other
plagiarized their respective works. This resulted in a bitter controversy between
them over who first invented calculus, which shook the mathematical community in the
early 18th century.
• This was a monumental achievement, even though a restricted version had been
proven previously by James Gregory (1638–1675), and some key examples can be
found in the work of Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665).

Reference:
www.merriam-webster.com.