Lecture Notes for the Course Research Method for Economists

Econ (2063)

By Asimamaw B. (MSc.)
Department of Economics
Wolkite University

Wolkite, Ethiopia
Academic Year: 2021
Chapter One: An Introduction
1.1. What is Research?
 Research in simple terms, refers to a search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic
search for information to answer a question, and thereby help in solving a problem (on a
particular topic or issue).
 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. It is
done in an organized manner; a research project has a well-known structure: a beginning,
middle, and end. Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 To do research, it is necessary to know what the correct tools are, and how to use them. And
the techniques and range of tools you use to do research are called Research methods. They
provide you with the knowledge and skills you need to collect, sort and analyze information
so that you can come to some conclusions.

1.2. Objectives of Research

 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, research objectives broadly grouped as follows:
- Academic Objectives: To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it - exploratory or formulative research studies. The Academic object of
research is the acquisition of knowledge and it is the thirst for knowledge couple with
curiosity that has been the guiding force behind a rich variety of research work
independent of any material incentive.
- Utilitarian objectives: The primary goal of research, immediate or distant, is to
understand the organizational culture, social life, social environment, decision making
processes etc and thereby gain a greater measure of control over human behavior in
the organization and social context.
- To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
- To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else --diagnostic research studies
- To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables- hypothesis-testing
research studies.

1.3. What You Can do With Research

Research can be used to:

1|Page
 a. Categorize - involves forming a typology of objects, events, or concepts and can be useful
in explaining which ‘things’ belong together and how.
b. Describe - attempts to examine situations in order to establish what the norm is.
c. Explain - aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in order to make sense of the myriad
other elements involved.
d. Evaluate - involves making judgements about the quality of objects or events.
e. Compare - Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to highlight differences and
similarities between them, leading to a better understanding of phenomena.
f. Correlate - relationships between two phenomena are investigated to see whether and how
they influence each other.
g. Predictions- if there has been a strong relationship between two or more characteristics or
events in the past, then similar circumstances should exist in the future, leading to
predictable outcomes.
h. Control- Once you understand an event or situation, you may be able to find ways to
control it. You need to know what the cause and effect relationships are and that you are
capable of exerting control over the vital ingredients.

1.4. Motivation of Research

 What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates’ research.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
 However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research
operations.

1.5. Research Problems

 This step is a significant step of Research.
 Research may be carried out being motivated by the desire to know or to gather knowledge
or by the desire to solve problems on hand; in the latter case, one need not identify the
problems, but in the former case, a researcher needs to identify the problems.
 The formulation of the topic in a research problem is, really speaking, the first step in
scientific enquiry.
 A research problem is some difficulty either of a theoretical or practical nature which an
individual or organization faces and wishes to obtain a solution for the same. A research
problem must contain the following :
1. An individual or an organization which has the problem.

2|Page
 2. They must occupy some environment/condition to which the difficulty pertains.
3. Some objective/goal to be attained.
4. Some alternative course of action through which these objectives can be attained.
5. Researcher must have some doubts regarding the selection of possible alternatives
 It is considered as the most important phase of a research. This steps starts with the selection
or a suitable problem for the filed chosen by researcher. The choice and formulation of a
suitable problem is one of the most difficult tasks for a researcher, especially the researcher
is beginner.
 At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he/she wants to study, i.e.,
He/she must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would
like to inquire into.
- Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved.
- Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up.
- The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes
the first step in a scientific enquiry.
 Definition of the problem: A research problem can be defined as “a response in the form
of scientific inquiry’’ once a research problem has been identified, it needs to be defined the
definition of the problem amount to specifying it in detail and narrowing it down to
workable size. Your research topic should be defined in such a way that is clearly
understood. Evaluation of the
 Research Problem: - Is the problem researchable? Is the Problem New? Is the problem
significant?
 Research questions are needed to define the nature and scope of research. By selecting
questions and paying attention to their wording this is possible to determine what is to be
studied, and to some extent, how it will be studied. The process of developing a set of
research questions can be the most challenging part of any research. Research question can
be stimulated in many ways: from causal observation of possible irregulatries, from
previous research, from theory, reports in the media or from discussions with colleagues
etc. How do researchers come up with idea for a research project? Inspiration for useful
research ideas can come from many sources. It is something you read. It is something you
observe. Sometimes it is something your friends suggest. Sometimes a neat idea pops up
into you head from unknown source. From reports in the media, personal values play an
important role.
 Whatever the source of the topic it is important that researcher should takes steps to ensure
that his research questions should meet certain criteria.
 The utility of the topic depends upon how specific researcher about the question to
be answered.
 The questions must be posed in a way that can be answered by observable evidence.
 Once researcher selects a problem, immediately he needs to evaluate the proposed
problem.

3|Page
  Researcher should consider about possible difficulties, availability of data,
limitations
 After evaluation the problem you have to narrow it down to a specific problem.
Techniques of Research Question:
- Write down every question you can think.
- Review the list of question.
- Separate what, why and how questions.
- Expose assumptions.
- Examine the scope of questions
- Separate major subsidiary questions  Is each question necessary
o Problems are selected on priority basis according to their importance, according the
researchers interest and according to the feasibility of research.
o Three principal components in the progressive formulation of a problem for social Research:
 Originating question
 Rationales of questions
 Specifying Questions Feasibility: One of the most difficult task is how to make the study
feasible. Several major considerations come in to play when we are determining the
research’s feasibility we must always need to bear in mind several practical considerations
and common issues in determining the feasibility of such a study.
o The scope.
1. The time required to complete.
2. The ethical considerations.
3. The consideration required from others to its successful conclusion
4. Finally, you must determine the degree to which the cost will be manageable.
o We may now list some of the conditions that experiences have proved to be conducive to
formulation of significant research problem.
1. Systematic immersion in subject matter through first hand observation.
2. Study of relevant literature on the subject.
3. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the field of study.
o Helping factors to determine research problem:
 Changing patterns of social life
 Historical events
 Organization of scientist
 Social problem.

1.6. Ways of Reasoning

 The modern method of science is broadly of two broad methods of reasoning: Induction and
Deduction. However, it is often not possible practically to apply either extreme in a pure
fashion. The shortcomings of each can be mitigated by using a combination that is formulated
as the hypothetic-deductive method. The scientific method uses the features of each approach
in a pragmatic way.

4|Page
  They represent the two contrasting approaches to acquiring knowledge and understanding the
world.
 Plato argued for deductive thinking (starting with theory to make sense of what we
observe).
 While Aristotle for inductive thinking (starting with observations in order to build
theories).

1.6.1. Inductive Reasoning (the empiricist’s approach)

 Inductive reasoning starts from specific observations and derives general conclusions from
them. In other words inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific
observations. It is the earliest and, even now, the commonest popular form of scientific
activity – We use it daily.
 In induction one starts from observed data and develops a generalization which explains the
relationships between the objects observed - this a "bottom up" approaches.
 The inductive logic of reasoning is followed in most empirical economic research.
 A simple example will demonstrate the line of reasoning:
All swans which have been observed are white in colour.
Therefore one can conclude that all swans are white.
The development of this approach in the seventeenth century by such scientists as Galileo and
Newton heralded the scientific revolution. The philosopher Francis Bacon summed this up by
maintaining that in order to understand nature, one should consult nature, and not the writings
of ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, or the Bible. Darwin’s theory of evolution and
Mendel’s discovery of genetics are perhaps the most famous theories claimed (even by their
authors) to be derived from inductive reasoning.
 Three conditions must be satisfied for such generalizations to be considered legitimate by
inductivists:
1. There must be a large number of observation statements.
2. The observations must be repeated under a large range of circumstances and conditions.
3. No observation statement must contradict the derived generalization.

Figure1: Inductive method

5|Page
1.6.2. Deductive reasoning – the rationalist’s approach
 Deductive reasoning was first developed by the Ancient Greeks.
 An argument based on deduction begins with general statements and, through logical
argument, comes to a specific conclusion.
 Researchers start with a theory that they find compelling and then test its implications with
data. That is, they move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach
to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The
researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon she
is studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories.
 Research is guided in this case by the theory which precedes it. Theories are speculative
answers to perceived problems, and are tested by observation and experiment. While it is
possible to confirm the possible truth of a theory through observations which support it, theory
can be falsified and totally rejected by making observations which are inconsistent with its
statement. In this way, science is seen to proceed by trial and error: when one theory is rejected,
another is proposed and tested, and thus the fittest theory survives. In order for a theory to be
tested, it must be expressed as a statement called a hypothesis. The essential nature of a
hypothesis is that it must be falsifiable. This means that it must be logically possible to make
true observational statements which conflict with the hypothesis, and thus can falsify it.
However, the process of falsification leads to a devastating result of right rejection of a theory,
requiring a completely new start.
 A syllogism is the simplest form of this kind of argument and consists of a major general
premise (statement), followed by a minor, more specific premise, and a conclusion which
follows logically.
 Here is a simple example:
All live mammals breathe (General statement – first premise);
This cow is a live mammal (Inference – second premise);
Therefore, this cow breathes (Conclusion).
 Economic theory rests largely on deductive logic. Examples: utility maximization in the
consumer behavior; profit maximization in the producer behavior.

6|Page
 Figure 2: Deductive method

1.6.3. Hypothetic-deductive reasoning or scientific method

 It is not practically possible to be either a pure inductivist or deductivist as you either need
some theoretical ideas in order to know what information to look for, or some knowledge in
order to devise theories.
 The hypothetic-deductive method combines inductive and deductive reasoning, resulting in the
to-and-fro process of developing hypotheses (testable theories) inductively from observations,
charting their implications by deduction, and testing them to refine or reject them in the light
of the results. It is this combination of experience with deductive and inductive reasoning
which is the foundation of modern scientific research, and is commonly referred to as scientific
method.
 A simple summary of the steps in scientific method could go like this:
 Identification or clarification of problems.
 Formulation of tentative solutions or hypotheses.
 Practical or theoretical testing of solutions or hypotheses.
 Elimination or adjustment of unsuccessful solutions

Figure 3. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning or scientific method

7|Page
 1.7. Research methodology and Research methods
Research methodology and Research methods are not necessarily the same.
 Research methodology is the science and philosophy behind all research.
 It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
 The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.
 It includes:
 The theoretical perspective
 The tools and techniques of data collection
 The methods of data analysis.
 Research methodology provides the principles for organizing, planning, designing, and
conducting research.
 Research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the
research methodology.
When we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in
what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and
what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been
used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research
methodology concerning a research problem or study.
o Research methods may be understood as all those techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
o Research methods comprises of two things
 Research techniques – methods or techniques of data collection– survey methods, or
other methods
 Research tools- instruments for collection of the data – questionnaire schedule,
historical record, etc.
o Research methods provide the specific details of how one accomplishes a research task.
 Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.

1.8. The Values of Research and Main Attributes of Economic Research

 The role of research in several fields of economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.

8|Page
  Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
 Solving societal problem: Research reduces uncertainty for policy makers, planners, business
managers, and other stakeholders by providing information that improves the decision-
making process.
 Economic research is, by its nature, cyclical. Every research project brings answers but also
new questions.
 Those questions, in turn, bring new research projects
 Economic research begins with a question that the researcher is trying to answer
 There should be a compelling question. It is not just filling gaps in knowledge. So, economic
research has clearly articulated goals and is not open-ended.

1.9. Evaluation of social research

o How can you tell whether a piece of research is any good? When doing your background
reading, you should be able to assess the quality of the research projects you read about, as
described by the research reports. Taking a critical look at completed research is a good
preparation for doing some research yourself. You may later also have to defend the quality
of some research that you have done. It is not unusual that you will have to make comments
on a particular research report as part of an assignment. If you can scrutinize it in a critical
way, rather than just providing a description, you will impress your tutor with your expertise.
Below is one approach of how to do an evaluation of a social research study. It is only a short
summary of the things to evaluate.
o In general an evaluation of a social research involves the following major factors:
 Validity
 Reliability
 Replicability
 Generalizability
A. Validity
 Validity of research is about the degree to which the research findings are true.
 Different types of validity:
1. Measurement validity: it measures (e.g. questions on a questionnaire) successfully indicate
concepts.
2. Internal validity: it measures the extent to which causal statements are supported by the study.
3. External validity: it measures the extent to which findings can be generalized to populations
or to other settings.
4. Ecological validity: measures the extent to which the findings are applicable to people’s every-
day, natural social settings.
B. Reliability
 Reliability is about the degree to which the results of the research are repeatable.
 Three prominent factors that are involved:

9|Page
 1. Stability: is the degree to which a measure is stable over time.
2. Internal reliability: is the degree to which the indicators that make up the scale or index
are consistent.
3. Inter-observer consistency: is the degree to which there is consistency in the decisions of
several ‘observers’ in their recording of observations or translation of data into categories.
C. Replicability
 Replicability is about whether the research can be repeated and whether similar results are
obtained.
 This is a check on the objectivity and lack of bias of the research findings. It requires a detailed
account of the concepts used in the research, the measurements applied and methods employed.
D. Generalizability
 Generalization refers to the results of the research and how far they are applicable to locations
and situations beyond the scope of the study.
 There is little point in doing research if it cannot be applied in a wider context.
 On the other hand, especially in qualitative research, there may well be limits to the
generalizability of the findings, and these should be pointed out.

1.10. Classifications of Economic Research

 In actual practice, research is conducted at different levels and for different immediate
purposes. The level at which a person operates in the field depends on the objectives he intends
to accomplish.
 The classification may be in terms of:
 The research (data collection)techniques used in it,
 the time dimension,
 research environment
 data used.
 The intended uses of research
I. Descriptive vs. Analytical
1. Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
 This research is sometimes known as ex post facto research. In this type of research, the
objective is to describe a state of phenomenon that already exists. Generally the
researchers attempt to trace probable causes of an effect which has already occurred even
when a researcher doesn’t have any control over the variables.
 The researcher can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 Example; the frequency of shopping by people, the preference of people, the number
of employed workers in a factory, etc.

10 | P a g e
 2. Analytical Research
o Analytical research study is based on facts. A researcher has to use the facts or
information available to them, analyzes them to critically evaluate the situation and
followed by inferences. It asks “why” or “how” and tries to find the answer to a problem.
 The difference between the descriptive and analytical research, though there is no silver lining,
is that analytical research most likely goes deep inside the information for critical evaluations
of the situations, whereas descriptive research may have the sole objective in describing the
characteristics of the situations.
II. Applied versus Basic Research
1. Applied (or action)research
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.
 The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to
guide, correct and evaluate their decision and action is what a number of people have called
action research.” Example: research concerned with school problems carried on by school
personal to improve schools practice is action research.” Market research is also an example
of applied research.
2. Fundamental/Pure/Basic Research
Fundamental or basic research, sometimes known as pure or exploratory research, is mostly
related to the formulation of theory. Fundamental Research contributes new knowledge in the
form of new theory, facts, and truth.
It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily
produce results of immediate practical value.
Fundamental researches are concerned with the generalization of nature and human behavior
at different situations. It may aim at gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
Fundamental research is more often intellectual explorations arising out of intrinsic
inquisitiveness of human beings. It is not associated with solving a particular problem, rather
exploring the possibility of unearthing universal laws or theories.
III. Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
i. Quantitative Research
 Quantitative research is kind of research in which systematic investigations having quantitative
property and phenomenon are considered. Quantitative research is essentially about collecting
numerical data to explain a particular phenomenon, particular questions seem immediately
suited to being answered using quantitative methods.
 Quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and descriptive in nature. It has
the ability to measure or quantify phenomena and analyze them numerically. Statistics derived
from quantitative research can be used in establishing the associative or causal relationship
among the variables.

11 | P a g e
  Quantitative research generally starts with an experimental design in which a hypothesis is
followed by the quantification of data and some sort of numerical analysis is carried out (e.g.,
a study comparing student test results before and after an instructional treatment).
ii. Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. It is associated with
phenomena like reasons of human behaviors. It aims at discovering the reasons of motivations,
feelings of the public, etc. This type of research explores the psychological approach of human
behavior and qualitative aspects of other areas of interest.
 For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e.,
why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.
 Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e.,
research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research.
 Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behavior.
 BUT, social research is often pluralistic:
o Researchers often combine quantitative and qualitative research methods
within the same study.
o Mixed-method research strategies are particularly effective in policy-oriented
research and the contribution that qualitative research can make to policy
evaluation is increasingly being recognized.
IV. Conceptual vs. Empirical
1. Conceptual Research
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Conceptual research leads to an outline of conceptual framework to be used for a possible
course of action in a research program.
 Conceptual research is related to the development of new concepts or innovations and
interpretations of new ideas for existing methods.
2. Empirical Research
 Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research.
 In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go
about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.

12 | P a g e
 He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
 Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study
and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is
appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
V. Some other types of Researches
 Other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based
on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
 Other type of researches such as
 Cross-sectional (one-time research) research, Time series research (this is longitudinal
study on a group of people or other units across multiple periods (e.g. time series data
on exports of coffee) and longitudinal or panel study research (examines features of
people or other units more than one time. It is usually more complex and costly than
cross sectional research but is also more powerful especially with respect to social
changes; example, interviewing the same people in 1991, 1993, 1995, etc, and
observing the change.).
 Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research.
 Clinical or diagnostic research
 Exploratory or it may be formalized
 Historical research: is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains,
etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups
at any remote point of time
 Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented
1.11. Research Ethics
 Researchers working in academia enjoy a number of important freedoms and privileges – the
principle of academic freedom (UNESCO, 1997) - which are essential to maintain the
independence of the higher education research community. These freedoms include freedom
of inquiry and the right to disseminate their findings, freedom to challenge conventional
thought and the opportunity to conduct research on human participants with public
assessments, trust, and support.
 Researchers and institutions must recognize that such freedom carries with it significant
responsibilities, including the need to ensure that research involving human participants meets
high scientific and ethical standards.
 It also implies duties of honesty, integrity, objectivity, accountability, and openness alongside
thoughtful inquiry, rigorous analysis, and the application of professional standards.

13 | P a g e
 Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition,
research ethics educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical
standard.
 Some of basic ethical principle that the researcher must fulfil are the followings:
o Honesty in your work
 It is easy to cheat, but the penalties resulting from discovery are stiff and
humiliating.
 Honesty is essential to engender a level of trust and credibility that promotes debate
and the development of knowledge.
 Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
 Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public
o Researchers-researchers relation (Intellectual ownership)
Unless otherwise stated, what you write and the ideas will be regarded as your own
work.
Directly copying someone else’s work into your report, thesis etc. and letting it be
assumed that it is your own – plagiarism. Plagiarism is the worst offence in
academics. Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's thoughts or wording
either by incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources altogether, or simply
by relying too heavily on external resources. Whether intentional or unintentionally
some or all of another author's ideas become represented as your own.
Plagiarizing undermines your academic integrity and betrays your own
responsibilities. It also includes informal published material such as the "buying" of
a paper from another student. Because it is intellectual theft, plagiarism is
considered as an academic crime with punishment. Can easily be detected through
peer reviews
Note: Plagiarism includes copied data/information, falsification, fabrication or
omission of significant results
o Citation and acknowledgement
 In no field of research can one rely entirely on own ideas, concepts and theories
alone.
 Standard practices have been developed to permit the originators of the work and
ideas to be acknowledged within your own text; this is called citation.
 You should acknowledge the assistance of others and any collaboration with
others.
o Responsibility and accountability of the researcher
o You do have responsibilities to fellow researchers, respondents, the public and the academic
community.
o Accurate descriptions are required of
 what you have done,
 how you have done it,
 the information you obtained,
 the techniques you used,

14 | P a g e
  the analysis you carried out, and
 the results of experiments , etc
o Falsifying results—to make them fit your conclusion.
 Trimming—removing data that does not fit in with your analysis.
 Biased or inappropriate analysis.
o Fabrication and falsification of research results are serious forms of misconduct.
o Researcher should avoid either a false statement or an omission that distorts the truth -
Objectivity. In order to preserve accurate documentation, every researcher has an obligation
to maintain a clear and complete record of data acquired.
o It is unethical to conduct research that is badly planned or poorly executed. Fraud must be
avoided in research and this can come in several forms:
 Being selective in sampling.
 Not reporting survey response/participation rates.
 Deliberately biasing the data collection instruments—for example, asking leading
questions in surveys.
 Making up data—because you can’t be bothered doing the data collection
o Data and Interpretations
 There is often a temptation to be too selective in the data used and in presenting the results of
the analysis carried out.
 Irresponsible policy advise
 Waste of research fund
 Silently rejecting or ignoring evidence which happens to be contrary to one’s beliefs
constitutes a breach of integrity.
 What could be of vital importance in developing a theory could be lost.
 Scientific objectivity should be maintained (or attained as closely as is practical).
o It is considered a breach of research integrity to fail to report data that contradict or merely fail
to support the conclusions, including the purposeful withholding of information.
 Negative (unexpected) results must also be reported.
o Records should include sufficient detail to permit examination for the purpose of
 Replicating the research,
 responding to questions that may result from unintentional error or misinterpretation,
 Establishing authenticity of the records, and
 Confirming the validity of the conclusions.
o Funding bodies and researchers
Pressure and sponsorship from sources which might influence the impartiality of the
research outcomes should be avoided.
Fund allocations directing research
‘money buying research results’?
o Researcher and research subjects
- Some ethical principles governing data collection include: harm to respondents,
informed consent, respect for privacy and safeguarding the confidentiality of data.
- So in collecting data researchers need to be guided by principles of respect for persons
and obtaining informed consent.

15 | P a g e
 - There are two standards that are applied in order to help protect the privacy of research
participants.
o Confidentiality – participants are assured that identifying information will not be made
available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.
o Anonymity - means that the participant will remain anonymous throughout the study -- even
to the researchers themselves.
o Clearly, the anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult
to accomplish, especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time
points (e.g., a pre-post study).
1. Harm to participants
 Physical harm, humiliation, embarrassment, loss of trust, harm to participant’s
development, loss of self-esteem, stress, etc.
 Ethical standards require that researchers should not put participants in a situation
where they might be at risk of being harmed as a result of their participation.
 Harm can be defined as both physical and psychological.
 Minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and
autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations.
2. Lack of informed consent
 The principle of voluntary participation requires that people should not be coerced into
participating in research.
 Closely related to the notion of voluntary participation is the requirement of informed
consent.
 Essentially, this means that prospective research participants must be fully
informed about the procedures and risks involved in research and must give their
consent to participate.
3. Invasion of privacy
 Privacy of participants should be protected
 Participants may refuse to address specific questions even though they have agreed to
participate
 Covert research usually violates privacy
4. Protecting research subjects
o Legal protection
o Professional associations and universities (ethics committees)
5. Deception
 When researchers present their research as something other than what it is – deception.
 Researchers usually want to limit participants understanding so that they act naturally
 Debriefing: to get subjects interpretation of the research but handle debriefing with
sensitivity.
 Thus, collection of data illegally, under false pretences, from minors, etc is
unethical.
 In summary: Some important shared values for the responsible conduct of research include:
 HONESTY - conveying information truthfully and honoring commitments,

16 | P a g e
  ACCURACY - reporting findings precisely and taking care to avoid errors,
 EFFICIENCY -using resources wisely and avoiding waste, and
 OBJECTIVITY -letting the facts speak for themselves and avoiding improper bias.
 Social Responsibility-strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms
through research.
1.12. Scientific Method of Research
 Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of
science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve
“this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates, and a
combination of these three in varying proportions.
 In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that
their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops the consequences of such
alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible
for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the
observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations which
constitute the integral parts of scientific method.
 Scientific method consists of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation of data.
 Our scientific knowledge relies on the fact that our observations are objective, data-driven,
public, and potentially replicable. The process is incremental, with a series of small steps rather
than a giant leap.
 The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
A. It relies on empirical evidence;
B. It utilizes relevant concepts;
C. It is committed to only objective considerations;
D. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
E. It results into probabilistic predictions;
F. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
G. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

References
 C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Revised Edition.
 Yogesh Kumar Singh (2006). Fundamentals of research methodology and statistics. NEW
AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS.
 Pradip Kumar Sahu (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural
Science, Social Science, and Other Related Fields. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York
Dordrecht London. DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1020-7.

“END OF CHAPTER ONE”

17 | P a g e
 Chapter Two: Research Process
2.1. The concept of research process
 Research is a process. That is, it involves a number of activities which arc carried out either
sequentially or simultaneously. Research process consists of a series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
 It is difficult to design an ideal research process as it would depend on various factors, like,
the researcher and his ability, topic research, time available, budget allocation, etc. However,
we can broadly indicate the various stages through which most of the research work would
progress. The various stages are briefly discussed below.
 A research process is a stepwise delineation of different activities to accomplish the objective
of a researcher in a logical framework. It consists of a series of actions and/or steps for effective
conduction of research.
 The researcher moves from the formulation of a general idea to actual data collection, and
interpretation of the results and conclusions.
 There are some conventionally acceptable standards that should be achieved in order to gain
credibility, and procedures that make for efficient use of time and resources. The conventional
steps involved in the research process are:
1. Selecting a research topic
2. Formulating the research problem and research question
3. Objectives of the study
4. Literature survey/ The Literature Review
5. Formulating the working hypothesis
6. Preparing the research design and determining the sample design and sample size
7. Collecting the data
8. Analyzing the data
9. Testing the hypothesis
10. Generalizations and interpretations of results
11. Preparing the report and presentation of the results

18 | P a g e
 2.2. Steps in research process
1. Selecting a Research Topic
 The first step in the research process is to find an idea for a research study.
 Formulating and clarifying the research topic is the starting point of your research
project. The first step must be to decide in general terms what you want to do, i.e your
area of interest - or at least where to start (because the findings from the first part of the
work may affect future directions).
 The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill.
 This is probably the most difficult, and yet the most important, part of your research
project.
 Without being clear about what you are going to research it is difficult to plan how you
are going to research it.
o Once you have done this you will need to turn the idea into research questions
and objectives and to write the research proposal for your project
 Deciding on the detailed topic of research and finding a question which may be,
o an unresolved controversy, or
o Simply a gap in knowledge within the chosen subject.
 Identifying a research topic typically involves two steps:
o First, selecting a general topic area,
i. The general topic area is simply the starting point that eventually will
evolve into a very specific research question.
 You need to find an interest in a broad subject area (problem area).
o Second, reviewing the literature in that general area to find a specific research
question.
 When deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:
Brainstorm for ideas: Choose a topic that interests you. Write down any key words
or concepts that may be of interest to you. Could these terms help be used to form a

19 | P a g e
 more focused research topic? Use the following questions to help generate topic
ideas.
 Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy
 Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you
angry or anxious?
 Do you have a personal issue, problem, or interest that you would like to know more
about?
 Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?
 Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about?

Choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature

Read a different materials such as articles on the top two or three topics you are considering.
Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea
relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding words
commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research.
If you can’t find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from others such
as your instructors, research center, friends etc.

Ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available

Keep it your research topic is manageable and you can able to get previous work which are
related with your topic. A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One
way to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common
ways to limit a topic are:
o By geographical area. Example: What are the determinants of children of schooling
in rural Ethiopia?
o By time frame. Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the
last 20 years in Ethiopia?
o By discipline. Example: How does environmental awareness effect business
practices today?
o By population group. Example: What are the determinants of children of schooling
in rural Ethiopia?

Make a list of key words

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.
o Look for words that best describe your topic.
o Look for them in when reading articles and background and general information.
o Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen your
search capabilities.
o Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and catalogs.

Be flexible

20 | P a g e
 o It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be sure of
what you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little
and need to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When
researching, you may not wish to change your topic, but you may decide that some other
aspect of the topic is more interesting or manageable.
o Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography or other
research assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the due date. These
important factors may help you decide how much and when you will modify your topic.

Define your topic as a focused research question

Research and read more about your topic
o Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and
Internet search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.
o You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you
find enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is
an important and complex part of the research process.
Formulate a thesis statement
o Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question
and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research.
o Your thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that states precisely what is to
be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about your topic.
o The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis
statement.
 In general when you select title you should consider the following things:
choose a worthwhile issue which is
o New
o Catchy
o Focused
o Non-obvious conclusion
o You can get the data
o Doable
 Generally, there are three types of research titles:
o Indicative title: they state the subject of the research rather than the expected
outcomes. Example: The role of agricultural credit in alleviating poverty in a low-
potential areas of Ethiopia.
o Hanging titles: this type of title have two parts; a general first part followed by a
more specific second part. Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-potential
areas of Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit’.
o Question-type titles: they are used less commonly than indicative and hanging
titles. Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty in low-potential areas
of Ethiopia?’
 Where do research topics come from?
 There is no set formula for the identification of a topic of research.

21 | P a g e
  In principle a topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springs from its
own seed. In other words, it should be generated by the researcher.
 Ideas for a research topic can come from a variety of sources including everyday
experiences, books, journal articles, or class work.
 The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a shortlist of possible topics that have emerged
from your reading or from your own experience that look potentially interesting.
 A general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter (agriculture, industry, social sector,
etc.) may have to be identified at first.
 The best guide is to conduct research on something that interest you.
o (Unemployment, pollution, poverty, etc.)
A. Generated by the researcher.
o Own professional experience is the most important source of a research problem.
Choose a topic in which if possible, already have some academic knowledge. For
instance, some researchers are directly engaged in program implementation and
come up with a topic based on what they see is happening.
o Attending conferences, seminars, and listening to professional speakers, etc. are
all helpful in identifying research problems.
B. Examining the literature
 Examining the theoretical or empirical literature in your specific field. Published articles are
excellent sources of ideas. They help to…
 Explore findings discovered in previous research.
 Identify suggestions an author gives for further research at the end of an article.
 Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting.
 Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship
 Remember: Keep Track of References
o Any literature cited must be listed properly in a References section.
o Record the full references as you go!
 Author, title, journal, volume and date, page numbers, book publisher & location,
date
o Always record page numbers.
 Give page numbers for all information, not just quotations.
C. Provided by a client
 Requests for Proposals (RFPs) are published by government agencies, NGOs and some
companies.
 They describes the problem that needs to be addressed,
 the contexts in which it operates,
 the approach they would like you to take, and
 the amount they would be willing to pay for such research - they are virtually handing
the researcher an idea.

22 | P a g e
 But, if the topic is something in which you are not interested you will have to weigh the
advantage against the disadvantage of a potential lack of personal motivation.
D. Technological and Social Changes
 New developments bring forth new development challenges for research.
E. Looking at Past Project Titles
 Scanning your university’s list of past project titles for anything that captures your
imagination.
F. Scanning the Media
o Keeping up to date with items in the news can be a rich source of ideas.
o The stories which occur every day in the newspapers.
G. Discussion and Brainstorming
o Colleagues, friends, practitioners, and university tutors are all good sources of possible
project ideas.
Attributes of a good research topic
o Your research topic must be something you are capable of undertaking it and one that
excites your imagination.
o Capability can be considered in a variety of ways.
 you need to feel comfortable that you have, or can develop, the skills that will be
required to do the research.
o You also need to have a genuine interest in the topic.
 A topic in which you are only vaguely interested at the start is likely to become a
topic in which you have no interest and with which you will fail to produce your
best work.
o Your ability to find the financial and time resources to undertake research on the topic will
also affect your capability.
 Some topics are unlikely to be possible to complete in the time allowed by your
course of study.
 Topics that are likely to require wide travel or need expensive equipment should be
disregarded unless financial resources permit.
o Capability also means you must be reasonably certain of gaining access to any data you
might need to collect.
 Many people start with ideas where access to data will prove difficult.
o It is also important that the issues within the research are capable of being linked to theory.
o You will need to have a knowledge of the literature.
o Finally, it is important to consider your career goals.

2. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

 After a topic has been selected the next step is to define the research problem more precisely
so that it becomes a specific research question. Identifying the research problem is one of the
basic steps in research.
 A research problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher experiences in the context
of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for it.
The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution” (Albert Einstein)
23 | P a g e
 A research topic should seek to advance the state of science. It usually starts with a felt practical
or theoretical difficulty.
 A research problem can be defined as “a response in the form of scientific inquiry’’ once a
research problem has been identified, it needs to be defined the definition of the problem
amount to specifying it in detail and narrowing it down to workable size. Your research topic
should be defined in such a way that is clearly understood.
 We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
3. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
o Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for
the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained
optimally in the context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in
making the problem complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the
efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative
courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be
affected by it and react to it favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors. All such
elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research problem.
 Defining the problem clearly will help to find answers to questions like:
o What data are to be collected?
o What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied
o What relations are to be explored
o What techniques are to be used for the purpose.
 In the definition of the problem you are required; the following points may be observed
by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
 Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply
definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research. For this
purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already
engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in current literature available
on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be

24 | P a g e
 applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind
concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem.
 The importance of the subject, the qualifications, and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, and the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting
a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must
ask himself the following questions:
a. Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
b. Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
c. Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate
in research as subjects? If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative,
one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
 The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that
has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have
available a set of well-developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be
undertaken.
 Its theoretical basis and the underlying assumption,
 The specific and workable questions, and
 An explanation of why it is important or significant, and what advantage (i.e. to society as
a whole or to other researchers) the research may deliver.
The problem statement may focus on:
1. Identifying a Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little research has been
carried out.
2. Raising a question: The research problem is defined by asking a question to which
the answer is unknown, and which you will explore in your research.
3. Continuing a previously developed line of enquiry: Building on work already done,
but taking it further (by using a new sample, extending the area studied, taking more
factors into consideration, taking fewer factors into consideration, etc.).
4. Counter-claiming: here a conflicting claim, theory, or method is put forward.

 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

 The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally
one after the other:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated
in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific
or intellectual interest.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is
to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem
is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem
originally came about and with what objectives in view.
3. Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at
hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research
problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant

25 | P a g e
 theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must
devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems.
This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for
operational purposes.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an
exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others
who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This
is quite often known as an experience survey.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been
clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied)
has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available
literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or
operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the
research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally
viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.
 In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem:
 Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of
the problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
 A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
 The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

 Delimiting a Problem
 Delimiting a Problem Delimiting a problem is very important. A study should be delimited by
the following aspects:
1. A study should be delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the
problem.
2. The study is delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, and college
or university level.
3. Again study is delimited to size of sample. Considering the time, energy and money, but
it should be a representative.

26 | P a g e
 4. Method of Research: A Problem or study may be conducted by different methods but it
is not possible. Therefore, the best method should be used so that the study should be
delimited to the method only.
5. Measuring Instrument: In behavioural science numbers of instruments are available but
all tools cannot be used to measure. Thus the best available tool will be used for measuring
the variable.
6. Techniques of Research: A number of techniques can be used for analysing data but most
appropriate techniques should be used.
7. The other limitation should vary from problem to problem as every problem has its own
delimitations.
These delimitations may help the researcher for conducting the study and the findings of
studies also confine to these delimitations.
 Evaluating the Problem
Before the proposed research problem can be considered appropriate, several searching questions
should be raised. Only when those questions are answered in the affirmative, that problem can be
effectively solved through the process of research.
1. Do the data exist upon which a solution may be based?
2. Is the problem significant? Is an important principle involved? Would the solution make
any difference? If not, there are undoubtedly more significant problems waiting to be
investigated.
3. Is the problem a new one? Is the answer already available? Ignorance of prior studies may
lead a student to need spend less time on a problem already investigated by some other
worker. While novelty or originality is an important consideration, the fact that a problem
has been investigated in the past does not mean that it is no longer worthy for study.
Previous investigations might be using newer and better devices and procedures, but there
is also a need for the testing of former findings under changed cultural conditions.
4. Is the problem feasible? After a researcher’s project has been evaluated, there remains the
problem of suitability for a particular researcher. While the problem may be a good one, as
may be a good problem for me. The question arises; will I be able to carry it through to a
successful conclusion? Some of the questions that should be raised are:
a. Do I have the necessary competence to plan and carry out a study of this type? Do I
know enough about this field to understand its significant aspects and to interpret my
findings? Am I skillful enough to develop administer, and interpret the necessary data
gathering devices and procedures? Am I well-grounded in the necessary knowledge
of statistical techniques?
b. Are pertinent data accessible? Are valid and reliable data gathering devices and
procedures available?
c. Will I have the necessary financial resources to carry on this study? What will be the
expense involved in data-gathering equipment, printing, test materials, travel and

27 | P a g e
 clerical help? If the project is an expensive one, what is the possibility of getting a
grant from a philanthropic foundations or agency?
d. Will I have enough time to complete the project? Will there be time to devise the
procedures, select the data gathering devices, gather, and analyze the data, and
complete the research report? Since most academic programmes impose time
limitations, certain worthwhile projects of a longitudinal type are precluded.
e. Will I have the courage and determination to pursue the study in-spite of the
difficulties and social hazards that may be involved? Will I be willing to work
aggressively when data are difficult to gather and when others are reluctant to co-
operate? Will I be willing to risk the criticism, suspicion, or even opposition that a
delicate or controversial study may raise?

3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

o A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to
investigate the variable under the study. Without research objective a researcher is aimless and
directionless in conducting the study.
o Without focused objective, no replicable scientific findings can be expected.
o A research objective addresses the purpose of the investigation and types of knowledge to be
generated out of one’s investigation. Looking at the objectives of the research, one can
anticipate what is to be achieved by the study. A research objective indicates the population
of interest, the independent variable, and the dependent variable.
o Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the research problem, giving the
sponsor-specific, concrete, and achievable goals.
o Many researchers state their research objective in the declarative form as a broad statement
of purpose, such as the objective of this study is to examine the relationship between the
initial salary (dependent variable) of those who are employed in NGOs (population of
interest) and their previous job experience (independent variable).
o The descriptive study does not always have variables that can be designated as independent
or dependent. In such a case, the objective indicates the nature of the inquiry, the study
variables, and the population under study, as we find in the example: The purpose of this
study is to assess the women’s decision making autonomy regarding their health care, their
child’s health care, large household purchases, household purchases for daily needs, and
visits to the women’s family or relatives.
o In causal studies, the objectives are usually stated in the form of hypotheses. Here is an
example: Participation of women in household decision making increases with age, their
level of education, and the number of surviving children.

o We can enumerate three major reasons for formulating the objectives of the research;

 Focus the study on narrowing it down to essentials;

 Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the
problem in hand;
 Organize the study in clearly defined components or phases
 We should take care that the objectives fulfill certain criteria;
28 | P a g e
  They are realistic to fit the local environment.
 They cover the different aspects of the problem.
 They consider the contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical sequence.
 They consider ethical issues if any.
 They are phrased in operational terms.
o Research objective focus on the way to measure the variables, such as to identify or describe
them.
o The objective of research summarizes what is to be achieved in the study.

 Characteristics of research objective

 It is a concrete statement describing what the research is trying to achieve.
 Well known research objective is SMART.
 S- Specific; what precisely do you hope to achieve from undertaking the research?
 M- Measurable; what indicators will you use to determine whether you have achieved
your objectives?
 A- Attainable; are the targets you have set for yourself achievable given all the possible
constraints?
 R- Realistic; will you have the energy to complete the research on time?
 T- Time bounded; will you have time to accomplish all your objectives in the time
frame you have set?
 Research objective should be relevant, feasible, logical, observable, unequivocal, and
measurable.
 It is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the expected timeframe and with the
available resource.
 It includes obtaining answer to research questions/or testing research hyphotesis.

It is best to state the objectives of a study in general terms first and then to move down to
specific terms.
From this point of view, objectives are of two types: general and specific.
 General objective
 The general objective of a study states what is expected to be achieved by the study in
general terms. General objective of the research is a broad goals to be achieved.
 The general objective provides a short statement of the specific goals pursued by the
research. Using the general focus of your research question you will develop a set of
research objectives.
 Example: The general objective of the study is to examine the impact of household
participation in off-farm income generating activities on children’s educational outcomes in
rural Ethiopia.
 Specific objective
 Given that we have rightly stated the general objectives, it is advisable to break it down
into several smaller, logically connected parts. These are normally referred to as specific

29 | P a g e
 objectives. Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the
problems defined under the statement of the problem and the key factors that are assumed
to influence or cause the problems.
 They should specify what you will do in your study, where this study will be done, and for
what purpose.
 If formulated properly, specific objectives will facilitate the development of the research
methodology and will help the researcher to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation,
and utilization of data.
 Example:
1. To examine the impact of household participation in off-farm activities on children’s
school attendance (ever attendance and current enrollment) in rural Ethiopia.
2. To investigate the impact of household participation in offfarm activities on highest
grade completed by children and children who delay to start primary school in rural
Ethiopia.
3. To explore the impact of off-farm participation on children who have basic literacy skill
and absent from school in rural Ethiopia.
4. To assess determinants of household participation in off-farm activities in rural
Ethiopia

4. The Literature Review

4.1. What is Literature?
 Literature refers to a collection of published information/materials on a particular area of
research or topic, such as books and journal articles of academic value. However, your
literature review does not need to be inclusive of every article and book that has been written
on your topic because that will be too broad. Rather, it should include the key sources related
to the main debates, trends, and gaps in your research area.

4.2. Literature review

 A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. A
literature review can broadly be described as a more or less systematic way of collecting and
synthesizing previous research.
 A literature review identifies, evaluates, and synthesizes the relevant literature within a
particular field of research. It illuminates how knowledge has evolved within the field,
highlighting what has already been done, what is generally accepted, what is emerging and
what is the current state of thinking on the topic. In addition, within research-based texts such
as a Doctoral thesis, a literature review identifies a research gap (i.e. unexplored or under-
researched areas) and articulates how a particular research project addresses this gap.
 It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature
of your research.
 The literature review acknowledges the work of previous researchers, and in so doing, assures
the reader that your work has been well conceived. It is assumed that by mentioning a previous

30 | P a g e
 work in the field of study, that the author has read, evaluated, and assimilated that work into
the work at hand.
 A literature review creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding
of the developments in the field. This landscape informs the reader that the author has indeed
assimilated all (or the vast majority of) previous, significant works in the field into her or his
research.
 In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and
ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The
literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (eg. your research objective, the
problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive
list of the material available, or a set of summaries.
 A literature review should not include every single source that you have read. It’s important
to be selective about the sources you choose to address. Ensure the sources you analyze are
directly relevant to your research question(s) and topic. It’s important also that you think
critically about the credibility and reliability of sources.
 Building your research on and relating it to existing knowledge is the building block of all
academic research activities, regardless of discipline. Therefore, to do so accurately should be
a priority for all academics.
 An effective and well conducted review as a research method creates a researcher foundation
for advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development. By integrating findings and
perspectives from many empirical findings, a literature review can address research questions
with a power that no single study has.
 A literature review is an excellent way of synthesizing research findings to show evidence on
a meta-level and to uncover areas in which more research is needed, which is a critical
component of creating theoretical frameworks and building conceptual models.
 Reviews are useful when the researcher wants to evaluate theory or evidence in a certain area
or to examine the validity or accuracy of a certain theory or competing theories.
 Literature reviews are useful when the aim is to provide an overview of a certain issue or
research problem; typically, to evaluate the state of knowledge on a particular topic. It can be
used, for example, to create research agendas, identify gaps in research, or simply discuss a
particular matter.
 Literature reviews can also be useful if the aim is to engage in theory development; in these
cases, a literature review provides the basis for building a new conceptual model or theory, and
it can be valuable when aiming to map the development of a particular research field over time.
 However, it is important to note that depending on the goal of the literature review, the method
that should be used will vary. (for examples, please see Table 1). These approaches can be
qualitative, quantitative, or have a mixed design depending on the phase of the review. In the
following, three broad types of methods commonly used will be described, as summarized in
Table 2. The broad types that will be presented and discussed include the systematic review,
the semi-systematic review, and the integrative review. Under the right circumstances, all of

31 | P a g e
 these review strategies can be of significant help to answer a particular research question.
However, it should be noted that there are many other forms of literature reviews, and elements
from different approaches are often combined. As these approaches are quite wide, it should
be noted that they might require further adaptation for a particular research project.

 Where to find the Research Literature

o The literature sources can be divided into three categories: primary (published and
unpublished), secondary, and tertiary.
o Primary sources for instance, include: published sources such as reports and government
publications such as planning documents – unpublished sources such as letters, memos and
committee minutes, proceedings, etc.
o Secondary literature sources such as books and journals. They are easier to locate than
primary literature as they are better covered by the tertiary literature.
o Tertiary literature sources, are designed either to help to locate primary and secondary
literature or to introduce a topic - ‘search tools’. They include indexes and abstracts as well
as encyclopedias and bibliographies.
 In general, the following are the main sources:
o Computer: online and internet based sources-Google, Web Pages, JSTOR, Econlit, etc.
o Books and Bibliographic indexes,
o Dissertations and theses,
o Government documents,
o Policy reports and presented papers,
o Conference proceedings, magazines, etc.
 Aims of the literature review

32 | P a g e
Approaches to conducting a literature review

o Different approaches to conducting a literature review; there are a number of existing

guidelines for literature reviews. Depending on the methodology needed to achieve the purpose
of the review, all types can be helpful and appropriate to reach a specific goal. These
approaches can be qualitative, quantitative, or have a mixed design depending on the phase of
the review.
o The broad types that will be presented and discussed include the systematic review, the semi-
systematic review, and the integrative review. Under the right circumstances, all of these
review strategies can be of significant help to answer a particular research question. However,
it should be noted that there are many other forms of literature reviews, and elements from
different approaches are often combined. As these approaches are quite wide, it should be
noted that they might require further adaptation for a particular research project.
1. Systematic Approach
 Systematic reviews have foremost been developed within medical science as a way to
synthesize research findings in a systematic, transparent, and reproducible way and have been
referred to as the gold standard among reviews.
 A systematic review can be explained as a research method and process for identifying and
critically appraising relevant research, as well as for collecting and analyzing data from said

33 | P a g e
 research. Critical analysis of the literature identifies its strengths and weaknesses as well as
any deficiencies, omissions, inaccuracies, and other problematic aspects of the literature. By
exposing the strengths and weaknesses of the literature, critique lays the foundation for other
objectives of the literature review such as synthesis and reconceptualization.
 The aim of a systematic review is to identify all empirical evidence that fits the pre-specified
inclusion criteria to answer a particular research question or hypothesis.
 What type of analysis can be conducted? Often, but not always, statistical methods, such as the
meta-analysis, are used to integrate the results of the included studies.
 A meta-analysis is a statistical method of combining results from different studies to weigh
and compare and to identify patterns, disagreements, or relationships that appear in the context
of multiple studies on the same topic. With the meta-analysis approach, each primary study is
abstracted and coded, and findings are subsequently transformed into a common metric to
calculate an overall effect size.
 A more qualitative approaches have been developed to assess the quality and strength of
findings from different types of studies and to compare results. This is often referred to as a
qualitative systematic review, which can be described as a method of comparing findings from
qualitative studies.
 What is a potential contribution from a systematic review? There are several advantages and
potential contributions of conducting a systematic review. For example, we can determine
whether an effect is constant across studies and discover what future studies are required to be
conducted to demonstrate the effect. Techniques can also be used to discover which study-
level or sample characteristics have an effect on the phenomenon being studied, such as
whether studies conducted in one cultural context show significantly different results from
those conducted in other cultural contexts.

2. Semi-systematic review
 The semi-systematic or narrative review approach is designed for topics that have been
conceptualized differently and studied by various groups of researchers within diverse
disciplines and that hinder a full systematic review process.
 Review every single article that could be relevant to the topic is simply not possible, so a
different strategy must be developed.
 In general, the review seeks to identify and understand all potentially relevant research
traditions that have implications for the studied topic and to synthesize these using meta-
narratives instead of by measuring effect size.
 This approach holds that the research process should be transparent and should have a
developed research strategy that enables readers to assess whether the arguments for the
judgments made were reasonable, both for the chosen topic and from a methodological
perspective.
 What type of analysis can be conducted? A number of methods can be used to analyze and
synthesize findings from a semi-systematic review. These methods often have similarities

34 | P a g e
 to approaches used in qualitative research in general. For example, a thematic or content
analysis is a commonly used technique and can be broadly defined as a method for
identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns in the form of themes within a text.
 Semi-structured method of collecting literature but combined it with a statistical meta-
analysis approach.
 What is a potential contribution from a semi-systematic review? This type of analysis can
be useful for detecting themes, theoretical perspectives, or common issues within a specific
research discipline or methodology or for identifying components of a theoretical concept.
o A potential contribution could be, for example, the ability to map a field of
research, synthesize the state of knowledge, and create an agenda for further
research or the ability to provide an historical overview or timeline of a specific
topic.
3. Integrative review
 Integrative literature reviews are intended to address mature topics or new, emerging topics.
 Integrative review of the literature as a distinctive form of research that uses existing literature
to create new knowledge. As an expansion and update of a previously published article on this
topic, it acknowledges the growth and appeal of this form of research to scholars, it identifies
the main components of the integrative literature review, and summarizes guidelines for
organizing and writing integrative literature reviews. Integrative literature reviews offer
valuable contributions to the literature and are distinctive forms of research.
 Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative
literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on
the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or
identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the
same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the
most common form of review in the social sciences.
4. Methodological reviews
o It point out how methodology varies by study.
o In it researcher evaluates the methodological strength of past studies.
o It describes conflicting results and shows how different research designs, samples,
measures, etc., account for different results.
5. Historical review
It traces the development of an issue over time.
It traces the development of an idea or shows how a particular issue or theory has evolved over
time.
6. Theoretical reviews: it compares how different theories address an issue.
 It present different theories and compare them for the soundness of their assumptions,
logical consistency, and scope of explanation.
 The process of conducting a literature review; Important questions to consider in
each step of the Literature review:

35 | P a g e
1. Phase 1: design the review
 It is a good idea to scan the area as a first step to account for other literature reviews that already
exist, to assess the number of research studies that must be assessed, and to help formulate and
clearly define the purpose, scope, and specific research question the review will address.
 Once the research question has been identified and an overall review approach considered, a
search strategy for identifying relevant literature must be developed.
 As almost all initial literature searches yield many articles, a strategy is needed to identify
which are actually relevant. Inclusion criteria for the review should be guided by the selected
research question. Criteria that can be considered and are commonly used are, for example,
year of publication, language of the article, type of article (such as conceptual, randomized
controlled trail, etc.), and journal. In terms of research quality, deciding on inclusion and
exclusion criteria is one of the most important steps when conducting your review.
 Is this review needed and what is the contribution of conducting this review?
 What is the potential audience of this review?
 What is the specific purpose and research question(s) this review will be addressing?
 What is an appropriate method to use of this review's specific purpose?
 What is the search strategy for this specific review? (Including search terms, databases,
inclusion and exclusion criteria etc.)
2. Phase 2: conduct the review
After deciding on the purpose, specific research questions, and type of approach, it is time to
start conducting the actual review. When conducting the review, a pilot test of the review
process and protocol is appropriate.
By testing the search terms and inclusion criteria on a smaller sample, the process can be
adjusted before performing the main review. It is common to adjust the process a number of
times before actually selecting the final sample. Importantly, it should be noted that it is
preferred to use two reviewers to select articles to ensure the quality and reliability of the search
protocol. The actual selection of the sample can be done in a number of ways, depending on
the nature and scope of the specific review.
Depending on how many articles are yielded, different approaches will be appropriate. For
example, reviewers may read each piece of literature that appears in the search in full; this is a
highly useful, but time-consuming approach. Another option could be to focus on the research
method or findings, and a third option is to conduct the review in stages by reading abstracts
first and making selections and then reading full-text articles later, before making the final
selection. Once this is done and the initial articles (or other relevant literature) have been
collected, the texts should be screened in full to ensure they meet the inclusion criteria. As an
additional strategy, references in the selected articles can be scanned to identify other articles
that may potentially be relevant (however, this is not appropriate when using the systematic
review method as this requires a more strict protocol). During this time, the process of
including and excluding specific articles should be documented carefully.

36 | P a g e
 o Does the search plan developed in phase one work to produce an appropriate sample or
does it need adjustment?
o What is the practical plan for selecting articles?
o How will the search process and selection be documented?
o How will the quality of the search process and selection be assessed?
3. Phase 3: analysis
 After conducting the literature review and deciding on a final sample, it is important to
consider how the articles will be used to conduct an appropriate analysis. That is, after
selecting a final sample, a standardized means of abstracting appropriate information from
each article should be used.
 Data abstracted can be in the form of descriptive information, such as authors, years
published, topic, or type of study, or in the form of effects and findings. It can also take the
form of conceptualizations of a certain idea or theoretical perspective. Importantly, this
should be done in concordance with the purpose and research question of the specific
review, and the form will vary.
 What type of information needs to be abstracted to fulfill the purpose of the specific review? •
What type of information is needed to conduct the specific analysis?
 How will reviewers be trained to ensure the quality of this process?
 How will this process be documented and reported?
4. Phase 4: structuring and writing the review
 First, when writing the review, the motivation and need for the review must be clearly
communicated.
 Are the motivation and the need for this review clearly communicated?
 What standards of reporting are appropriate for this specific review?
 What information needs to be included in the review?
 Is the level of information provided enough and appropriate to allow for transparency so
readers can judge the quality of the review?
 The results clearly presented and explained?
 Is the contribution of the review clearly communicated?

 Guidelines to assess the quality of a literature review.

o Phase 1: design
 In relationship to the overall research field, is this literature review needed and does it make a
substantial, practical, or theoretical contribution?
 Are the motivation, the purpose, and the research question(s) clearly stated and motivated?
 Does the review account for the previous literature review and other relevant literature?
 Is the approach/methodology for the literature review clearly stated?
 Is this the most appropriate approach to address the research problem?
 Are the methodology and the search strategy clearly and transparently described and motivated
(including search terms, databases used, and explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria)?

37 | P a g e
  Phase 2: conduct
 Is the search process appropriate for this type of review?
 Is the practical search process accurately described and accounted for?
 Is the process of the inclusion and exclusion of articles transparent?
 Have proper measures been taken to ensure research quality?
 Can it be trusted that the final sample is appropriate and in concordance with the overall
purpose of the review?
 Phase 3: data abstraction and analysis
 Is the data abstracted from the article appropriate in concordance with the overall purpose of
the review?
 Is the process for abstracting data accurately described?
 Have proper measures been taken to ensure quality data abstraction?
 Is the chosen data analysis technique appropriate in relation to the overall research question
and the data abstracted?
 Is the analysis process properly described and transparent?
 Phase 4: structuring and writing the review
o Is the review article organized coherently in relation to the overall approach and research
question?
o Is the overall method of conducting the literature review sufficiently described? Can the study
be replicated?
o Is the result of the review reported in an appropriate and clear way?
o Does the article synthesize the findings of the literature review into a clear and valuable
contribution to the topic?
o Are questions or directions for further research included? Are the results from the review
useable?
 Structuring the review
 The precise structure of the critical review is usually your choice.
 Three common structures are:
o a single chapter;
o a series of chapters;
o throughout the project report as you tackle various issues
 Summarize every article briefly; a sentence or two will do
 Interpret the article in light of its relevance to your own study
 Critique it, if necessary
 Show the stock of knowledge building up over the course of the literature and show how your
research topic adds to this stock of knowledge
 Several articles can be summarized in one mention
o Example: Few studies have found negative effect of participation in off-farm
activities on child schooling outcomes (See Admassu & Kassahun, 2011;

38 | P a g e
 Appleton (1991); Tansel, 2002); others, in contrary, found its positive effect (See
Huisman & Smits, 2009).

Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research
literature.

 Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
 You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevent sources to use in
the literature review related to the research problem;
 Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary
research studies or data;
 Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than
examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
 Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to
review;
 Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi -squared or meta-
analytic methods; and,
 Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings
and alternative interpretations found in the literature.
5. Formulating the working hypothesis
 The word hypothesis consists of two Greek words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis
 The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and
based on some rationale.
 Another meaning of the word hypothesis which is composed of two words: ‘Hypo’ means
composition of two or more variables which is to be verified. ‘Thesis’ means position of
these variables in the specific frame of reference. This is the operational meaning of the
term hypothesis. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some
specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is a proposition
about the factual and conceptual’ elements.
 Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a
problem. A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena
under observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in
the light of what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and
action- in the research for new truth.
 In shortly, hypothesis is an assumption/assertion of an idea about a phenomenon under
study made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they
provide the focal point for research.

39 | P a g e
  A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as
a guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown.
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
o There are several characteristics of hypothesis as mentioned below:
A. The hypothesis is a guess work, a tentative generalization, or a working strategy.
B. The hypothesis aims at finding out relationship between variables or different set of variables.
C. The hypothesis is put in the form of a major question, a central concern as to what we are
looking for.
D. The hypothesis is a systematic conjecturing of propositions.
E. The hypothesis does not drive toward the goal of the inquiry, rather it goes along a set of belief
which may on the basis of facts be confirmed or rejected.
 Functions of Hypothesis
o The following are the main functions of hypothesis in the research process:
1. The hypothesis makes researcher sensitive to his research work so that he should work
selectively and have very realistic approach to the problem.
2. The hypothesis establishes relationship among data.
3. It helps in the formulation of the relevant concepts.
4. It helps in explanation of the data.
5. It suggests methodology to be followed in a particular inquiry.
6. The hypothesis also functions as a stimulator for the researcher.
7. The hypothesis gives a definite point to the inquiry.
8. The hypothesis aids in establishing the direction in which to proceed.
9. The hypothesis delimits the scope and the field of an inquiry.
10. The hypothesis offer the simple means for collecting evidences to the verification.
 Sources of Hypotheses
 Hypotheses are originated from essentially the same background that serves to reveal
problem.
 These sources are namely theoretical background, knowledge, insight and imagination that
come from instructional programme and wide reading experiences, familiarity with existing
practices.
 The major sources of hypotheses are given below:
o Specialization of an educational field.
o Programme of reading: Published studies, abstracts research journals. Hand books,
seminars on the issue, current trends on the research area.
o Instructional programmes persuaded.
o Analyse of the area studied.
o Considering existing practices and needs.
o Extension of the investigation.
o Offshoots of research studies in the field.
 Criteria of a Good Hypothesis

40 | P a g e
1. The hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.
2. The hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true.
3. The hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.
4. The hypothesis should express clearly the relationship between two or more variables.
5. The statement of hypothesis should be unambiguous.
6. The hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.
7. The hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally called
hunch.
8. The hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the investigator.
9. The hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for the
purpose of verification.
10. The hypothesis takes into account the different types controls which are to be exercised for the
purpose of verification.
11. The hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.
12. The hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study.
13. The hypothesis could be stated in such a manner that it can be tested.
14. The hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory, law, facts,
assumption, and postulate.

 Tests of Hypothesis
 The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null
hypothesis) with a view to choose between two conflicting hypotheses about the value of a
population parameter.
 Hypothesis testing helps to decide on the basis of a sample data, whether a Hypothesis about
the population is likely to be true or false.
 The purpose of testing a hypothesis is to determine the probability that it is supported by fact.
Because a hypothesis is a general expectation about the relationship between variables there is
an extremely large number of instances under which it can be tested, and it would be
impractical to attempt to gain support in all of these instances.
 There are two types of hypothesis statements:
1. Null hypothesis, and
2. Alternative hypothesis (research hypothesis).
 Null Hypothesis
 The null hypothesis is a general statement that states that there is no relationship between two
phenomenons under consideration or that there is no association between two groups.
 A hypothesis, in general, is an assumption that is yet to be proved with sufficient pieces of
evidence. A null hypothesis thus is the hypothesis a researcher is trying to disprove.
 A null hypothesis is a hypothesis capable of being objectively verified, tested, and even
rejected.

41 | P a g e
  If a study is to compare method A with method B about their relationship, and if the study
is preceded on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is
termed as the null hypothesis.
 The null hypothesis should always be a specific hypothesis, i.e., it should not state about
or approximately a certain value.
 The main purpose of a null hypothesis is to verify/ disprove the proposed statistical
assumptions.
 Some scientific null hypothesis helps to advance a theory.
 The null hypothesis is also used to verify the consistent results of multiple experiments.
For e.g., the null hypothesis stating that there is no relation between some medication and
age of the patients supports the general effectiveness conclusion, and allows
recommendations.
 The symbol for the null hypothesis is H0, and it is read as H-null, H-zero, or H-naught.
 The null hypothesis is usually associated with just ‘equals to’ sign as a null hypothesis
can either be accepted or rejected.
 Alternative hypothesis
 An alternative hypothesis is a statement that describes that there is a relationship between
two selected variables in a study.
 An alternative hypothesis is usually used to state that a new theory is preferable to the
old one (null hypothesis).
 This hypothesis can be simply termed as an alternative to the null hypothesis.
 The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that is to be proved that indicates that the
results of a study are significant and that the sample observation is not results just from
chance but from some non-random cause.
 If a study is to compare method A with method B about their relationship and we
assume that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, then such a statement
is termed as an alternative hypothesis.
 Alternative hypotheses should be clearly stated, considering the nature of the research
problem.
 An alternative hypothesis provides the researchers with some specific restatements and
clarifications of the research problem.
 An alternative hypothesis provides a direction to the study, which then can be utilized by
the researcher to obtain the desired results.
 Since the alternative hypothesis is selected before conducting the study, it allows the test
to prove that the study is supported by evidence, separating it from the researchers’ desires
and values.
 The symbol for the null hypothesis is Ha
 An alternative hypothesis provides a chance of discovering new theories that can disprove
an existing one that might not be supported by evidence.
 The alternative hypothesis is important as they prove that a relationship exists between
two variables selected and that the results of the study conducted are relevant and
significant.

Steps in Testing Hypothesis:

3. Step-1: State the research hypothesis

42 | P a g e
 4. Step-2: Formulate the null hypothesis
5. Step-3: Choose a statistical test
6. Step-4: Specify a significance level
7. Step-5: Compute the statistical test
8. Step-6: Reject / accept the null hypothesis
9. Step-7: Draw the inference

6. Preparing the research design and determining the sample design and sample size
6.1. Preparing the research design
 The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required
to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted.
 The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted.
 It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. A research
design is a plan of action to be carried out in connection with the research project. The design
may be a logical presentation of the various steps in the process of the research. These steps
include the selection of a research problem, the presentation of the problem, the formulation
of the hypothesis, conceptual clarity, methodology, data collection, survey of literature and
documentation, processing of data and report writing.
 The main function of research design is to specify the sequence of these steps in an orderly
manner. The research design includes:-
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the data are availed?
 What period of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 What will be the style of research report?
 The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money. But how
all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
 Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
I. Exploration,
II. Description,
III. Diagnosis, and

43 | P a g e
 IV. Experimentation.
 When the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
 Steps in Research Design
1. Define the Research Problem: It is the first step that specifies the information needs of
the researcher. Defining the research problem in necessary to decide the exact information
needs. The research problem can be done by: a) Identifying the problem or opportunity. b)
Situation analysis. c) Model development, and d) Specification of information needs.
2. Estimate the Cost of Information: Normally, it is beneficial to use accumulated
information, through past experience and records. However, sometimes additional
information is also required from outside. While collecting such additional information, it
should be remembered that the value of the information to be obtained will be greater than
the cost of obtaining it. In other words, it is advisable in find out the cost-benefit ratio
before proceeding with the research.
3. Select the Data Collection Approach: The selection of the suitable method of data
collection is an important aspect of the research design. Data can be collected through
primary and secondary sources. Primary data are collected through survey, observation and
experimental methods while secondary data are usually collected from the organization’s
records, files, accounts etc. and other outside publications.
4. Select the Measurement Techniques: Questionnaires, observation, in depth interview and
attitude scales are the main measurement techniques used in research. Selection of suitable
techniques depends upon the nature and type of information required and its importance to
the research problem.
5. Select the Sample: While framing the research design, it is essential to decide and select
a suitable and representative sample to conduct interviews of experiments. A representative
sample can be selected by probability techniques.
6. Select the methods of analysis: Data analysis means drawing inferences from data
collected. Data are useful only when such data are properly tabulated, classified, coded,
and interpreted with statistical tools and logical analysis. The selection of data analysis
techniques depends upon the selection of data sampling process, measurement techniques,
data collection method, and the purpose of research.
7. Find out time and cost needs: The time, materials, and cost required to complete the
project are to be esteemed. While deciding this, the manpower cost, transport, stationery
etc. are also to be considered.
8. Prepare the research design: After deciding the time and cost factors a research design is
prepared and presented as the final step. It is for finalizing a systematic scheme for
proceeding with the project.
6.2. Determining sample design and sample size
44 | P a g e
o All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It
can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance
is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest
element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations
increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except
through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
o Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money, and energy. Census inquiry
is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only
on sample basis.
o Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The
items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
o A sample is a “subgroup of a population”. A sample is a group of people, objects, or items
that are taken from a larger population for measurement. It has also been described as a
representative “taste” of a group. The sample should be “representative in the sense that each
sampled unit will represent the characteristics of a known number of units in the population”.
The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that we can generalize the
findings from the research sample to the population as a whole. To draw conclusions about
populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics, to enable us to determine a
population’s characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the population.
We obtain a sample of the population for many reasons as it is usually not practical and almost
never economical. Using correct sampling methods allows researchers the ability to reduce
research costs, conduct research more efficiently (speed), have greater flexibility, and provides
for greater accuracy.
o The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
o Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
 With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in
the sample. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling.

45 | P a g e
  Non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Non-
probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling,
and quota sampling techniques.

Sample size depends on:

 The type of data analysis to be performed
 The desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve
 The kind and number of comparisons that will be made
 The number of variables that have to be examined simultaneously
 How heterogeneous the sampled population is?
Sample size determination: Sample size determination is the act of choosing the
number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size
is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to
make inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in
a study is usually determined based on the cost, time, or convenience of collecting the
data, and the need for it to offer sufficient statistical power. In complicated studies there
may be several different sample sizes: for example, in a stratified survey there would
be different sizes for each stratum.
 There are distinct methods for calculating sample size for different study designs and
different outcome measures.
 When the population of the study is unknown or very large, Cochran (1963) has developed
the following formula to determined sample size. n=z2 x p (1-p)/e2

46 | P a g e
 Where, n=sample size; p= represents standard deviation which commonly takes
a value of 0.5, q= 1-p; e=level of precision (1%, 5%, and10%); z=level of
confidence for 95%.
 Yamane (1967) sample size determination formula and which goes as follows.
n= N/1+N(e) 2
Where n = sample size; e = sampling error (error term) which 1%, 5% and 10%,
and N=total population

7. Collecting the data

 Information is the prerequisite for achieving the objectives of any research program.
Information may be qualitative or quantitative/numerical.
 Data refers to different kinds of numerical information.
 In any research program, a researcher is always in search of a suitable mechanism/process for
the collection of information.
 Thus, data collection plays a vital role in any research program. Depending upon the research
design, in particular, the objective of a research program and the types of information required
are fixed. The next task is data collection. It becomes necessary to collect data that are
appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably
in context of money costs, time, and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
 Depending upon the sources of information, data may be
1. Primary data: Primary data are those data which are collected by a researcher afresh and
for the first time with specific research objectives in mind. Thus, primary data are original
in nature. Primary data can be collected by observation, through personal interview/ or
telephone interviews, by mailing of questionnaires /or through schedules.
2. Secondary data: Secondary data are those data which are collected by someone, an agency,
an organization, etc., but are being used by some other users. So secondary data are not
collected by a user himself/herself; rather the user is using the information generated by
some other users. Generally, secondary data are available from different sources like the
government/private/industrial/business/research/ voluntary organizations. These are
generally found in journals, booklets, books, monograms, technical reports, etc.
 The sources of secondary data may be under published or unpublished. The published
data are generally available from various publications of the central/provincial/local
bodies, publications of different international bodies or organizations,
technical/scientific/trade journal, and books/ monographs/magazines/newspaper
published by various government/nongovernment/business/ voluntary establishments.
Reports and documents prepared by different research scholars, universities, and
establishments also serve as good sources of secondary data. Among the unpublished
sources of information are diaries, letters, biographies, autobiographies, and other
relevant unpublished documents.

47 | P a g e
8. Analyzing the data
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation, and
then drawing statistical inferences.
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
 Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding
the stage is ready for tabulation.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in
the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great
deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not
only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a
problem simultaneously.
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of
analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data
can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
 Analysis is a process of working with the data to summarize, describe and explain the data
in terms of the research questions or hypothesis
 Data Analyzed either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.

9. Hypothesis testing
 After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses,
if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
 Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.
 Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If
the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis
of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to
come.

Rule or Test of Hypothesis: Given a hypothesis Ho and an alternative hypothesis Ha, we

make a rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept Ho (i.e. reject
Ha) or reject Ho (i.e. accept Ha). For example if Ho is that a certain lot is good, (there are
very few defective items in it) against Ha that the lot is not good (there are two many

48 | P a g e
 defectives items in it) then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion
for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. If we test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision
saying that if there are none or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept Ho
otherwise we will reject Ho (or accept Ha). This is known as Decision Rule.

The Level of Significance: The very important concept in the hypothesis is testing. It is
always some percentage (usually 1%, 5%, and in economics also 10% is acceptable,). The
5% level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as a 5% risk of
rejecting the null hypothesis when it (Ho) happens to be true. Thus, the significance level
is-the maximum value of the probability of rejecting Ho when it is true and is usually
determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.

Parametric Test: Parametric test usually examines certain properties of the population
(parent) from which we draw samples. Assumptions like observation comes from a normal
population, sample size is large, assumptions about population. Parameters like mean,
variance etc. must hold good before the parametric test can be used. These tests usually
assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw samples.
Assumptions like; observations come from a normal population, sample size is large,
assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variance etc., must hold good
before the parametric test can be used. Hypothesis testing determines the validity of the'
assumption with a view to choose between two conflicting hypotheses about the value of
the population parameter. It helps to decide on the basis of a sample data, whether
hypotheses about the population is likely to be true or false.

 Several tests of hypotheses (also known as tests of significance developed by

statisticians) can be classified as: Parametric tests or standard test of hypothesis.
Non-parametric tests or distribution free test of hypothesis. . A brief description
about some important parametric tests is given here.
 The important parametric tests are:

1. Z-test: It is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the
significance of several statistical measures, particularly the mean. This is a most frequently
used test in research studies.

2. T-test: It is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the
significance of a sample mean or for judging the significance of difference between the
means of two samples; in case of small samples when population variance is not known.

3. X2-test (Chi-square): It is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test, can be

used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance.
4. F-test: It is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two
independent samples. This is also used in the context of analysis of variance for judging the

49 | P a g e
 significance of more than two sample means at the same time. It is also used for judging the
significance of multiple correlation coefficients. Detailed discussions on the several
parametric tests are given below with relevant illustrations. The ‘F' test has been named in
honor of the great statistician R. A. Fisher. The object of the ‘F-test’ is to find out whether
the two independent estimate of population variance differ significantly, or whether the two
samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal population having the same variance.

10. Generalizations and interpretations of results

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive
at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations. Generalization, which is an act of reasoning that
involves drawing broad inferences from particular observations, is widely-acknowledged as a
quality standard in quantitative research.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite
often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches. Interpretation
refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and or
experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings.

11. Preparing the report and presentation of the results

11.1. Preparing report
 After generalizations and interpretations of results, the researcher has to prepare the report
of what has been done by him.
 In Preparing of research report the first stage is ordering the parts and planning the writing.
 Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1. The layout
of the report should be as follows:
A. The preliminary pages: in its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date
followed by acknowledgements, abstract and foreword. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the
report.
B. The main text: the main text of the report should have the following parts:
 Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of
the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. (b)
Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarized. (c) Main report: The main body of the report should be
presented in logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections. (d)

50 | P a g e
 Conclusion: towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
C. The end matter: at the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should
also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research
report.
 Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
 Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
 Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.
 Therefore, the technical research report must cover the following points. i) Introduction
which deals with statement of problem with which the study is concerned and the scope
of the enquiry. ii) The research procedure the study design, the nature of sample, the
data, collection techniques, the method of statistical analysis. iii) The results. iv) The
implications drawn from the results.
11.2. Presentation of the results
 A key component of scientific research is presenting research results to the scientific
community.
 Research results are presented in three main formats: oral presentation; poster
presentation; written paper.
 Presenting the results in a clear and logical format to the client is one of the most
important tasks for the person managing the survey. When presenting results, the
format of the presentation should be tailored to address the aims and objectives of the
survey and to satisfy the potential users of the results.
 Consideration should be given to the level of statistical understanding of the clients and
users, particularly in regard to statistical terminology. The presentation needs to be
effective, easy to understand and convey the main features of the data.
 Style of writing: Remember that your reader:
 Is short of time
 Has many other urgent matters demanding his or her interest and
attention
 Is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research jargon’

References:
o C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Revised Edition

51 | P a g e
o Jayanta Kumar Nayak and Priyanka Singh (2015). Fundamentals of Research Methodology:
Problems and Prospects. Published by SSDN PUBLISHERS AND DISTRIBUTORS. SBN
No. 978-93-8357-556-5.
o Hannah Snyder (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and
guidelines. Journal of Business Research. Vol. 104, pg. 333-339.
o Pradip Kumar Sahu (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural
Science, Social Science, and Other Related Fields. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York
Dordrecht London. DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1020-7.
o Richard J. Torraco (2016). Writing Integrative Reviews of the Literature: Methods and
Purposes. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology. Volume 7,
Issue 3.
o Sarjerao R.Shinde (2015). Research Methodology. The Peer Reviewed Proceedings of UGC
Sponsored One Day Interdisciplinary National Conference. ISBN: 978-93-85426-06-03.
o USC Libraries; University of South Carolina. Research guidelines.
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/literaturereview

“END OF CHAPTER TWO ’’

52 | P a g e
CHAPTER THREE: WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3.1. The Concept of Research Proposal
 Research is a systematic process and research proposal is the documentation of the process in
a stepwise manner. One of the skills essential to successful research is that of writing. Good
communication is required at every stage of the project, but the main writing tasks are located
at the beginning and end of the research project – at the beginning to explain what you will do
in the research, and at the end, to explain what you have done and what you have found out.
 Research program should always be documented in the form of research proposals. Before
starting a research programme it is necessary to work out exactly what you want to do, why
and how. The content, steps, and procedure of writing a research proposal may vary to some
extent, but there are certain common points to be documented in any research proposal. A good
research proposal is the key to successful research. Any research must begin with a clearly
focused research proposal.
 A research proposal is a standalone document which clarifies what the proposed research
project is about, what it is trying to do and achieve, how it will go about doing that, what we
will learn from it, and why it is worth learning.
 After identifying and defining the problem, the researcher must arrange his ideas in
order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can be described as
a research proposal.
 A research proposal is also known as a work plan, prospectus, outline, statement of
intent, or draft plan.
 It tells us what will be done, why it will be done, how it will be done, where it will be
done, to whom it will be done, and what is the benefit of doing it.
 A research proposal is essentially a road map, showing clearly the location from which
a journey begins, the destination to be reached, and the method of getting there.
 It is a document written to convince funding agencies and academic bodies that the project is
worth their attention.
 If the research proposal is asking for financial support, then there are several components to a
strong grant application.
 First, the subject must be creative, exciting, and worthy of funding.
 Second, the project must have been developed through a rigorous, well-defined
experimental plan. One of the most important points to consider when presenting a
research proposal for funding is presenting the information in crystal clear language
with the application following the rules and guidelines of the funding authority.
 The research idea, questions, or problems must be very clearly stated and persuasive and
address a demonstrable gap in the existing literature.
 One must be sure that the departmental staffs are interested in the subject area and
available for the project. One must also ensure that the scope of the project is reasonable
and must remember that there are significant limits to the size and complexity of a
project that can be completed and written up within a given period of time.

53 | P a g e
 3.2.The purposes of the research proposal
1. Organizing your ideas
 The proposal will help you to organize your ideas into a coherent statement of your
research intent.
 Your reader will be looking for this.
 The research proposal helps you to identify flaws or inadequacies,
 And is a pre requisite in the research process.
2. Convincing your audience
 However coherent your ideas and exciting, your research plan is useless, if the
proposal reveals that what you are planning to do is simply not possible.
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the project and provides a
systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.
3. Contracting with your ‘client’
 If you were asked to carry out a research project for a commercial client you need
to submit a clear proposal for approval.
 Acceptance of your proposal by the client would be part of the contract that existed
between you.

 For evaluators (funders, advisors, etc.) the proposal is the means though which they
determine the intent of the research and feasibility.

 THE MAIN CONTENTS AND SEQUENCE

 There is no single way of writing research proposals. There can be different formats for
research proposals depending on the funding organizations.
 Various organizations have their own styles and formats of writing a proposal.
 However, the following proposal components are usually important.
3..1. Elements of a Research Proposal:
1. Cover page: The cover page contains introductory information for the proposal:
 the names of the proposed project (title),
 the author of the proposal or principal investigator,
 And the institution.
 Some funding agencies have standardized cover pages that may contain additional
information.
2. The title
 The title is the stepping stone to a project proposal.
 Ideally it should contain all the essential key words that someone might use in an
attempt to locate the kind of study you are proposing. These words are likely to include
the main concept and variables, and limits to the scope. You can leave out such phrases
as ‘an investigation into’, ‘a study of’, ‘aspects of’, as these are obvious attributes of a
research project.

54 | P a g e
  It gives first impression of a proposal and as such is required to be catchy, small, and
informative.
 The title should not be the same as the objective. It should be shorter and at the same
time must indicate broadly what is being attempted to.
 Selection of a Research Topic:
 There are three factors which a researcher needs to consider in choosing a research topic:
I. Interest of the researcher: Chose a topic that you find interesting.
 If your interest is genuine and you have confidence in your ability, you do not need to have
a great deal of prior knowledge on that subject. With a modest knowledge you can start a
project, provided you have a consuming interest in that subject. Read books, articles,
reviews, reports, etc.—as much as possible on that topic. The reading will make up for any
deficiency that you may have.
 Do not commit yourself to a project unless you have a solid interest in it, otherwise the
experience can be as painful as an unhappy marriage.
II. Researcher’s competence: Make a careful self-evaluation.
 Choose a topic in which you think you are competent. Competence in this case does not
mean that you have to be well informed about the subject; it is more a mixture of your
interest and some prior knowledge.
 Interest alone is, however, not always adequate.
 Strict as it may sound, you don’t know what you are doing. So just forget it. Choose a
topic within the range of your competence.
 Give some thought at this stage to the methodological demands of the research and see if
your methodological training matches with them. If you are not comfortable with multiple
regression or factor analysis, don’t get involved in a project that demands high-level
quantitative skills.
III. The relevance or usefulness of the topic: Make sure that your research is useful on the
following counts:
 It is topical (that is, everyone is talking about it and it may be relevant to public policy).
 It can help you land a research grant and/or a job (assuming you are working on a
dissertation).
 It promises to contribute to your discipline, or more ambitiously, to humanity and
knowledge per se.
IV. Narrow down your topic: It is very important to demarcate your interest.
 If your topic is too broad it will take you forever to do the research and even after that,
you may find that your study is still incomplete. But if the topic is too narrow,
sometimes it can be too small or difficult to research. So you have to be careful in
striking a balance.
 It is recommended that to start thinking with a broader topic then go on to narrow it
down. In moving from a general to a particular topic, it is useful if you can discover a
knowledge gap and are in need of knowing.

55 | P a g e
  In narrowing down your research topic, state clearly what you are not going to do.
Once you have selected a research topic that can be done with your resources i.e., time,
money, knowledge, competence, etc., write down how you will go about doing it.

There are three types of titles:

o Indicative title:
 They state the subject of the proposal rather than expected outcomes.
 Example: The role of agricultural credit in alleviating poverty in a low-potential area
of Ethiopia.
o Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part followed by a more specific second part.
 Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-potential area of Ethiopia: the impact of
agricultural credit’.
o Question-type titles are used less commonly than indicative and hanging titles.
 However, they are acceptable where it is possible to use few words – say less than 15.
 Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty in low-potential areas of
Ethiopia’.

3. Statement of the Problem

 In this part of the research proposal, the researcher makes an attempt to put forward a research
problem, which he/she has conceived.
 This section concerns with background information, urgency, critical gaps in knowledge, and
need for the present study. The background part of the introduction deals with a context having
a set of problems.
 In the process, the researcher should emphasize on the origin of the problems, its importance,
and its impact on society.
 A researcher should try to make clear why the problem was selected and why it has an
importance to the society and thereby justify the research approach.
 This attempt to focus on a stated goal gives direction to the research process. It must be limited
enough in scope to make a definite conclusion possible. A problem suggests a specific answer
or conclusion. The statement of the problem should be written in specific clear-cut words.
 For example the problem could pertain to
o existing business problems where the manager is looking for a solution,
o situation that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have
scope for improvement,
o areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory building, or
o Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically
because of interest in the topic.

4. Objectives of the Study

Based on the above stage two and three, the researcher is now better placed to formulate the
objective and specific objective of the research program proposed.

56 | P a g e
 The objectives of the study should clearly be spelled out. Research Objectives addresses the
purpose of the investigation. Generally there are objective(s), and to each and every objective,
specific objectives are there, which are generally followed by hypothesis to be tested (not in
all cases).
In all these efforts, the researchers should try to clear out what he/she wants to achieve, for
whom the objectives are valuable, whether the objectives are in measurable form or not, and
of course how far the objectives are realistic and achievable under the given situation.
It should be clearly noted that for mandatory researches, the objectives, specific objectives,
and the hypotheses are mostly stipulated by the research organizations or the funding agencies.
The research objectives section is the basis for judging the remainder of the proposal and,
ultimately, the final report. Verify the consistency of the proposal by checking to see that
each objective is discussed in the research design, data analysis, and result sections.
The range of possible objectives can be listed as:
o to describe
o to explain and evaluate
o to compare
o to correlate
o to act, intervene and change
5. Review of Literature
 A brief summary of previous research should be given so that the researcher and reader may
be familiar with what is already known and with what is still unknown and untested. The
effective research is based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate replication of what
has been done and provides useful basis for the formulation of hypotheses and deciding the
methodology of the study. A review of related literature should conclude with a comment of
area of agreement and disagreement in findings.
 The researcher should try to search whether the same types of work are already taken up in the
same area, if any, their short falls, and how previous work could be improvised or thought
afresh to solve the present problem.
 This will help the researcher to concretize the research idea and the methodology to be adopted
or developed.
 Both conceptual and empirical literature is to be reviewed for this purpose.
6. The Hypotheses
 The researcher has to clearly state a working hypothesis.
 A hypothesis is a tentative predictive statement that represents a very specific proposed answer
to the problem statement.

57 | P a g e
 Hypotheses are important to determine the nature of data needed, to offer the basis for selecting
the samples, the research procedures, and method of analysis, to restrict the scope of the study
thereby preventing it from being too broad, and to set a framework for reporting the
conclusions of the study.

 There are two important points that should be kept in mind.

1. All hypotheses must be falsifiable. That is, hypotheses must be capable of being refuted based
on the results of the study. If a researcher’s hypothesis cannot be refuted, then the researcher
is not conducting a scientific investigation.
2. A hypothesis must be a prediction (usually, about the relationship between two or more
variables). The predictions embodied in hypotheses are subsequently tested empirically by
gathering and analyzing data, and the hypotheses can then be either supported or refuted.
There are two kinds of research hypotheses.
1. The null hypothesis: The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no difference
between the groups on the variable of interest being studied, or the independent variable has no
effect on the dependent variable.
2. The alternate (or experimental) hypothesis: the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will
be a difference between the groups, or that the independent variable determines the dependent
variable.
7. Significance of the Study:
 This section justifies the need of the study.
 It describes the type of knowledge expected to be obtained and the intended purpose
of its application.
 It should indicate clearly how the results of the research could influence theory or
practice.
 The Rational for undertaking a research study can be:
1. to show the existence of a time lapse between the earlier study and the present one,
and therefore, the new knowledge, techniques or considerations indicate the need to
replicate the study.
2. to show that there are gaps in knowledge provided by previous research studies and
to show how the present study will help to fill in these gaps and add to the quantum
of existing knowledge.

8. Definition of terms and concepts:

 Technical terms or words and phrases need to be defined operationally.
9. Scope and limitations of the study
Boundaries of the study should be made clear with reference to
(i) the areas to which the conclusions will be confined

58 | P a g e
 (ii) the sampling procedures, the techniques of data collection and analysis, etc.
10. Basic assumptions - statements of ideas that are accepted as true.
 They serve as the foundation upon which the research study is based.
11. Methodology and Procedure of the Study
 This part of the proposal outlines the entire research plan. Under this part of the synopsis
method, sample, population, tools, and statistical analysis techniques are described in
view of testing the formulated hypotheses. It describes just what must be done, how it
will be done, what data will be needed, what data-gathering devices will be employed,
how sources of data will be selected, and how the data will be analysed and conclusions
be drawn.
A. Procedures for collecting data – the details about the sampling procedures and the data
collecting tools are described.
(i) Sampling – in research situations the researcher usually comes across unmanageable
populations in which large numbers are involved.
(ii) Tools (instruments) – in order to collect evidence or data for a study the researcher
has to make use of certain tools such as observations, interviews, questionnaires,
etc.
 The proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool or tools for
collecting the data.
 Will your research be based, for example, on a questionnaire, interviews,
examination of secondary data or use a combination of data collection techniques?
 The proposal should explain the reasons for selecting a particular tool or tools for
collecting the data.
 Data Sources
 Involves primary and secondary data
 Primary data is collected directly from respondents while secondary data is
collected from documented data sources.
 Sampling Techniques
 Describe the population from which the sample will be drawn.
 State the sample size and sample selection methods.
 Data Collection Methods
o Give an outline of how research data will be collected and administered
o The data collection instrument is/are identified, defined and its/their relevance discussed.
o Sometimes pre testing of the instruments may be necessary.
 Data analysis
Justify data analysis tools and methods you intend to use.
Explain how you intend to analyze and interpret your results.
The method of data analysis chosen depends on the type of research.

59 | P a g e
 The methods can range from simple descriptive analyses to complex multivariate analysis.
It is necessary for you to demonstrate that you have either the necessary skills to perform
the analysis or can learn the skills in an appropriate time, or you have access to help.
(i) Statistical inference models
o Regression analysis is a good analytical tool, providing a method to test various
hypotheses relating to the classical economic theory.
 A range of regression models.

Mathematical programming models

 An example of a mathematical programming model is the linear programming model.

 There are also non-linear and dynamic mathematical programming models that
address a range of economic and policy analysis questions and hypotheses.
 The central theme is to optimize an objective function subject to a set of constraints.
 Budgeting and Scheduling the Research -Research costs money.
 This may be for travel, subsistence, help with data analysis, or preparation of
questionnaires.
 Resource considerations may be categorized as finance, data access and equipment.
– A proposal should include a budget estimating the funds required for travel,
printing, purchase of equipment, tools, books, etc.
 The budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their
approximate cost
 It would include all or some of the following items:
 Management time
 Data collection
 Data analysis cost – software and hardware
 Transport cost
 Respondent’s incentives
 Think through the expenses involved and ensure that you can meet these expenses.

 Time Schedule: Research must be scheduled appropriately.

 Researcher should prepare a realistic time schedule for completing the study.
 Dividing a study into phases and assigning dates for the completion of each phase
helps the researcher to use is time systematically.
 Use time scheduling tools such as the Gantt or Pert Charts

60 | P a g e
  Produce a schedule for your research using a Gantt chart.
 provides a simple visual representation of the activities that make up your research
project, each being plotted against a time line
 The time schedule enables the researcher to assess the feasibility of conducting a
study within the given time limits
 It helps the researcher to stay on schedule.
Citations and references
 Every academic document should have a list of all cited references, including those
in tables and figures captions.
 It is important that you correctly cite all consulted published and unpublished documents
that you refer to in the proposal.
 This allows the reader to know the sources of your information.
 Be sure to include every work that was referred to in the proposal
 Formats vary slightly by journals and publishers, etc.
 A common format:
 For a book: Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations. London: Dent and Sons
 For an article: Coase, Ronald (1937). “The Nature of the Firm.” Economica 4,
386-405.

Appendix - Appendices such as questionnaires, maps sample data or mathematical

derivations should be included at the end.
Supporting documentation and evidence-

61 | P a g e
  letter from owner of data, etc.
 permission from any necessary authorities
 Evidence of material support
 Evidence of researcher qualifications, etc.

Reference
 Jayanta Kumar Nayak and Priyanka Singh (2015). Fundamentals of Research Methodology:
Problems and Prospects. Published by SSDN PUBLISHERS AND DISTRIBUTORS. SBN
No. 978-93-8357-556-5.
 Nicholas Walliman (2011). RESEARCH METHODS THE BASICS. Routledge, 2 Park
Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN. ISBN 0-203-83607-3 Master e-book ISBN.
 Pradip Kumar Sahu (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural
Science, Social Science, and Other Related Fields. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York
Dordrecht London. DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1020-7.
 Sarjerao R.Shinde (2015). Research Methodology. The Peer Reviewed Proceedings of UGC
Sponsored One Day Interdisciplinary National Conference. ISBN: 978-93-85426-06-03.

“END OF CHAPTER THREE”

62 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND SAMPLING
4.1. Research design
 Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
 The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with
minimal expenditure of effort time and money a research design is the overall plan or
programme of research.
 It is the general blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. It includes what
the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the
final analysis of data.
 Various uses of having a research design are as follows:
 It provides answers to various question such as
 What is the object of research?
 What data are needed and how will these be gathered?
 What will be the time place and interpreted?
 What will be the cost time and labor heeded in the study?
 What will be the level of accuracy desired in the results?
 It acts as a standard and guidepost which helps the researcher in measuring his
shortcomings and deviations in actual research later on
 It helps in carrying out research validly, objectively, accurately and economically if the
design is ideal, the researcher can rely on both his observations and his inferences.
 Design is data discipline by telling the investigator what data he has to collect and
what data he has ignore and how a research design makes the study economical and
accurate.
 If forestalls the possibility of a fruitless enquiry and an insurance against future.

 A research design is the logical and systematic planning and directing the research.
 It is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering specific research questions or
testing specific hypotheses, and must specify at least three processes:
1. the data collection process,
2. the instrument development process, and
3. the sampling process.
 Research design addresses itself to certain questions about the research projects such as:
 What is the problem under study?
 What is major research question?
 What is the area of the study (the population)?
 How many people will be studied?
 How these people will be selected?
 What methods and techniques will be used to analyse data?

63 | P a g e
 To be more specific, a research design includes the details about the problem, objectives,
research questions, area of study, sampling plan, and method and techniques of data collection
and analysis.
 Keeping in view the various dimensions, research designs can be organized into three groups:
1. Research designs indicating the purpose of doing research
2. Research designs indicating its intended use, and
3. Research designs indicating the effects of time.
 There are four parts of research design
1. Sampling design: It describes the various sampling methods to various used for selecting
subject for study.
2. Observational design: It describes the way in which the observations are to be made.
3. Statistical design: It describes the statistical techniques to be used for analyzing and
interpreting data.
4. Operational design: It describes how the entire operation of research is to be carried out.
Stapes in preparing a research design following are the essential steps involved in preparing
a good research design.
o Research designs vary depending upon the type of research. By and large,
research designs are framed in three types:
 Exploratory type of research,
 Descriptive type of research, and
 Hypothesis-testing type of research.

4.2. NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

 Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money. Just as for better, economical, and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house)
well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a
plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.
 Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of
the research and the availability of staff, time, and money.
 Preparation of the research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset
the entire project. Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results
arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
 An efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The
design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him
to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their
comments and critical evaluation.
 In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to provide a
comprehensive review of the proposed study.

64 | P a g e
 4.3. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.
 Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like gender, weight, height, income are all
examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the
basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s).
 When one variable causes change in another, we call the first variable the independent variable
or explanatory variable. The affected variable is called the dependent variable or response
variable: stimulus, response.
 In regression analysis, the variable you wish to predict is called the dependent variable. The
variables used to make the prediction are called independent variables
 Numerical variables (also known as quantitative variables) have values that represent
quantities. Numerical variables are further identified as being either discrete or
continuous variables.
 Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points
are called ‘continuous variables’. Eg. How Far Is There From Your Home To Peking
University? ___ (km). But all variables are not continuous.
 If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in
statistical language ‘discrete variables’. They only take countable values; How Many
Books Did You Buy Last Month? ___ (Number).
 For instance, Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is
an example of non-continuous variable.
 Discrete variables have numerical values that arise from a counting process, whereas
Continuous variables produce numerical responses that arise from a measuring
process.
 A variable that can take on one of a limited, and usually fixed, number of possible
values, assigning each individual or other unit of observation to a particular group or
nominal category on the basis of some qualitative property is called Categorical
variable. Eg. Do You Own A Car? __ Yes __ No; Sex? __ Female __ Male; etc.
 Categorical variables (also known as qualitative variables) have values that can only
be placed into categories
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as
an independent variable.
 For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable
and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age,

65 | P a g e
 height also depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a dependent variable and
age and sex are independent variables.
 Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
o Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-
concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent
variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is
not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed
as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result
of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study
must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed
entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or
variables.
 Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence
or effect of extraneous variable(s).
 The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimizing the effects
of extraneous independent variables.
 In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental
conditions.
 Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
 Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.
o The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable
to a dependent variable.
o Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one
dependent variable.
o Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that
are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.
 Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be
of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
 Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
 For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading
ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and

66 | P a g e
 tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation
between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not
manipulated.
 But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of
students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by
randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B,
the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each
group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the student’s
performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research
because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is
manipulated.
 Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
 An experimental group is a group that receives variables that are to be tested. All the
experiments have one or more experimental groups. The researcher changes the
independent variable in the experimental group that may affect the dependent variable
in research.
 A control group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment such that the
independent variable being tested cannot influence the results. This isolates the
independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternative
explanations of the experimental results. In short, Control Group, which won’t be
subject to changes.
 In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B
an experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies
programmes, then both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible
to design studies which include only experimental groups or studies which include both
experimental and control groups.
 Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the
usual studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine
through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of
wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
 Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types’
viz., absolute experiment, and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of
a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine
the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment

67 | P a g e
 then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake comparative
experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
 Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are
used, are known as experimental units.
 The smallest division of the experimental material such that any two experimental
units can receive different treatments.
 The experimental unit is the physical entity which can be assigned, at random, to a
treatment. The experimental unit is also the unit of statistical analysis. However, any
two experimental units must be capable of receiving different treatments.
 Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.
4.4.Types of Research Design
 Research designs vary depending upon the type of research. The choice of which design to
apply depends on the nature of the problems posed by the research.
 There are numerous types of research design that are appropriate for the different types of
research projects. However, some methods are more widely used than others.
 Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are commonly used to collect
and analyze the type of data that is generated by the investigations.
 Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:
1. Experimental
2. Quasi experimental
3. Cross-sectional
4. Longitudinal and
5. Case studies.

1. Experimental research design

 Identifies effects by a random assignment of a treatment between a control and a
treatment group. In an experimental type of studies, a researcher wants to test the
hypothesis with respect to the populations through experimentations.
 Experimental studies are those that are intended to test cause effect relationships
(hypotheses) by separating the cause from the effect in time, administering the cause
to one group of subjects (the “treatment group”) but not to another group (“control
group”), and observing how the effects vary between subjects in these two groups. For
instance, the treatment group may be administered a drug for treating a certain medical
condition, while the control group may receive just a placebo (no drug) without their
knowledge.
An experiment usually has two key elements:
 Experimental group– this is the group of people or materials that are
manipulated or changed.
 Control group– this is a group of people or materials that are the same as the
experimental group in every way except the aspect of manipulation or change.

68 | P a g e
  This design begins with the assumption that the material or cases that are being studied

Method of allocation to Pre-test Intervention (X) Post-test

groups

Random (experimental Measure on outcome ‘Treatment’ Measure on outcome

group) variable (Y) variable (Y)

Random (control group) Measure on outcome No ‘treatment’ Measure on outcome

variable (Y) variable (Y)

can be manipulated by the researcher so that changes or differences can be measured.

The researcher deliberately does something to something, in order to provoke and then
measure a reaction.
 Manipulation helps to isolate and control the influence of confounding variables (i.e.
variables correlated with both the dependent and the independent variable) in a
randomisation process – RCTs for instance.
 Experiments allow identification and separation of unwanted variables by
controlling them.
 And, by controlling and manipulating variables systematically, we can determine
which variables influence the behavior that we are studying.
 The experimental and control groups need to be similar before the experiment starts.
 Then, participants are assigned at random to experimental and control groups in the
hope that this will result in equal assignment of people to both groups.
o So
o We will have two groups: experimental and control groups (with and without
‘treatment’)
o Changes in the experimental groups before and after ‘treatment’ compared with
changes in the control group.

 Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are commonly held when testing medical drugs or
treatments. ‘Classic’ case: clinical trial for a new medicine
 Patients randomly assigned into experimental/treatment and control groups
 Health status of participants measured
o New medicine given to experimental group and the control group receives placebo.
o Improvements in the two groups are measured after some time
 If conditions of experimental group significantly improved compared to control, the medicine
is working.
 Nowadays, randomised control trials (RCTs) are being extensively used in economics as well.
o Example 1: E. Duflo, M. Kremer and J. Robinson, “How high are rates of return to fertilizer?
Evidence from field experiments in Kenya”, 2008 American Economic Review: 98:2, 482–
488
69 | P a g e
  aim: to vary fertilizer use experimentally on real-world farms and measure the impact
of potentially complementary inputs use on output.
 Question: Hybrid seed and fertiliser increase yield between 40-100% on experimental
plots; but only 60% of farmers use them. Do fertiliser and hybrid seed increase yield in
real small farms where conditions are not ideal?
 Design:
Farmers randomly selected from list of parents of students; implemented with an NGO.
A series of six field trials made over three years starting from July 2000
 On each farm 3 adjacent 30 square meter plots selected
One plot was randomly assigned to receive Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN)
fertilizer to be applied as top dressing. On the second plot, hybrid seeds were used in
place of traditional varieties and Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer was
supplied for planting along with CAN for top dressing; the official package
recommended by the Ministry of Agriculture. The third plot was a comparison plot on
which farmers farmed as usual with traditional seed and without fertilizer.
 Additional input costs covered; field workers of the NGO worked with farmers.
Then maize output measured farmers were instructed to farm their plots just as they
would have otherwise; no additional labour on treatment plots.
 Result: the full package recommended by the Ministry of Agriculture found to be
unprofitable on average for the farmers in the sample.
2. Quasi-experimental research design
 If random assignment is not followed, then the design becomes quasi-experimental.
 Uses a comparison group similar to the treatment group (but there is no random
assignment). It is a research design used in situations where two or more groups of
participants or data can be identified, and one is used as the control and the other as the
experimental group.
 When a group is tested for the influence of a variable and compared with a control
group which has not been subjected to the variable. Example: participants and non-
participants in a program.
3. Cross-sectional research design
A cross-sectional research design:
a. includes more than one case;
b. collects data at one particular time;
c. includes within its research participants groups of people or cases that can be compared,
i. e.g. men and women, people of different ages or ethnicities, or people from
different cities.
Cross-sectional studies often take the form of questionnaire surveys, with participants selected
using random sampling processes.
ii. other ways such as observation and documents or interviews could also be used.
Cross-sectional field surveys, independent and dependent variables are measured at the same
point in time (e.g., using a single questionnaire).
4. Longitudinal research design

70 | P a g e
 A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations.
With longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is interviewed at regular
intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that
might explain why the changes occur.
 Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more
distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. Two
types of study are commonly identified:
 Panel studies– these consist of a sample of people, often randomly selected, who are
questioned more than once.
 Cohort studies– these concentrate on a group that shares similar characteristics, such
as students from a particular year of matriculation or people on strike at a certain time.
5. Case Study research design
 A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping
statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a
few easily researchable examples. A case study is a research method involving an up-close,
in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular case.
 The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model
actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known
about a phenomenon.
 Data may be collected using a combination of interviews, personal observations, and internal
or external documents.
 The subject of the case may be a person, an organization, a situation, or a country. In case
study design, no claim is made for generalizability.
 The selection of the case may be based on:
1. Critical case. Here the case is chosen as one that will enable the researcher to test a theory
or hypothesis.
2. Extreme or unique case. Here the focus is on a situation or group that is perceived to be
different to any other and the focus is on its uniqueness.
3. Representative or typical case. This is a case that is chosen because it is seen to represent
many other similar cases
4. Revelatory case. This is a case that has the potential to shed light on the research topic.
o It may be that the researcher has access to a situation that has been hidden.

4.5. SAMPLING DESIGN

 Census and Sample Survey

 All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’
 Population can be defined as all people or items (unit of analysis) with the
characteristics that one wishes to study. The unit of analysis may be a person, group,

71 | P a g e
 organization, country, object, or any other entity that you wish to draw scientific
inferences about.
 For example, if a manufacturer wants to determine whether finished goods
manufactured at a production line meets certain quality requirements or must be
scrapped and reworked, then the population consists of the entire set of finished goods
manufactured at that production facility.
 A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can
be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance is left
and highest accuracy is obtained.
 Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number
of observation increases; but in practice this may not be true. When the field of inquiry is
large, this census inquiry becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources involved.
 Many a time it is not possible to examine every item in the population, and sometimes it is
possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total population. In
such cases there is no utility of census surveys.
There are difficulties in measuring whole populations:
1. The large size of many populations
2. Inaccessibility of some of the population
3. Destructiveness of the observation
4. Accuracy and sampling
 When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of time and cost almost
invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items. The respondents
selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in order to produce a
miniature cross-section.
 The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample.
A sample is a “subgroup of a population”. A sample is a group of people, objects, or items that
are taken from a larger population for measurement. It has also been described as a
representative “taste” of a group. The sample should be “representative in the sense that each
sampled unit will represent the characteristics of a known number of units in the population”.
The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that we can generalize the
findings from the research sample to the population as a whole. To draw conclusions about

72 | P a g e
 populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics, to enable us to determine a
population’s characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or sample) of the population.
We obtain a sample of the population for many reasons as it is usually not practical and almost
never economical. Using correct sampling methods allows researchers the ability to reduce
research costs, conduct research more efficiently (speed), have greater flexibility, and provides
for greater accuracy.
 The selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’ Sampling techniques can be grouped
into two broad categories: probability (random) sampling and non-probability sampling.
 The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.
 IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN
o A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
o It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
o Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e.,
the size of the sample.
o Sample design is determined before data are collected.
o There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are
relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a
sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
o Reasons for Sampling
1. Reduced cost: since data are secured from a small fraction of the population, cost will be
reduced.
2. Greater speed: for the same reasons as above, sample surveys can be reported faster than that
of census.
3. Greater scope and accuracy: since samples deal with fewer units than complete census, it is
possible to attain greater accuracy and cover greater scope by involving highly trained
personnel, careful supervision and specialized equipment, which otherwise wouldn’t be
possible.
4. Feasibility: some investigations could only be addressed by sample surveys: for example
a. when studying infinite populations,
b. laboratory testing one’s blood,

73 | P a g e
 c. When conducting quality assurance tests (especially when the test involves the destruction
of the product), etc.
5. Representativeness

a. There are two principles in representativeness:

i. The need to avoid bias and the need to gain maximum precision.

b. Bias can arise:

i. if the selection of the sample is done by some non-random method

ii. if the sampling frame (i.e. list, index, population record) does not adequately cover the
target population.

iii. if some sections of the population are impossible to find or refuse to co-operate.

6. For Qualitative Studies:

a. Representativeness of the sample is NOT a primary concern.

b. In qualitative studies we select study units which give you the richest possible information.

i. You go for INFORMATION-RICH cases!

4.6. STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
A. Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the
set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied.
o The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in
case of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea
about the total number of items.
o The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of
finite universes, whereas or example, if a researcher wants to the success rate of a new “quit
smoking” program, then the target population is the universe of smokers who had access to
this program, which may be an unknown population.
B. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a

74 | P a g e
 construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he/she has to select for his study.
C. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.
 It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If
source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable, and appropriate. It is extremely important for the
source list to be as representative of the population as possible.
D. Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher.
 The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be
optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability, and flexibility.
 While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as
also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
The expression “within some reasonable degree of error” is emphasized because it leads to an
issue of importance in any discussion of survey sampling, namely, precision of estimates.
 The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance
usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population must be kept in view for this
also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in
view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we
can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when
we decide the sample size.
E. Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question
of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be
interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the
population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population.
o There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would
like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we
would accept

75 | P a g e
 F. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
G. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he/she will
use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
 In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are
several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the
researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously, he/she must select that design
which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

4.7. CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

 In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz.,
the cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
 Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias,
and sampling error.
 A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced
or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors
can be detected and corrected. Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the
following factors:
1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a
biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will
result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring
device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such
a measuring device.
3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included
in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a
situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an
individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.

76 | P a g e
 4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in
course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of time to
complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece
work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which
they work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a
cause of a systematic bias.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting
of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually
a downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation
department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some
social organization. People in general understate their incomes if asked about it
for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their
affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think
is the ‘correct’ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.
 A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes; however, there is no
guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the population. Sampling
error can make a sample unrepresentative of its population.
 Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and the population
that are due solely to the particular participants that have been selected.
 Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters.
 If we use different samples, drawn following exactly the same way from the same
population, it will be found that the estimates from each sample differ from the
other even if the same questionnaires, instructions, and facilities are provided for
the selection of all the samples. This difference is termed as sampling error.
 Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction, their
nature happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of such errors
happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size

77 | P a g e
 of the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population.
 The measurement of sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of the
sampling plan’. If we increase the sample size, the precision can be improved.
 Non-sampling Error: Non-sampling errors are attributed mainly to differential behavior
of respondents as well as interviewers. Thus, difference in response, difficulties in defining,
difference in interpretations, and inability in recalling information and so on are the major
sources of non-sampling errors.

4.8. DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

 One of the questions researchers tend to ask is ‘how many people should I speak to?’

 This is not an easy question, as a number of different aspects need to be taken into
account.

 Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to
include in a statistical sample.
 Determining sample size is a very important issue because samples that are too large may
waste time, resources, and money, while samples that are too small may lead to inaccurate
results.
 The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is
to make inferences about a population from a sample.
 In practice, the sample size used in a study is usually determined based on the cost,
time, or convenience of collecting the data, and the need for it to offer
sufficient statistical power.
 In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes: for example, in
a stratified survey there would be different sizes for each stratum. In a census, data
is sought for an entire population, hence the intended sample size is equal to the
population. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into
different treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes for each group.
 The decision on the sample size hinges on how large an error one is willing to tolerate in
estimating population parameters or,

78 | P a g e
  Put differently, what effect size will be required for the result to be considered
significant.

 This obviously depends on the type of research.

 But in the final decision, statistical precision must be balanced against time, cost, and
other practical considerations.

 Sample size depends on several factors.

a. Degree of homogeneity: The size of the population variance is the most important
parameter.

 The greater the dispersion in the population the larger the sample must be to provide a
given estimation precession.

b. Degree of confidence required: Since a sample can never reflect its population for certain,
the researcher must determine how much precision you need.
 Precision is measured in terms of
 An interval range.
 The degree of confidence
 The sample size needed in a research study is determined by the level accuracy required
in the study.
c. Number of sub groups to be studied:
 When the researcher is interested in making estimates concerning various subgroups of
the population then the sample must be large enough for each of these subgroups to meet
the desired quality level.

d. Cost: cost considerations have major impact on decisions about the size and type of sample,
as well as the data collection methods.
 All studies have some budgetary constraint and hence cost dictates the size of the
sample.

 The level of precision obviously increases with increase in the size of the sample thus
researchers are usually challenged by the interest of balancing accuracy and cost.

e. Practicality: Of course the sample size you select must make sense.

79 | P a g e
  Therefore the sample size is usually a compromise between what DESIRABLE is and
what is FEASIBLE.
 For researchers with limited time and resources, the sample size is more likely to be
influenced by the resources available and the ease of access to the sampled cases.
 It is important, though, to be aware of the limitations of a smaller sample and to
discuss these in your research report or dissertation.
f. Other Considerations:
 Prior information: If our process has been studied before, we can use that prior information
to determine our sample size.
 This can be done by using prior mean and variance estimates and by
stratifying the population to reduce variation within groups.
 Note: If you know the mean and variance statistical methods can be used
to determine the size of the sample required for a given level of accuracy.
g. Rule of Thumb: is based on past experience with samples that have met the requirements of
the statistical methods.
o For small populations (under 1000 a large sampling ratio (about 30%). Hence, a
sample size of about 300 is required.

o For moderately large population (10,000), a smaller sampling ratio (about 10%) is
needed – a sample size around 1,000.

o To sample from very large population (over 10 million), one can achieve accuracy
using tiny sampling ratios (.025%) or samples of about 2,500.

h. Using Cochran’s Formula: You need to determine a few things about the sample you need.
 Margin of Error (Confidence Interval) — No sample will be perfect, so you need to
decide how much error to allow.
 The confidence interval determines how much higher or lower than the population mean
you are willing to let your sample mean fall.
 It will look something like this: “68% of voters said yes to Proposition Z, with a margin
of error of +/- 5%.”

80 | P a g e
  Confidence Level — How confident do you want to be that the actual mean falls within
your confidence interval?

o The most common confidence intervals are 90% confident, 95% confident, and
99% confident.

 Standard of Deviation — How much variance do you expect in your responses?

 The safe decision is to use .5 – this is the most forgiving number and ensures that
your sample will be large enough.
 When the population of the study is unknown or very large, Cochran (1963) has developed the
following formula to determined sample size.
n=z2 x p (1-p)/e2

Where, n=sample size; p= represents standard deviation which commonly takes a value of
0.5, q= 1-p; e=level of precision (1%, 5%, and10%); z=level of confidence for 95%; in other
words = +/- 5% with confidence interval of 95%.

 When the population of the study is known or very large, Yemen (1967) has developed the
following formula to determined sample size sample size.
n= N/1+N(e) 2
Where n = sample size; e = sampling error (error term) which 1%, 5% and 10%, and
N=total population
 Sample Size in Qualitative Studies
 The size of a sample is not big issue in qualitative research since the emphasis is
obtaining new information to have deep understanding of a phenomenon.
 There are no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research.
 The size of the sample depends on WHAT you try to find out, and from what
different informants or perspectives you try to find that out; the sample size is
therefore estimated, but not determined.

4.9. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

81 | P a g e
 o Depending upon the nature and scope of the investigation and the situations under which
the study is being carried out, appropriate sampling technique is being chosen. Available
sampling techniques can broadly be categorized into two categories:
a) Probability sampling and
b) Non-probability sampling.
A. Probability Sampling
 Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a chance
(non-zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately
determined.
 Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
 Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion
in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up
from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind
chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
 Probability method of sampling which gives the probability that our sample is
representative of population.
 Characteristics of Probability Sampling
 In probability sampling every individual of the population has equal probability to be
taken into the sample.
 Probability sample may be representative of the population.
 In probability sampling we refer from the sample as well as the population. The
observations (data) of the probability sample are used for the inferential purpose.
 Probability sample has not from distribution for any variable.
 Inferential or parametric statistics are used for probability sample.
 There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability sample.
 The probability is comprehensive. Representativeness refers to characteristic.
 Comprehensiveness refers to size and area.
 Populations are not always quite as uniform or one-dimensional as, say, a particular type of
component in a production run, so simple random selection methods are not always
appropriate.
 The select procedure should aim to guarantee that each element (person, group, class,
type etc.) has an equal chance of being selected and that every possible combination
of the elements also has an equal chance of being selected.
 Therefore, the first question to be asked is about the nature of the population: is it homogeneous
or are there distinctly different classes of cases within it, and if so, how are they distributed
within the population (e.g. are they grouped in different locations, found at different levels in
a hierarchy, or are they all mixed up together)?

82 | P a g e
  Specific techniques are used for selecting representative samples from populations of
the different characteristics.
 Types or Techniques Probability Sampling: There are a number of techniques of taking
probability sample. But here only six important techniques have been discussed as follows:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling.
3. Stratified sampling.
4. Multiple or Double sampling.
5. Multi-stage sampling.
6. Cluster sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

 Simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization
method is known as simple-random sample and this technique is simple random-sampling.
 Simple random sampling is used when the population is uniform or has common
characteristics in all cases (e.g. medical students, international airports, dairy cows).
 Randomization is a method and is done by using a number of techniques as: (a) Tossing
a coin. (b) Throwing a dice. (c) Lottery method. (d) Blind folded method. (e) By using
random table of ‘Tippett’s Table’.
 Simple random sampling is the most widely used, simplest method of drawing sample from a
population.
 Simple random sampling is of two different types: (a) simple random sampling with
replacement (SRSWR) and (b) simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR).
From a population of N units, we select one unit by giving equal probability 1/N to all units
with the help of random numbers. A unit is selected, noted, and returned to the population
before drawing the second unit, and the process is repeated “n” times to get a simple random
sample of “n” units. This procedure of selecting a sample is known as “simple random
sampling with replacement (SRSWR)”. On the other hand, if the above procedure is continued
till “n” distinct units are selected ignoring all repetitions, a “simple random sampling without
replacement (SRSWOR)” is obtained.
 E.g., simple random sampling for household surveys
o Population = all households in the country

83 | P a g e
 o Sampling frame = the list of all households (20 million in Ethiopia?)
o Sample size = say we have resources to cover only 20,000 households
o Sampling fraction 20,000/20,000,000 or 0.1%
o Select randomly 20,000 households from the long list of 20,000,000 households
 Advantages
 It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
 It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
 It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
 The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose.
 Disadvantages
 The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by this method.
 This method does not use the knowledge about the population.
 The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the size of the sample.

2. Systematic Sampling
5. In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered according to some criteria and
elements are selected at regular intervals through that ordered list. Select every 𝒌𝒕𝒉
item on a list. An element of randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
6. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every 𝒌𝒕𝒉 element from that point onwards, where k = N/n, where k is the ratio of
sampling frame size N and the desired sample size n, and is formally called the
sampling ratio. It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in
the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first k elements on the list.
7. In this approach, as before, a specific sample size is determined. Then, the size of the
sample is divided by the total eligible population to determine the sampling fraction.
o For now, assume as in the example that we have decided on a sample of 1,000 students
from the total eligible population of 20,000.In our example, the sampling fraction is
1000/20000, or 1 in 20. A number between 1 and 20 is randomly chosen, and then every
20th person after that number is selected for the sample. Thus, if we randomly chose
the number 15 as our starting point, we would include in our sample the 15th, 35th,
55th, 75th, and so on, student from the renters list. We would continue in this fashion
until we had sampled exactly 1,000 students.
 Advantages
o This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
84 | P a g e
 o It reduces the field cost.
o Inferential statistics may be used
o Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population.
o Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations.
 Disadvantages
o This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic
list by different individuals. Knowledge of population is essential.
o Information of each individual is essential.
o This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
o There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample.

3. Stratified Sampling
 If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample.
 To control the size of the samples selected from different subgroups of the population, survey
researchers generally make use of a technique known as stratification sampling, in which the
population is divided into theoretically meaningful or empirically important strata before the
sample is drawn.
o In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into homogeneous and non-
overlapping subgroups (called “strata”), and a simple random sample is drawn within
each subgroup.
 Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-
populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total population
called ‘strata’.
 Strata are formed on the basis of common characteristic(s) of the items to be
put in each stratum. This means that various strata be formed in such a way as
to ensure elements being most homogeneous within each stratum and most
heterogeneous between the different strata.
 Thus, strata are purposively formed and are usually based on past experience
and personal judgement of the researcher.
 One should always remember that careful consideration of the relationship
between the characteristics of the population and the characteristics to be
estimated are normally used to define the strata.
o Sampling units (or respondents) then are chosen randomly from within each stratum,
and this permits prespecified sample sizes to be selected for each stratum.
 Stratified sampling may be of three types:
 Disproportionate sampling: it means that the size of the sample in each unit is not
proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal
judgement and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for comparing

85 | P a g e
 strata which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining
population characteristics.
 Proportionate sampling: refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample
that is proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure include
representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories
and increased chances of being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of
information on proportion of the population in each category and faulty classification
may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
 Optimum allocation stratified sampling: it is representative as well as comprehensive
than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum should be in
proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known
as optimum allocation stratified sample.
 For instance, if you wish to select 200 firms to survey from a list of 1000 firms, you can start
by categorizing the firms based on their size as large (more than 500 employees), medium
(between 50 and 500 employees), and small (less than 50 employees).
 Advantages
 It is (more precisely third way) a good representative of the population.
 It is an improvement over the earlier.
 It is an objective method of sampling.
 Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
 Disadvantages
 Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the
relevant criterion for stratification.
 Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it generally seems more than one
criterion relevant for stratification.
 It is costly and time consuming method.
 Selected sample may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for
the other.
 There is a risk in generalization.

4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling

 This is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings we discussed above.
 This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a
mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a ‘more representative
sample.
 This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not
return them. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail

86 | P a g e
 to reply the’ query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomena
being studied.
 To eliminate this bias, a second sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents
and the people interviewed to obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known
as repeated or multiple sampling. This double sampling technique enables one to check on the
reliability of the information obtained from the first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in
one sample is analyzed, and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine
the problem further.
 Advantages
o This sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a
number of observations.
o This technique of sampling reduces the error.
o This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the
sample.
 Disadvantages
o This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for
small sample.
o This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires more competition.
o It’s planning and administration is more complicated.

5. Cluster Sampling
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample can be
taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to randomly
select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the ultimate sample
consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.
 When the population is very wide or big, say for countrywide survey, it may not be
feasible to take sample units directly from the population itself.
 Moreover, this type of sampling is used when the population size is very large, and
stratification is also not feasible to the best possible way because of non-availability of
full information on each and every element of the population.
 Resource constraint is also a major factor. In such cases, auxiliary/secondary
information like block list, village list, and subdivision lists is used in probability
sampling.
 In cluster sampling, the whole population is divided into a number of clusters, each
consisting of several sampling units. Cluster size may definitely vary from cluster to
cluster.
 Then some clusters are selected at random out of all the clusters.
 Cluster sampling is useful where listing of population units is not available; for
example, in a crop survey, the list of plots may not be available, but the list of villages

87 | P a g e
 may be available. Here, villages will be treated as clusters similarly. In animal
husbandry, the list of cattle may not be available, but the list of rearers may be available.
In such case, rearers will be considered as clusters.
 In Cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of elements (clusters) instead of
individual members or items in the population. Rather than listing all elementary school
children in a given city and randomly selecting 15 per cent of these students for the
sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15
per cent of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as
the sample.
Advantages
 It may be a good representative of the population.
 It is an easy method.
 It is an economical method.
 It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
 Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
 Cluster sampling is not free from error.
 It is not comprehensive.

6. Multi-Stage Sampling
 Multistage sampling is the extension of clustering in more than one stage. Instead of taking
blocks/ villages directly as clusters, one may take districts at the first stage, then blocks/villages
from the selected districts and farmers from the villages, etc.
 Thus, districts are the first stage units (fsu) (or primary stage units (psu)), blocks/villages are
the second stage units, and farmers are the third stage units or the respondents. A multistage
sampling is a two-stage/three-stage, etc., sampling depending upon the number of stages or
clusters.
 Suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in Ethiopia and
we want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose. The first stage is to select large primary
sampling unit such as regions in a country. Then we may select certain districts and interview
all banks in the chosen districts. This would represent a two-stage sampling design with the
ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts.
 Advantages
 It is easier to administer than most single stage designs mainly because of the fact that
sampling frame under multi-stage sampling is developed in partial units.
 A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost under multistage sampling
because of sequential clustering, whereas this is not possible in most of the simple
designs.
 Disadvantages
 It is a difficult and complex method of samplings.

88 | P a g e
  It involves errors when we consider the primary and secondary stages.
 It is again a subjective phenomenon.

B. Non-Probability Sampling
 Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process
that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
 Most researchers are bounded by time, money, and workforce and because of these limitations,
it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is often necessary to
employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique.
 Non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized selection processes.
 Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of their
accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher.
 When to Use Non-Probability Sampling
 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in
the population.
 It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot, or exploratory
study.
 It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost
limitless.
 It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to
create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time, and workforce.
 This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using
a randomized, probability sampling.
 Advantages of Non-Probability Sampling
 Possibility to reflect the descriptive comments about the sample
 Cost-effectiveness and time-effectiveness compared to probability sampling
 Effective when it is unfeasible or impractical to conduct probability sampling
 Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling
 Unknown proportion of the entire population is not included in the sample group i.e.
lack of representation of the entire population
 Lower level of generalization of research findings compared to probability sampling
 Difficulties in estimating sampling variability and identifying possible bias.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Judgmental Sampling

89 | P a g e
  Snowball Sampling

1. Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques.
With convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the
researcher.
o It is called accidental or opportunity sampling, this is a technique in which a sample
is drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand, readily available, or
convenient.
o For instance, if you stand outside a shopping center and hand out questionnaire surveys
to people or interview them as they walk in, the sample of respondents you will obtain
will be a convenience sample. This is a non-probability sample because you are
systematically excluding all people who shop at other shopping centers.
o Other examples of convenience sampling are sampling students registered in a certain
class or sampling patients arriving at a certain medical clinic.
This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing, where the goal is instrument testing or
measurement validation rather than obtaining generalizable inferences
This technique is considered easiest, cheapest, and least time consuming.
Advantages
o It is very easy method of sampling.
o It is frequently used in behavioral sciences.
o It reduces the time, money, and energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Disadvantages
o It is not a representative of the population.
o It is not free from error.
o Parametric statistics cannot be used.

2. Judgmental Sampling

 It is called Purposive non-probability sample.

 Purposive sampling is selecting a sample on the basis of researcher’s own knowledge of the
population, its elements, and the nature of aims of the research.
o With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are fit for the
research compared to other individuals.
 Purposive non-probability sampling and stratified probability sampling are very similar but
warn that there is a crucial difference between the two. Researchers using purposive sampling
do not select respondents randomly from each group within the stratification categories
whereas stratified sampling includes random sampling at its core.
 Advantages
 Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects.

90 | P a g e
  Better control of significant variables.
 Sample groups data can be easily matched.
 Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
 Disadvantages
 Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
 Knowledge of population is essential.
 Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
 Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics.
 Inability to make generalization concerning total population.

3. Quota Sampling
 In this technique, the population is segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups (just as in
stratified sampling), and then a non-random set of observations is chosen from each subgroup
to meet a predefined quota.
 Under quota sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the
different strata, with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the
actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion.
 Advantages
 It is an improvement over the judgement sampling.
 It is an easy sampling technique.
 It is most frequently used in social surveys.
 Disadvantages
 It is not a representative sample.
 It is not free from error.
 It has the influence of regional geographical and social factors.

4. Snowball Sampling
 This type of sampling is called Network Sampling or chain sampling.
 Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of
study, the researcher finds out initially one or two or a few respondents for the study purpose
and then takes the help of these respondents to find more and more respondents on specific
aspects.
o Researcher know of only one or two such people, then start with them and ask them to
recommend others who also do network administration
o Thus, in this type of studies, size of sample goes on increasing as one gets more and
more number of respondents.

91 | P a g e
 In researches, particularly in the field of social studies, related to sensitive issues like drug
abuse and HIV victims in which the respondents are very much hesitant because of social
taboos, reasons, or otherwise, this type of sampling is very useful.
 Although this method hardly leads to representative samples, it may sometimes be the only
way to reach hard-to reach populations or when no sampling frame is available.

 Problems in Sampling
 Survey errors: The discrepancy between statements from survey estimates and the
reality (the true value) is called survey errors.
 Sampling errors occur because of variation in the number or representativeness
of the sample that responds. Sampling errors can be controlled and reduced by
(1) careful sample designs, (2) large enough samples (check out our online
sample size calculator), and (3) multiple contacts to assure a representative
response.
 Sampling errors occur as a result of calculating the estimate (estimated mean,
total, proportion, etc) based on a sample rather than the entire population. This
is due to the fact that the estimated figure obtained from the sample may not be
exactly equal to the true value of the population.
 Non-sampling error: Such errors are present whether it is sampling or census
survey that we are dealing with. These include all errors apart from sampling
error and are mostly mistakes by one party or another.
 Non-Sampling Error includes:
1. Non-coverage error: this refers to sample frame defect.
 Omission of part of the target population (e.g., soldiers, students living on
campus, people in hospitals, prisoners, households without a telephone in
telephone surveys, etc.).

2. Wrong population is being sampled: Researchers must always be sure that the
group being sampled is drawn from the population they want to generalize
about or the intended population
3. Non response error ; common in self-administered surveys
 This error occurs when you are not able to find those whom you were
supposed to study.
 Some people refuse to be interviewed because they are ill, are too busy, or
simply do not trust the interviewer.
 When one is forced to interview substitutes, an unknown bias is introduced.

4. Instrument error: the instrument in sampling survey is the device in which we

collect data- usually a questionnaire.

92 | P a g e
  When a question is badly asked or worded, the resulting error is called
instrument error.
 Example: leading questions or carelessly worded questions may be
misinterpreted by some researchers.
5. Interviewer’s error
 Enumerators can distort the results of a survey by in-appropriate
suggestions, word emphasis, tone of voice and question rephrasing.
 Cheating by enumerators -with only limited training and under little
direct supervision.
 Perceived social distance between enumerator and respondent also has
a distorting effect.
 E.G: questions about sexual behavior might be differently answered
depending on the gender of the interviewer.

Reference
 C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Revised
Edition.
 Jayanta Kumar Nayak and Priyanka Singh (2015). Fundamentals of Research Methodology:
Problems and Prospects. Published by SSDN PUBLISHERS AND DISTRIBUTORS. SBN
No. 978-93-8357-556-5.
 Pradip Kumar Sahu (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural
Science, Social Science, and Other Related Fields. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York
Dordrecht London. DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1020-7.
 Sarjerao R.Shinde (2015). Research Methodology. The Peer Reviewed Proceedings of UGC
Sponsored One Day Interdisciplinary National Conference. ISBN: 978-93-85426-06-03.
 Szilvia Vincze (3013). Research Methodology. TÁMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0009.
Debrecen, 2013.

“END OF CHAPTER FOUR”

93 | P a g e
CHAPTER FIVE: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
5.1. Introduction

 Data are the foundations of Economic Research.

 The quality of any investigation heavily depends on the quality of information or data used.
Therefore, proper data collection, retention, and sharing are vital to the research enterprise.
 What is Data?
 Data refers to any group of facts, measurements, or observations used to make inference
about the problem of investigation.

 Data are the different values associated with a variable; a variable is a characteristic of
an item or individual.
 Data (the plural form of datum) are the raw materials of research.
When selecting data we need to decide on:
 Measurement of data (e.g., nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio measures).

94 | P a g e
 A. Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events
in order to label them.
 The word ‘nominal’ is derived from the Latin word nomen, meaning ‘name’.
 Its simple function is to divide the data into separate categories that can then be
compared with each other. By first giving names to or labelling the parts or states
of a concept, or by naming discrete units of data, we are then able to measure the
concept or data at the simplest level.
 Nominal Scale Categories e.g. Male-Female; Labelling Household head, 1 if the
household head is female, 0 if the household head is male. Internet email provider
❑ Gmail ❑ Windows Live ❑ Yahoo ❑ Other.
 The variables measured under a nominal scale can be put to get a frequency
percentage, mode, median, etc.
 Chi-square test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be
utilized, and for the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be
worked out.
 Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or
distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes
differences between things by assigning them to categories. Nominal data are, thus,
counted data. The scale wastes any information that we may have about varying
degrees of attitude, skills, understandings, etc.
 In spite of all this, nominal scales are still very useful and are widely used in surveys
and other ex-post-facto research when data are being classified by major sub-groups
of the population.
B. Ordinal Scale
 An ordinal scale classifies values into distinct categories in which ranking is
implied.
 The ordinal scale places events in order. But the intervals between two consecutive
orders may not be equal.
 The ordinal scale is more precise scale than the nominal scale. It allows the teacher
to assign values by placing of arranging the observations in relative rank order.
 The ordinal level of measurement implies that an entity being measured is
quantified in terms of being more than or less than, or of a greater or lesser order
than.
 This is the most important characteristic of ordinal measures: There is no way to
tell how far apart the attributes are from one another.
 Ordinal Scale Categories Ordering Implied Positions, Satisfaction, etc.
 Scales of opinion—like the familiar ‘‘strongly agree,’’ ‘‘agree,’’ ‘‘neutral,’’
‘‘disagree,’’ ‘‘strongly disagree’’ found on so many surveys—are ordinal
measures.
C. Interval Scale

95 | P a g e
  Interval scales of measurement are further improved over an ordinal scale of
measurement.
 A scale of measurement for a variable in which the interval between observations
is expressed in terms of a fixed standard unit of measurement.
 Interval scales are those where the values measured are not only rank-ordered, but
are also equidistant from adjacent attributes. In the case of interval scale, the
intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a basis for
making the units equal.
 The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule
is based.
 Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for
them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The primary
limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity
to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.

o Temperature scales are one of the most familiar types of interval scale.

o For example, the temperature scale (in Fahrenheit or Celsius), where the
difference between 30 and 40 degree Fahrenheit is the same as that
between Standardized exam score, eg. 85-90 = A, ≥ 90 = 𝐴+ , etc.
o 80 and 90 degree Fahrenheit.
o
 Likewise, if you have a scale that asks respondents’ monthly income using the
following attributes (ranges): Birr. 0 to 10,000, Birr.10,000 to 20,000, Birr.20,000
to 30,000, and so forth, this is also an interval scale, because the mid-point of each
range are equidistant from each other.
 Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency, while standard deviation is
the most widely used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation
techniques are appropriate and the generally used tests for statistical significance
are the‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.

D. Ratio scale
 Demerit of an interval scale of having no absolute zero point of measurement is
being overcome in a ratio scale.
 A ratio scale is also a type of an interval scale with an equal interval between the
consecutive scales along with the added feature of having the true zero point on the
scale.
 We can conceive of an absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an
absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates
the complete absence of length or height.

96 | P a g e
  Ratio scales are those that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval
scales, and in addition, also has a “true zero” point (where the value zero implies
lack or non-availability of the underlying construct).
 Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical
dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples.
 The ratio scales have wider acceptability and use. Generally, almost all statistical
tools are usable with the variables measured in a ratio scale.
 Most measurement in the natural sciences and engineering, such as mass, incline of
a plane, and electric charge, employ ratio scales, as are some social science
variables such as age, tenure in an organization, and firm size (measured as
employee count or gross revenues).
 In summary, you can use the following simple test to determine which kind of data
measurement that you can use on the values of a variable. If you can say that:
One value is different from another, you have a nominal scale.
o Nominal: categorize into boxes, names.
One value is bigger, better or more of anything than another, you have an ordinal scale
o Ordinal: prioritize according to relative values, put into order.
One value is so many units (degrees, inches) more or less than another, you have an
interval scale.
o Interval: sort according to measured value.
One value is so many times as big or bright or tall or heavy as another, you have a ratio
scale.
o Ratio: measure in relation to a zero value.

 Samples ("frames") and sample size, instruments.

 Methodologies for collecting data, etc.
 While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher
should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary, and secondary.
 The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen
to be original in character.
 The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
 The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus
collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method
of data collection.
 The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to
be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection
work is merely that of compilation.
 To ensure high quality output, data gathering should be well planned.
 Clear specification of the purpose and scope of the study enable us to decide on the
required data.
 Hence, we need to define:
97 | P a g e
 o The objective of the data collection exercise
o The kind of data (information) to be collected
o The source of the data
o The methods to be used to collect data
 This helps us to determine the statistical techniques to be employed.
o It also helps us to avoid gathering of irrelevant information.
 What is data collection?
 Data collection: - is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables
in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and
evaluate outcomes.
 The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study
including physical and social sciences, humanities and business.
 While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest
collection remains the same.
 The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates
to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer
to questions that have been posed.
 The data source could be:
o an area from where we can collect the data (i.e. geographic location),
o persons to be interviewed,
o An entity or organization,
o Discussions to be observed, etc.).

5.2. Important points take into consideration during Data Collection

 Some of the consequences from improperly collected data may include:
o Inability to repeat and validate the study.
o Distorted, inaccurate findings.
o Wasted resources.
o Misleading other researchers.
o Harm to human participants and animal subjects.
 More importantly, poor data collection may cause harm when the results of the
flawed research are used to support public policy recommendations.

 Storage and Protection

o Research data must be stored securely both during a research project and
after it ends.
o Risks like fire, water or other environmental damage, or common technical
failures like hard disk crashes, must be considered.
 So, make backup copies of the data periodically and store the
copies in a secure location.
98 | P a g e
  Confidentiality
o Confidentiality refers to limiting information access and disclosure to
authorized users and preventing access by or disclosures to unauthorized
persons.
 who can handle which portion of data,
 at what point during the project,
 for what purpose, and so on
o Require decision.
 Integrity
o Integrity refers to the trustworthiness of the information.
o Data should not be modified inappropriately, whether accidentally or
deliberately.
 It is critical that researchers have sufficient skills to ensure the integrity of their
data collection efforts.
o For instance, data collection requires a rigorous and detailed recruitment
and training plan for data collectors.

5.3. Sources and Techniques of Data collection

 The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data
are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data
collection work is merely that of compilation.

5.3.1. Methods of Collection of Primary Data

 As it has already been mentioned, the primary data are original in nature and
collected with specific objectives in mind. Thus, the methods of the collection
of primary data play a vital role in a research process. It requires an efficient
planning and execution. Depending upon the type of a research design, primary
data may be obtained from experimental fields or through a survey type of study.
o Experiment is an investigation to explore the hidden fact under the objectives. On the
other hand, in a descriptive type of research, the information is collected through a
sample survey technique or a census survey method from the existing area under study.
 This entails going out and collecting information by observing, recording and
measuring the activities and ideas of real people, or perhaps watching animals,
or inspecting objects and experiencing events.
 This process of collecting primary data is often called survey research.
 You should only be interested in collecting data that is required in order to
investigate your research problem. Even so, the amount of relevant information

99 | P a g e
 you could collect is likely to be enormous, so you must find a way to limit the
amount of data you collect to achieve your aims.
 The main technique for reducing the scope of your data collection is to study a
sample, that is a small section of the subjects of your study, or to select one or
several case studies.
 The nature of the questions and form of answers sought are the central issue here.
 Among the several methods of collection of primary data, the following methods
are mostly used:
a) Observation method,
b) Interview method,
c) Questionnaire method,
d) Schedule method, and
e) Other methods.
A. Observation Method
6. The observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to
behavioral sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is
not scientific observation.
 In social sciences, particularly in the studies of human behavior, uncontrolled
observations provide natural and complete behavior of the human being/society. These
are mostly applicable in an exploratory type of a research study. Control observation
mostly takes place in laboratory or field experiments.
7. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
8. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. In other words, a researcher can observe the
elements under study even without asking anything. For instance, in a study relating to
consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the
respondent, may himself look at the watch.
9. A researcher should keep in mind (a) what to observe, (b) how observations are required to be
noted, (c) how to ensure the accuracy of the information, and so on.
10. Observations can be of two kinds: (a) structured observation and (b) unstructured observation.
o In a structured observation, the definition of units to be observed, the style of
observation, the method of recording, the standardization of condition of data
collection and selection of the pertinent data of observation, etc., are all settled well
ahead of data collection.
o On the other hand, when data collection takes place without the above characteristics
thought/settled in advance, then the process is known as unstructured observations.
 Advantages
o Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.

100 | P a g e
 o The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it
is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes.
o This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens
to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents)
who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
 Limitations
o It is an expensive method.
o The information provided by this method is very limited. Difficult to learn about past
events and to gather information on intensions, attitudes, opinions, and preferences.
o Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the
fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for
this method to collect data effectively.
B. Interview Method
 The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply
in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
1. Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. At times the
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually
the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.
 In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information
personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people
from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for intensive
investigations.
 But, in some cases, it may not be possible to contact directly the person concerned due
to various reasons; in such cases, indirect oral examinations can be conducted and of
course followed by cross-examinations from other persons who have sufficient
knowledge about the problem under investigation.
 An indirect method of interview is mostly useful if respondents are high profile in
nature or are members of the commission and committee appointed by the government
for specific investigations.
 A personal interview can again be structured and unstructured.
o As usual, a structured personal interview is concerned with the use of a set of
predetermined questions with standardized technique of data recording. These
are mostly useful in descriptive and experimental type of research studies.
o Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions
and standardized techniques of recording information.

101 | P a g e
 o In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom
to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain
questions if the situation so requires. He may even change the sequence of
questions. He has relatively greater freedom while recording the responses to
include some aspects and exclude others.
o But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with
another and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult
and time-consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of
structured interviews.
o Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the
part of the interviewer.
 In many of the situations, a specific and skilled interviewer is required to conduct the
process.
 As such interviews can further be classified into three categories:
I. Focus interview: Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given
experience of the respondent and its effects. In a focus interview methods, an
interviewer is free to design and prepare a sequence of questions. Mostly this is a
conversation-based interview in which an interviewer concentrates in getting
information from the respondent about the subject in which the respondent has enough
experience
II. Clinical interview: clinical interview is concerned with the recording of information
about the feelings and opinions of individuals about their experiences in their own lives.
III. Non-directive interviews: non-directive interview method, information on a particular
aspect is recorded from the respondents. In this method, the work of an interviewer is
to stimulate the respondent to go on talking about his/her feelings, beliefs, and
experiences on a particular aspect.
 Advantages of the personal interview are as follows:
 More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
 Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
 There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, especially in case of unstructured interviews.
 Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various
questions.
 Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
 Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing
returns; non-response generally remains very low.

102 | P a g e
 The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not
possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be
held.
 The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
 The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the
person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
 The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
 Weaknesses of some personal interview are as follows:
 It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken.
 There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent;
there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
 Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high
income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.
 This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is large and
recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
 The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes
even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview
interesting.
 Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
 Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
 Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free
and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
 Criteria for Better Interviewing
a. An interviewer should be selected carefully; only those persons who are well acquainted
and honest and have the intelligence to capture the essence of the interview should be
selected for this purpose.
b. A selected interviewer should be trained adequately so that there would be no ambiguity
arises in understanding the questions and the expected responses.
c. An interviewer should be well behaved, honest, sincere, hardworking, and impartial.
Interviewing is an art of extracting the inner heart of the respondent.
d. An interviewer must enjoy the confidence and faith of the respondent.
e. An interviewer’s approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational, and unbiased.
f. An interviewer should refrain from asking undesirable and unwarranted questions.
g. An interviewer should always try to create an atmosphere of mutual understanding, belief,
and faith.

103 | P a g e
2. Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself.
 An interviewer should contact a respondent over a telephone.
 Telephonic methods of interviews include phone calls, SMS, and emails. Respondents
are asked to provide a suitable time slot during which they could be talked over the
telephone.
 During the interview, questions are asked and responses may be noted or recorded; the
process facilitates the interview of the respondents at different places at different times.
Short message service (SMS) and multimedia message service (MMS) are also used
for interviewing over telephones, and an interview may also be conducted through
emails. Questionnaires can be sent as an email attachment to which the respondent
replied
 It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.
 Merits
1. It is faster than any conventional method of personal interviewing or data collections
through questionnaires or schedules.
2. It is cost-efficient.
3. It is easily manageable, no questions of training or supervising the field staff, etc.
4. People located at distant places over the world may be contacted for the purpose of the
interview.
5. It is lesser time consuming than the other methods.
6. Telephonic interview can be recorded.
 Demerits
1. All intended respondents may not have a telephone connection.
2. Sometimes it is difficult to collect the telephone numbers of all potential respondents.
3. Respondents may refuse to response without facing the interviewers.
4. If the survey is comprehensive in nature and requires much time, the method may not
be a suitable one.
5. For a telephonic interview, questions must be short and to the point; this may prove
sometimes difficult to handle.
6. Time provided to answer the question is comparatively limited.

C. Questionnaire Method
 One of the most conventional methods of data collection, particularly in wider areas having
big inquiries, is the questionnaire method of primary data collection.
 In this method, a questionnaire is prepared be fitting to the objective of the study and sent
generally by post to the respondents with a request to answer the questionnaires.
 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form
or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and

104 | P a g e
 understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
 The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business surveys.
 During the framing of the questionnaire, the questions may be set in a sequential order. The
researcher sets the questions in such a way that the respondent can have an idea about the
logical sequences and chronology of the questions. This is known as structured questionnaire.
 The questionnaire can also be non-structured, that is, following no sequence. This may lead to
problems in understanding the questions by the respondent.
 Questionnaires may be disguised or non-disguised in nature. In a disguised questionnaire
method, the objective of the questionnaire is not clearly spelt out, whereas in a non-disguised
questionnaire method, the objective of the study is made clear to the respondent.
 Merits
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
 Demerits
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
 Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for
testing the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt very much.
Pilot survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey.
Such a survey, being conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of
the questionnaires and also of the survey techniques. From the experience gained in this
way, improvement can be effected.
Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of
a survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set
up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a
questionnaire viz., the general form, question sequence and question formulation and

105 | P a g e
 wording. Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects
of a questionnaire:
I. General form: So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either
be structured or unstructured questionnaire.
 Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite,
concrete, and pre-determined questions.
 The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same
order to all respondents. Resort is taken to this sort of standardization to
ensure that all respondents reply to the same set of questions.
 The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’)
or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not
constructed during questioning.
 When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be termed
as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically, we can say
that in an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a
general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question
formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken
down in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible; in some situations
tape recorders may be used to achieve this goal.
II. Question sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure
quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-
sequence in preparing the questionnaire.
o A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual
questions being misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and
smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another
should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to
answer being put in the beginning. The first few questions are particularly
important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and
in seeking his desired cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to
arouse human interest.
o The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening
questions in a questionnaire:
a. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the
respondent;
b. questions of a personal character;
c. questions related to personal wealth, etc.
III. Question formulation and wording: With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the
researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of
misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. Question should also be
impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions

106 | P a g e
 should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out
tabulation plan.
 In general, all questions should meet the following standards—(a) should be
easily understood; (b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought
at a time; (c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to
the respondent’s way of thinking.
IV. Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be successful, questionnaire should be
comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to
the minimum. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to
more difficult questions. Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be
avoided in a questionnaire. Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),
multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended. The latter types of
questions are often difficult to analyze and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire
to the extent possible. There should be some control questions in the questionnaire
which indicate the reliability of the respondent.
Background Information about the Questionnaire
o Both from ethical and practical point of view, the researcher need to provide
sufficient background information about the research and the questionnaire. Each
questionnaire should have a cover page, on which some information appears
about: 
 The sponsor
 The purpose
 Return address and date
 Confidentiality
 Voluntary responses and
 Thanks
Instructions to the Respondent
Coding Boxes
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:
1. Questionnaire should deal with important or significant topic to create interest
among respondents.
2. It should seek only that data which cannot be obtained from other sources.
3. It should be as short as possible but should be comprehensive.
4. It should be attractive.
5. Directions should be clear and complete.
6. It should be represented in good Psychological order proceeding from general
to more specific responses.
7. Double negatives in questions should be avoided.
8. Putting two questions in one question also should be avoided.

107 | P a g e
 9. It should avoid annoying or embarrassing questions.
10. It should be designed to collect information which can be used subsequently
as data for analysis.
11. It should consist of a written list of questions.
12. The questionnaire should also be used appropriately.

D. Schedule Method
 Schedule is the tool or instrument used to collect data from the respondents
while interview is conducted. Schedule contains questions, statements (on which opinions
are elicited) and blank spaces/tables for filling up the respondents.
 Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled in by an
interviewer in a face to face situation with another person.
 This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire,
with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
 These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from
the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for
the same in the proforma.
 In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help
them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
 Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties
which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or
the definition or concept of difficult terms.
 The features of schedules are:
o The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the
answers are noted down by interviewer.
o The list of questions is a more formal document, it need not be attractive.
o The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
 The main purposes of schedule are three fold:
 To provide a standardized tool for observation or interview in order to attain
objectivity,
 To act as memory tickler i.e., the schedule keeps the memory of the interviewer/
observer refreshed and keeps him reminded of the different aspects that are to be
particularly observed, and
 To facilitate the work of tabulation and analysis.
 The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the
investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the
implications of different questions put in the schedule.

108 | P a g e
 Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of crossexamination in order
to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, and hardworking and should
have patience and perseverance.
 This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly
reliable results.
 It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organizations.
 Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
Differences between the questionnaire and schedule

 The importance of the interview schedule can be analyzed as below:

1. Help in making intensiveness of the study problem
2. Due to face to face relationship between interviewer and interviewee, more and more
responses come out
3. There is a chance of explaining the un-understood questions to the respondent
4. It works, where questionnaire fails
5. There is a chance of observing the behavior of the respondent through the use of interview
schedule
6. By the use of this schedule, the interviewer can achieve goal through directly or indirectly
approaching the respondent.
 There are some weaknesses of using interview schedule, such as:
1. It requires more time, more money and more personnel
2. There is a possibility of high level of mixing of partiality and personal elements, because
of the establishment of personal relationship between interviewer and interviewee
3. Administration of an interview schedule is possible only by a skilled interviewer;
untrained researcher would spoil the outcome of interview because of the unskillful
handling of the tool of the data collection.

109 | P a g e
 Essentials of a Good Schedule:
 A good schedule must have the following features
1. Content: Should cover questions or statements relating to all significant aspects of the study.
2. Dissection: Should look into the problem analytically; dissecting every, major and significant
components of the problem.
3. Context: Should suit the context in which it is applied. Different types of studies need different
schedules.
4. Criterion: Should use sound logic in classifying respondents based on opinions expressed.
5. Construction: Should be constructed in such a way that questions statements progress
gradually and in order. Better it is sub-divided into parts, each part deeding with a certain sub
topic of the issue studied. For each objective, a separate part may be devoted.
6. Language: Should be linguistically superbly designed. Clear and straight forward language is
used.
7. Reliable: Should be reliable such that same results are obtained whenever the schedule is used
when everything else remains same.
8. Mechanical Aspects: Paper used, margin space given, spacing, printing, size of letters, etc.
should be normal.
9. Size: Should not too length nor too short. Should give fair coverage to the topic.
10. Qualities to be avoided: Long, complex, presumptuous, personal, embarrassing, hypothetical
issues, morality oriented, upsetting type, and unnecessary questions must be avoided.
 Interview vs Schedule
 Wording the questions in the same way for each respondent is sometimes called
standardizing.
 Asking the questions in the same order is called scheduling.
 Interviews, however, can be non-scheduled, though still partly standardized.
 This is sometimes called a semi-structured interview. Here, the interviewer works from
a list of topics that need to be covered with each respondent, but the order and exact
wording of questions is not important. Generally, such interviews gather qualitative
data, although this can be coded into categories to be made amenable to statistical
analysis.

E. SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers
of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information
sought is printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside
the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and
post it back to the dealer.
In market and business research, the warranty card method is mostly used. It is
our common experience that when the consumers purchase any durable items, the

110 | P a g e
 post card (or in different form) size of information sheet is provided to the
consumer to collect information not only about the product but also about certain
other points of business interest. Analyzing the feedback from the consumer, the
efficiency of the business house could be enhanced. Analyzing the feedback
forms, the feelings, the attitude of the consumers, their expectations or discontent,
etc., can be obtained.
2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as
well as manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals.
Distributors or manufacturers get the retail stores audited through a salesman at a
regular time interval. The information collected is used to assess the market size,
market share, seasonality, and cyclical behavior, trend, and so on of a particular
item or a group of items. Thus, the process of auditing the retail stores by a
distributor or a manufacturer is known as auditing method of data collection
For instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of stores is visited
periodically and data are recorded on inventories on hand either by observation
or copying from store records.
Store audits are invariably panel operations, for the derivation of sales estimates
and compilation of sales trends by stores are their principal ‘raison detre’. The
principal advantage of this method is that it offers the most efficient way of
evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store
promotion.
3. Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of
goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory
of types, quantities, and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are
recorded from the examination of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry
audit is to find out what types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands, the
assumption being that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer’s
preferences.
4. Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known
as ‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding
to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available
to investigator on demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of
consumers who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time.
 Mostly consume panels are of two types viz., the transitory consumer panel and
the continuing consumer panel. A transitory consumer panel is set up to measure
the effect of a particular phenomenon. Usually such a panel is conducted on a
before-and-after-basis. Initial interviews are conducted before the phenomenon
takes place to record the attitude of the consumer.
 A second set of interviews is carried out after the phenomenon has taken place to
find out the consequent changes that might have occurred in the consumer’s

111 | P a g e
 attitude. It is a favorite tool of advertising and of social research. A continuing
consumer panel is often set up for an indefinite period with a view to collect data
on a particular aspect of consumer behavior over time, generally at periodic
intervals or may be meant to serve as a general purpose panel for researchers on
a variety of subjects.
5. Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to
collect information by way of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera,
Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera, and Audiometer are the principal devices
so far developed and commonly used by modern big business houses, mostly in the
developed world for the purpose of collecting the required information.
 Eye cameras are designed to record the focus of eyes of a respondent on a specific
portion of a sketch or diagram or written material. Such an information is useful
in designing advertising material.
 Pupilometric cameras record dilation of the pupil as a result of a visual stimulus.
The extent of dilation shows the degree of interest aroused by the stimulus.
Psychogalvanometer is used for measuring the extent of body excitement as a
result of the visual stimulus.
 Motion picture cameras can be used to record movement of body of a buyer while
deciding to buy a consumer good from a shop or big store. Influence of packaging
or the information given on the label would stimulate a buyer to perform certain
physical movements which can easily be recorded by a hidden motion picture
camera in the shop’s four walls.
 Audiometers are used by some TV concerns to find out the type of programmes
as well as stations preferred by people. A device is fitted in the television
instrument itself to record these changes. Such data may be used to find out the
market share of competing television stations.
6. Projective techniques: Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect
interviewing techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists
to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or
intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to
figure out himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends
unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study.
Projective techniques play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude
surveys.
7. Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover
underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such
interviews are held to explore needs, desires, and feelings of respondents. In other words,
they aim to elicit unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to
personality dynamics and motivations. As such, depth interviews require great skill on

112 | P a g e
 the part of the interviewer and at the same time involve considerable time. Unless the
researcher has specialized training, depth interviewing should not be attempted.
8. Content Analysis: It has already been mentioned that during the formulation of the
subject matter of research studies, related documents are essential in the whole process.
A researcher is to study and analyze the content of the documents (books, journals,
magazines, Internet resources, etc.) to facilitate the whole research process. The content
analysis may be a qualitative as well as quantitative one.

5.3.2. Collection of Secondary Data

 Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
 When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then he has to look into various sources
from where he can obtain them.
 Before utilizing any secondary data, a researcher should be very much careful about
the originality or authenticity of the data. In many of the cases, it is found that the data
on the same aspect in various organizations has been reported in different ways. So the
reliability, accuracy, and adoptability of the data are the most important features.
 A description of the sampling technique, i.e., how the sample was collected is also
necessary, etc.
 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
 Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state
are local governments; (b) various publications of foreign governments or of
international bodies and their subsidiary organizations; (c) technical and trade
journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various
associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f)
reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields;
and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information.
 The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters,
unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars
and research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/ private
individuals and organizations.
 By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they
possess following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about
the said data: (a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c)
Were they collected by using proper methods (d) At what time were they
collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler? (t) What level of accuracy was
desired? Was it achieved ?

113 | P a g e
 2.
Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily
be found suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be
unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher
must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms and units of
collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source
originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also
be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain
unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate
for the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and
should not be used by the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate,
if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area
of the present enquiry.
 Advantages of Secondary data
 Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
 Most researches on past events or distant places have to rely on secondary data
sources.
 Limitations
 Authenticity:
 genuine?
 credible?
 representative?
 Completeness???
 The information often does not meet one’s specific needs.
 Definitions might differ, units of measurements may be different, and
different time periods may be involved.
 Data could also be out of date.
CASE STUDY METHOD
o The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful
and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a
cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than
breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of
events or conditions and their interrelations.
o The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus,
case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under
consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for
the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.
o Case studies are being undertaken in several disciplines, particularly in sociology, as a tool
of scientific research in view of the several advantages indicated earlier. Most of the
limitations can be removed if researchers are always conscious of these and are well trained
in the modern methods of collecting case data and in the scientific techniques of

114 | P a g e
 assembling, classifying, and processing the same. Besides, case studies, in modern times,
can be conducted in such a manner that the data are amenable to quantification and
statistical treatment. Possibly, this is also the reason why case studies are becoming popular
day by day.

5.4. SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

 Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously
select the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope, and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting
the choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of
enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding
whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available
(primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large
extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the
researcher are very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may
not be as efficient and effective as some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint
in practice and the researcher has to act within this limitation.
3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular
method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the
data can be collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the
researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the
time of selecting the method of collection of data. But one must always remember that each
method of data collection has its uses and none is superior in all situations.
Reference
References:
o C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Revised Edition
o Jayanta Kumar Nayak and Priyanka Singh (2015). Fundamentals of Research Methodology:
Problems and Prospects. Published by SSDN PUBLISHERS AND DISTRIBUTORS. SBN
No. 978-93-8357-556-5.
o Pradip Kumar Sahu (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural
Science, Social Science, and Other Related Fields. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York
Dordrecht London. DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1020-7.
o Richard J. Torraco (2016). Writing Integrative Reviews of the Literature: Methods and
Purposes. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology. Volume 7,
Issue 3.
o Sarjerao R.Shinde (2015). Research Methodology. The Peer Reviewed Proceedings of UGC
Sponsored One Day Interdisciplinary National Conference. ISBN: 978-93-85426-06-03.
“END OF CHAPTER FIVE”

115 | P a g e
CHAPTER SIX: PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
6.1. Introduction
 The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid
down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
 This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making
contemplated comparisons and analysis.
 Processing implies checking data, Encoding, Input, and Data cleaning, correcting data for
statistical purposes, and selecting data analysis strategy so that they are amenable to analysis.
 The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups.
 Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”.

6.2. Processing of Data/ Information

 The information/data collected/collated either from primary or secondary sources at the initial
stage are known as raw data.
 Raw data is nothing but the observation recorded from individual units. Raw data, particularly
the primary data, can hardly speak anything unless and otherwise arranged in order or
processed.
 Data are required to be processed and analyzed as per the requirement of a research problem
outlined. Working with data starts with the scrutiny of data; sometimes it is also known as
editing of data.
 There are several steps to follow before a set of data is put under analysis befitting with the
objectives of a particular research program. Though the order of the steps are not unique and
may change according to the need and objective of a study, the following steps are generally
followed:
1. scrutiny/editing of data,
2. arrangement of data,
3. coding of data,
4. classification of data, and
5. Presentation of data.
 The first three steps, that is, scrutiny, arrangement, and coding of data may interchange
the order depending upon the situation. If the number of observations is few, one can
go for scrutiny at the first stage; otherwise, it is better to arrange the data in ascending
or descending order.
1. Scrutiny/editing and arrangement of data: Editing of data is a process of examining the
collected raw data (especially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these
when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent
with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well

116 | P a g e
 arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. With regard to points or stages at which editing
should be done, one can talk of field editing and central editing. Field editing consists in the
review of the reporting forms by the investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what
the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the
respondents’ responses. Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have
been completed and returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should
get a thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a
large inquiry.
Arrangements of data can be made using SORT command in MS Excel or similar
command in other similar software.
2. Coding: Sometimes the information collected may be qualitative in nature like male/female,
black/yellow/white/green, determinate/indeterminate, and educated/illiterate. Coding refers to
the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to the responses so that these could be
categorized.
3. Classification: classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. While dealing with a huge number
of observations, it is sometimes very difficult to have a concise idea about the information
collected. So the first idea comes to mind, that is, to have a logical classification (formation of
groups) in accordance with some common characteristic(s)/classification or grouping, may be
one of the solutions.
 Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the basis
of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex,
honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive
characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured
quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data
obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes
and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes. Such
classification can be simple.
 Classification according to class-intervals: Data relating to income, production, age,
weight, etc. come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables
and are classified on the basis of class intervals. The entire data may be divided into a
number of groups or classes or what are usually called, ‘class-intervals.’ Each group of
class-interval, thus, has an upper limit as well as a lower limit which are known as class
limits. For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are within Birr 201 to Birr 400 can
form one group, those whose incomes are within Birr 401 to Birr 600 can form another
group and so on.

4. Presentation of data
 Edited/scrutinized data can either be used for the application of statistical methodologies
and/or presented in a suitable form to present and concise the information from the recorded
data.

117 | P a g e
  In the following sections, discussion has been made on different forms of data presentation so
that some of the critical observations (without going for in-depth analysis) can be extracted
meaningfully from the data as such.
 Different forms of presentation of data are:
1. Textual form: In a textual form of data presentation, information is presented in a form
of a paragraph. In many of the research papers or articles, while discussing the findings
of the research outcome, this method is adopted for explanation.
2. Tabular form: It is the most widely used form of data presentation. A large number of
data can be presented in a very efficient manner in a table. At the same time, it can bring
out some of the essential features of the data. A table consists of the following parts: (1)
title, (2) stub, (3) caption, (4) body, and (5) footnote.
o Title: The title of a table gives a brief description of the content or the subject
matter presented in a table. Generally, the title is written in short and concise form
such that it becomes easily visible and eye-catching at a glance and through light
to the content of the table.
o Stub: A table is divided into a number of rows and columns. Stub is used to
describe the contents of the rows of a table. Different classes represent the rows of
the table, and the heading “classes” at the top left corner of the table is the stub.
With the help of this stub, one can extract the features of the rows in a table.
o Caption: Caption describes the content of each and every column. Thus, “mid
value”, “frequency”, etc., are the captions for the different columns in Tables 8.1
and 8.2. With the help of the “mid value” or “frequency”, one can understand how
the mid values or the frequencies are changing over different classes (stub).
o Body: Relevant information is given in the body of a table.
o Footnote: Footnotes are not compulsory but may be used to indicate the source of
information or a special notation (if) used in the table. Though a tabular form is
more appealing than a textual form of presentation, it is only applicable to literate
and educated persons.
3. Diagrammatic form: this form of representation is more convincing and appealing than
the other forms of data presentation. This form of presentation is easily understood by any
person, layman, as well as an educated person.
 Different diagrammatic forms of presentation are (a) line diagram, (b) bar diagram,
(c) histogram, (d) frequency polygon, (e) cumulative frequency curve or Ogive,
(f) pie charts, (g) pictorial diagrams, (h) maps, etc.; within each type, there may be
variant types.
A. A frequency line for discrete as well as for continuous distributions can be
represented graphically by drawing ordinates equal to the frequency on a convenient
scale at different values of the variable, X. For the example of yield, we shall have
different yield classes on the horizontal X-axis and frequencies on the vertical Y-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.1.
B. Bar diagram: Instead of drawing a line joining the class frequencies, one represents
the frequencies in the form of bars. In bar diagrams, equal bases on a horizontal (or
vertical) line are selected, and rectangles are constructed with length proportional to

118 | P a g e
 the given frequencies on a suitably chosen scale. The bars should be drawn at equal
distances from one another (Fig. 6.2).

Fig. 6.1 Line diagram

Fig. 6.2: Bar graph

C. Histogram: Histogram is almost similar to that of a bar diagram for discrete data; the
only thing is that the reflection of nonexistence of any gap between two consecutive
classes is also reflected by leaving no gap between two consecutive bars. Continuous
grouped data are usually represented graphically by a histogram. The rectangles are
drawn with bases corresponding to the true class intervals and with heights
proportional to the frequencies. With all the class intervals equal, the areas of a
rectangle also represent the corresponding frequencies. If the class intervals are not
all equal, then the heights are to be suitably adjusted to make the area proportional to
the frequencies (Fig. 6.3).

119 | P a g e
 Fig. 6.3: Yield frequency histogram of 130 varieties of paddy
D. Frequency Polygon: If the midpoints of the top of the bars in histogram are joined
by straight lines, then a frequency polygon is obtained.

Fig. 6.4: Yield frequency polygon and histogram of 130 varieties of paddy

E. Pie Chart: The basic idea behind the formation of a pie diagram is to take the whole
frequencies in 100% and present it in a circle with 360angle at the center. In the
frequency distribution table, ordinary frequency or relative frequency can effectively
be used in the form of a pie diagram. Thus, for example, the yield data following a
pie chart is prepared with class frequencies (Fig. 6.5).

120 | P a g e
 Fig. 6.5: Pie diagram of yield frequency for 130 varieties of paddy

F. Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive): Partitioning the whole data set can very well
be made with the help of a cumulative frequency graph, also known as OGIVE.
G. Pictorial Diagram: To make the information lively and easy to understand by any
user, sometimes information is presented in pictorial forms. Instead of a bar diagram
or line diagram or pie chart, one can use pictures in the diagrams.
H. Maps: Statistical maps are generally used to represent the distribution of particular
parameters like a forest area in a country, paddy-producing zone, and different mines
located at different places in a country, rainfall pattern, population density, etc.

 SOME PROBLEMS IN PROCESSING

 We can take up the following two problems of processing the data for analytical purposes:
1. The problem concerning “Don’t know” (or DK) responses: While processing the data,
the researcher often comes across some responses that are difficult to handle. One category
of such responses may be ‘Don’t Know Response’ or simply DK response. When the DK
response group is small, it is of little significance. But when it is relatively big, it becomes
a matter of major concern in which case the question arises: Is the question which elicited
DK response useless? The answer depends on two point’s viz., the respondent actually
may not know the answer or the researcher may fail in obtaining the appropriate
information. In the first case the concerned question is said to be alright and DK response
is taken as legitimate DK response. But in the second case, DK response is more likely to
be a failure of the questioning process. How DK responses are to be dealt with by
researchers? The best way is to design better type of questions. Good rapport of
interviewers with respondents will result in minimising DK responses. But what about the
DK responses that have already taken place? One way to tackle this issue is to estimate
the allocation of DK answers from other data in the questionnaire. The other way is to
keep DK responses as a separate category in tabulation where we can consider it as a
separate reply category if DK responses happen to be legitimate, otherwise we should let
the reader make his own decision. Yet another way is to assume that DK responses occur
more or less randomly and as such we may distribute them among the other answers in
the ratio in which the latter have occurred. Similar results will be achieved if all DK replies
are excluded from tabulation and that too without inflating the actual number of other
responses.
2. Use or percentages: Percentages are often used in data presentation for they simplify
numbers, reducing all of them to a 0 to 100 range. Through the use of percentages, the
data are reduced in the standard form with base equal to 100 which fact facilitates relative
comparisons. While using percentages, the following rules should be kept in view by
researchers:
 Two or more percentages must not be averaged unless each is weighted by the group size
from which it has been derived.
 Use of too large percentages should be avoided, since a large percentage is difficult to
understand and tends to confuse, defeating the very purpose for which percentages are used.

121 | P a g e
  Percentages hide the base from which they have been computed. If this is not kept in view,
the real differences may not be correctly read.
 Percentage decreases can never exceed 100 per cent and as such for calculating the percentage
of decrease, the higher figure should invariably be taken as the base.
 Percentages should generally be worked out in the direction of the causal-factor in case of
two-dimension tables and for this purpose we must select the more significant factor out of
the two given factors as the causal factor.

6.3. Analysis of Data

 Data analysis is the process of evaluating data using analytical or statistical tools to discover
useful information. Analysis is a process of working with the data to summarize, describe, and
explain the data in terms of the research questions or hypothesis.
 Data Analysis: mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in case of
survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis may, therefore, be
categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often known
as statistical analysis).
 Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides
us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of
characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.
 This sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as unidimensional analysis),
or in respect of two variables (described as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two
variables (described as multivariate analysis). In this context we work out various measures
that show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of measuring relationships
between two or more variables.
 We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for
determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables.
Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect
changes in another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing
between two or more variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis.
Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in experimental researches,
whereas in most social and business researches our interest lies in understanding and
controlling relationships between variables then with determining causes per se and as
such we consider correlation analysis as relatively more important.

6.3.1. Measures of Central Tendency and Locations

122 | P a g e
o Given a set of data, we are in search of a typical value below and above which the observations
tend to cluster around. Thus, the tendency of the observations to cluster around a central value
is known as central tendency.
o The measures of central tendency describe that the major part of values in the data set appears
to concentrate (cluster) around a central value called average with the remaining values
scattered (spread or distributed) on either sides of that value.
o According to Yule, a good measure should have the following characteristics: (a) It should be
defined rigidly without any ambiguity (b) It should be based on all observations (c) It should
be easy to calculate (d) It should be easy to understand (e) It should be readily acceptable to
mathematical treatments (f) It should be the least influenced by sampling fluctuations.
o The different Measures of Central Tendency are:
a. Mean: is the simplest measurement of central tendency and is a widely used measure.
Its chief use consists in summarizing the essential features of a series and in enabling
data to be compared.
b. Media: is the value of the middle item of series when it is arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude. It divides the series into two halves; in one half all
items are less than median, whereas in the other half all items have values higher than
median.
c. Mode: is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series.
d. Midpoint average: is simply the arithmetic mean of the lowest and highest value of a
given set of data. If L and U are the lowest and highest values of a given set of data,
respectively, the midpoint range (MDr) is (L + U)/2, etc.
6.3.2. Measures of Dispersion, Skewness, and Kurtosis
 If the measures of central tendency be the search for a value around which the observations
have the tendency to center around, then dispersion is a search for a spread of the observations
within a given data set.
 The tendency of the observations of any variable to remain scattered/dispersed from a central
value or any other value is known as dispersion of the variable. A researcher must have good
knowledge about the central tendency and the dispersion of the research data he/she is
handling to discover the truth that had remained hidden so long.
 Important measures of dispersion are
a. Range: A range of a set of observations is the difference between the maximum value
and the minimum value of a set of data.
b. Mean deviation: is the average of difference of the values of items from some average
of the series.
c. Standard deviation: Standard deviation is most widely used measure of dispersion of
a series and is commonly denoted by the symbol ‘ σ ’ (pronounced as sigma). Standard
deviation is defined as the square-root of the average of squares of deviations, when
such deviations for the values of individual items in a series are obtained from the
arithmetic average. Standard deviation measure of variability computed by taking the
positive square root of the variance.
d. Variance: is the mean squared deviation from the mean for a given set of data.

123 | P a g e
6.3.3. Skewness and Kurtosis
 Skewness and kurtosis talk about the nature of the frequency distribution.
 Skewness
 A frequency distribution of the set of values that is not ‘symmetrical (normal)’ is
called asymmetrical or skewed.
 In a skewed distribution, extreme values in a data set move towards one side or tail of
a distribution, thereby lengthening that tail. When extreme values move towards the
upper or right tail, the distribution is positively skewed. When such values move
towards the lower or left tail, the distribution is negatively skewed.
 Skewness refers to the horizontal property of the frequency distribution.
o Skewness refers to the horizontal property of the frequency distribution.
 Kurtosis: refers to the peakedness of a frequency distribution.
o Kurtosis refers to the vertical nature of the frequency distribution.
o According to the nature of peak, a distribution is leptokurtic, mesokurtic, or platykurtic
in nature.
o A leptokurtic distribution means an aggregation of more observations (frequency) in
a particular class or a couple of classes.
o Mesokurtic distribution follows the general norm that at the lower classes, there are a
fewer number of frequencies, and as the class value increases, the number of
observations (frequency) also increases then reaches to the peak, and as the class value
increases further, the number of observations (frequency) decreases.
o A platykurtic distribution, a good number of classes have almost the same higher
observations and thereby, forming a platelike structure at the top of the frequency
distribution.
o A bell shaped curve or the normal curve is Mesokurtic because it is kurtic in the centre;
but if the curve is relatively more peaked than the normal curve, it is called Leptokurtic
whereas a curve is more flat than the normal curve, it is called Platykurtic.
o In brief, Kurtosis is the humpedness of the curve and points to the nature of distribution
of items in the middle of a series. It may be pointed out here that knowing the shape
of the distribution curve is crucial to the use of statistical methods in research analysis
since most methods make specific assumptions about the nature of the distribution
curve.
Thus, to know the nature of the data, the measures of central tendency and measures of
dispersion along with skewness and kurtosis of the frequency distribution are essential.

6.3.4. Correlation Analysis

 While conducting research works, a researcher needs to deal with a number of
factors/variables at a time, instead of a single variable/factor. And all these variables may not
be independent of each other; rather they tend to vary side by side.
 The problem of measuring the degree of association among the variables is considered
through a correlation and regression analysis.
 In case of bivariate or multivariate populations, we often wish to know the relation of the two
and/or more variables in the data to one another. We may like to know, for example, whether

124 | P a g e
 the number of hours students devote for studies is somehow related to their family income, to
age, to sex or to similar other factor. There are several methods of determining the relationship
between variables, but no method can tell us for certain that a correlation is indicative of
causal relationship. Thus we have to answer two types of questions in bivariate or multivariate
populations viz.,
1. Does there exist association or correlation between the two (or more) variables? If yes, of
what degree?
2. Is there any cause and effect relationship between the two variables in case of the bivariate
population or between one variable on one side and two or more variables on the other
side in case of multivariate population? If yes, of what degree and in which direction?
 In case of bivariate population: Correlation can be studied through
1. Cross tabulation: is especially useful when the data are in nominal form. Under it we classify
each variable into two or more categories and then cross classify the variables in these
subcategories. Then we look for interactions between them which may be symmetrical,
reciprocal, or asymmetrical. A symmetrical relationship is one in which the two variables vary
together, but we assume that neither variable is due to the other. A reciprocal relationship exists
when the two variables mutually influence or reinforce each other. Asymmetrical relationship
is said to exist if one variable (the independent variable) is responsible for another variable (the
dependent variable). The cross classification procedure begins with a two-way table which
indicates whether there is or there is not an interrelationship between the variables.
2. Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation: Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation
(or rank correlation) is the technique of determining the degree of correlation between two
variables in case of ordinal data where ranks are given to the different values of the variables.
The main objective of this coefficient is to determine the extent to which the two sets of ranking
are similar or dissimilar.
3. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation: The simplest and widely used measure of correlation
is the measure of Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficients. Correlation coefficient measures the
degree of closeness of the linear association between any two variables. Karl Pearson’s
coefficient of correlation is also known as the product moment correlation coefficient. The
value of ‘r’ lies between ± 1. Positive values of r indicate positive correlation between the two
variables (i.e., changes in both variables take place in the statement direction), whereas
negative values of ‘r’ indicate negative correlation i.e., changes in the two variables taking
place in the opposite directions. A zero value of ‘r’ indicates that there is no association
between the two variables. When r = (+) 1, it indicates perfect positive correlation and when it
is (–) 1, it indicates perfect negative correlation, meaning thereby that variations in independent
variable (X) explain 100% of the variations in the dependent variable (Y). We can also say that
for a unit change in independent variable, if there happens to be a constant change in the
dependent variable in the same direction, then correlation will be termed as perfect positive.
But if such change occurs in the opposite direction, the correlation will be termed as perfect
negative. The value of ‘r’ nearer to +1 or –1 indicates high degree of correlation between the
two variables.

6.3.5. SIMPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

125 | P a g e
 Regression analysis is concerned with the study of the dependence of one variable, the
dependent variable, on one or more other variables, the explanatory variables, with a view to
estimating and/or predicting the (population) mean or average value of the former in terms of
the known or fixed (in repeated sampling) values of the latter. Regression can only interpret
what exists physically i.e., there must be a physical way in which independent variable X can
affect dependent variable Y.
 The regression analysis is a statistical method to deal with the formulation of
mathematical model depicting relationship amongst variables which can be used for
the purpose of prediction of the values of dependent variable, given the values of the
independent variable.
 Simple linear regression model is called the two-variable linear regression model or bivariate
linear regression model because it relates the two variables x and y. The linearity implies that
a one-unit change in x has the same effect on y, regardless of the initial value of x. This is
unrealistic for many economic applications. For example, in the wage-education example, we
might want to allow for increasing returns: the next year of education has a larger effect on
wages than did the previous year.
 Mathematically: Y =α + βX, where α and β are the parameters, known as the
intercept constant and regression coefficient of Y on X.
 The intercept constant signifies the value of the dependent variable at initial stage,
and the regression coefficient measures the change in a dependent variable to per
unit change in the independent variable X.

6.3.6. MULTIPLE CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

 When there are two or more than two independent variables, the analysis concerning
relationship is known as multiple correlation and the equation describing such relationship as
the multiple regression equation.
 We here explain multiple correlation and regression taking only two independent variables and
one dependent variable (Convenient computer programs exist for dealing with a great number
of variables).
 Multiple regression analysis is an extension of simple regression analysis to cover cases in
which the dependent variable is hypothesized to depend on more than one explanatory variable.
 Mathematically, Yi = β0 + β1*X1 + β2*X2 + … + βn*Xn + εi
 Yi = β0 + βi∑Xi+ εi
 Example: EARNINGS = β1 + β2S + β3ASV + u; where EARNINGS is hourly earnings, S is
years of schooling (highest grade completed), ASVABC is composite score on the cognitive
tests, and u is error term.
 Interpretation of the Multiple Regression Coefficients
 Multiple regression analysis allows one to discriminate between the effects of the
explanatory variables, making allowance for the fact that they may be correlated. The
regression coefficient of each X variable provides an estimate of its influence on Y,
controlling for the effects of all the other X variables.

6.3.7. OTHER MEASURES

126 | P a g e
1. Index numbers: When series are expressed in same units, we can use averages for the purpose
of comparison, but when the units in which two or more series are expressed happen to be
different, statistical averages cannot be used to compare them. In such situations we have to
rely upon some relative measurement which consists in reducing the figures to a common base.
 Once such method is to convert the series into a series of index numbers. This is done
when we express the given figures as percentages of some specific figure on a certain
data. We can, thus, define an index number as a number which is used to measure the
level of a given phenomenon as compared to the level of the same phenomenon at some
standard date.
 The use of index number weights more as a special type of average, meant to study the
changes in the effect of such factors which are incapable of being measured directly.
But one must always remember that index numbers measure only the relative changes.
Changes in various economic and social phenomena can be measured and compared
through index numbers. Different indices serve different purposes. Specific commodity
indices are to serve as a measure of changes in the phenomenon of that commodity
only.
 Index numbers may measure cost of living of different classes of people. In economic
sphere, index numbers are often termed as ‘economic barometers measuring the
economic phenomenon in all its aspects either directly by measuring the same
phenomenon or indirectly by measuring something else which reflects upon the main
phenomenon. But index numbers have their own limitations with which researcher
must always keep himself aware. For instance, index numbers are only approximate
indicators and as such give only a fair idea of changes but cannot give an accurate idea.
Chances of error also remain at one point or the other while constructing an index
number but this does not diminish the utility of index numbers for they still can indicate
the trend of the phenomenon being measured. However, to avoid fallacious
conclusions, index numbers prepared for one purpose should not be used for other
purposes or for the same purpose at other places.
2. Time series analysis: In the context of economic and business researches, we may obtain quite
often data relating to some time period concerning a given phenomenon. Such data is labelled
as ‘Time Series’.
 More clearly it can be stated that series of successive observations of the given
phenomenon over a period of time are referred to as time series. Such series are usually the
result of the effects of one or more of the following factors:
1. Secular trend or long term trend that shows the direction of the series in a long
period of time. The effect of trend (whether it happens to be a growth factor or a
decline factor) is gradual, but extends more or less consistently throughout the
entire period of time under consideration. Sometimes, secular trend is simply stated
as trend (or T).
2. Short time oscillations i.e., changes taking place in the short period of time only
and such changes can be the effect of the following factors: (a) Cyclical fluctuations
(or C) are the fluctuations as a result of business cycles and are generally referred
to as long term movements that represent consistently recurring rises and declines

127 | P a g e
 in an activity. (b) Seasonal fluctuations (or S) are of short duration occurring in a
regular sequence at specific intervals of time. Such fluctuations are the result of
changing seasons. Usually these fluctuations involve patterns of change within a
year that tends to be repeated from year to year. Cyclical fluctuations and seasonal
fluctuations taken together constitute short-period regular fluctuations. (c) Irregular
fluctuations (or I), also known as Random fluctuations, are variations which take
place in a completely unpredictable fashion.
 The analysis of time series is done to understand the dynamic conditions for achieving the
short-term and long-term goals of business firm(s). The past trends can be used to evaluate
the success or failure of management policy or policies practiced hitherto. On the basis of
past trends, the future patterns can be predicted and policy or policies may accordingly be
formulated. We can as well study properly the effects of factors causing changes in the
short period of time only, once we have eliminated the effects of trend.
 By studying cyclical variations, we can keep in view the impact of cyclical changes while
formulating various policies to make them as realistic as possible. The knowledge of
seasonal variations will be of great help to us in taking decisions regarding inventory,
production, purchases, and sales policies so as to optimize working results. Thus, analysis
of time series is important in context of long term as well as short term forecasting and is
considered a very powerful tool in the hands of business analysts and researchers.

How are the parameters (βi) estimated?

o The widely used method is ordinary least squares (OLS)
o In least squares method the difference between the expected values of Y from the
regression and the real values of Y is minimised = the error terms are minimised
o Other estimation methods are also available (MLE, GMM, etc.)
Various tests can be organized.
Overall test (F-test): the null hypothesis for the overall test is ‘all the coefficient of the
regression are zero?’ (no explanatory power)
Ho: β1 = β2= β3 = … = βn = 0
Test for a single variable (t-test): Does a particular independent variable adds significantly
to the explanation?
Ho: βi = 0
Several Econometric problems are also expected.
 Sample Selectivity
 Misspecification
 Omitted Variables
 Fixed Effects

128 | P a g e
  Endogenous Variables
Appropriate tests and remedial measures need to be considered for these problems.

Figure 6.6: Summary chart concerning analysis of data

Reference
 C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Revised
Edition.
 Pradip Kumar Sahu (2013). Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural
Science, Social Science, and Other Related Fields. Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York
Dordrecht London. DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-1020-7.

“END OF CHAPTER SIX”

129 | P a g e
Chapter Seven: Interpretation and Report Writing
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn, and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated.
 It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that
underlie his findings.
 In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and upheld several times, the
researcher may arrive at generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. This may at times result
in new questions, leading to further researches.
 All this analytical information and consequential inference(s) may well be communicated,
preferably through research report, to the consumers of research results who may be either an
individual or a group of individuals or some public/private organization.

7.1. MEANING OF INTERPRETATION

 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study.
o In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation
has two major aspects viz.,
1. The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a
given study with those of another, and
2. The establishment of some explanatory concepts.
 Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping
analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other
research, theory, and hypotheses.
 Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has
been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.
 Why interpretation?
o Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of
research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component
of research process because of the following reasons:
1. It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle
that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of
other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the
concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way the
continuity in research can be maintained.

130 | P a g e
 2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates
the quest for more knowledge.
3. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what
they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
4. The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not
have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be interpreted on a
post-factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’
interpretation.
 Technique of interpretation
o The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity
on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and
experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for
accomplishing the task of interpretation.
o The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of
his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization
should be done and concepts be formulated.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone
having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to
point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will
result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in
no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to
be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
 Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
A. At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are appropriate,
trustworthy, and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good homogeneity;
and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
B. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process
of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to wrong
interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range
of observations, identification of correlation with causation, and the like.
o Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the basis
of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results accepting the

131 | P a g e
 hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis, rather than as
“confirming the validity of the hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant about all
such things so that false generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped
with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences
concerning his study.
C. He/ She must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he / she must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions
that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions
concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation, and comparison of
results.
D. He/ She must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are
initially hidden to the eye. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not
amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area,
and particular conditions.
E. The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there should
be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation, and theoretical
conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and
empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.

7.2. Research Report Writing

 A research report deals with results of completed research work. After completing a research
work, it is generally produced in the written ‘form, and is called research report or thesis. A
detailed description of research activities are provided in it.
 Everything is combined together during the writing of the report. This is the point at which the
research must be essentially reproduced in written form. It is a matter of communicating what
was done, what occurred, and what the results mean in a concise, understandable, accurate and
logical manner.
 It has a variety of formats and varies as to its length. It is written in past tense and in third
person. It is the final form of the research work.
 It is also submitted for evaluating its contributions.
 This is not the difficult task because the researcher has gone through these tasks which he has
to reproduce in the same order. Good research reports are not easily written. The report writing
is a skill it must be acquired by the researcher.
 Since the written report is an account of research project, the organization of the report follows
quite closely the organization of the research project. The writing of the report is usually
associated with the close of the research for project, few portions of writing may be done while
the research study is in progress. The preliminary drafts of the review of the literature can be
written and revised and brought up to-date later. Research procedures can be recorded as the
project is conducted and while it is fresh in the researcher’s mind. It is difficult to write from
memory and avoid serious omissions.

132 | P a g e
 The writer should assemble the available information before taking to the writing work.
Mechanical procedures for presenting foot notes, references, figures, tables, and the like should
be well in mind. In the interest of efficiency and continuity, relatively lot of time should be
reserved for the writing work. The research report should contain all the necessary data and at
the same time it should be brief and to the point. There is usually considerable changing and
rewriting before the final draft. The report is also known as thesis or dissertation.

 Need of research report

o Writing a research report is very challenging task for the researcher. A good research
report requires sufficient-experience and insight about his research activities.
o A research report is needed due to the following reasons:
1. The research must be reported in full and its results should be subjected to a criticism
and verification.
2. The research work is done for the benefit of human being, therefore, it must be
communicable to the general public for the practical use.
3. The research should be considered to be the culminating act for reflective thinking. It
encourages other persons to take up some problem for further investigation.
4. The research report requires the creative thinking of a researcher to review the related
studies and discussing the result of the study and also suggest some new problems for
further studies.
5. The research report is also necessary for giving shape and form to the investigation
and solidifying it.
6. It is needed for providing a clear picture of research method, sample, and techniques
used in conducting the research work.
7. The research report is meant for popularizing the new contributions in the discipline.

7.2.1. Steps in research report

 Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual
steps involved in writing report are
1. Logical analysis of the subject-matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with
the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically
and (b) chronologically.
o The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical
treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the
most complex structures.
o Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order
2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report outlines are
the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

133 | P a g e
3. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits
to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the
procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations
faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations
and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing.
Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and
polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation.
The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and
cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble
arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.” In addition the
researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or
not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the
final bibliography.
o The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of
books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should
contain all those works which the researcher has consulted.
o The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two
parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the
second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles.
Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory
from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way of presenting
bibliography.
6. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a
concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it
seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones.
o While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and
technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must
be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in
communicating the research findings to others.
o A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain
interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report
should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to
the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher
and the reader.
7.2.2. General format of research report

 A research report includes usually the following chapters-Introductory or theoretical

background, Review of related literature, Methodology, Data collection, Analysis of data,
Discussion of results and findings of the study, Bibliography and Appendices.

134 | P a g e
 Figure 7.1: Divisions and sections of a research report

1. Preliminary Pages
A. Title page: This is the first page of a thesis or a dissertation. It includes:
a. Title of thesis.
b. Name of the candidate.
c. Purpose or relationship of the thesis to the course or degree requirement.
d. College and/or department in which the candidate has been admitted for the degree.
e. Name of the university to which it is submitted.
f. Month and year of submission or acceptance.
The title should be accurate, concise, and clearly printed in capital letters. It should
convey the main theme of the problem investigated and if possible one should give a
clue about the method or type of research involved.
B. Abstract: Generally the abstract is written after the completion of the text of the
research report/dissertation/thesis. It summarizes the structure of the whole text and the
major facts it contains. It should be written in the language of the research
report/dissertation/ thesis and translated to English and contain no more than 300
words. The abstract should be placed on the page immediately after the title page.
C. Acknowledgements: Most research reports, dissertations, or theses have their
subsection to convey appreciation to those who have been involved in the study.
D. Table of content: table of contents list the chapters, topics, and sub-topics together with
their page numbers. Sub-topics and topics should be labelled according to the chapter,
for e.g., the first topic in Chapter 1 should be marked 1.1 and the first sub-topic, 1.1.1.
The use of letters in parenthesis for e.g., (a), (b), (c) is appropriate as a means of
differentiating sub-topics of the same topic. This numbering system provides a clear
picture of the relationship between chapters and topics and shows how they are
connected.

135 | P a g e
 E. List of tables (if any): This list contains the titles of tables, together with their page
numbers, which are listed in the text. The numbering system is according to chapter,
for e.g. Table 4.1, Table 4.2.
F. List of figures (if any): This list contains the titles of figures, together with their page
numbers, which are listed in the text. For e.g. Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2.
G. List of Symbols and Abbreviations: the symbols and abbreviations must be in
accordance to international convention.
H. List of Appendices: this list is optional and contains the titles of appendices placed in
the supplementary section.

2. Main Text
 The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title
of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows
the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main
section of the report should begin on a new page.
 Normally, the text consists of the following chapters:
1. Introduction: this chapter contains the introduction to the issues in which the research is
concerned, the aims and objectives of the study, and the outline of the research approach.
o The main purpose of this chapter is to indicate the need and scope of the study. It
consists essentially of the statement of research inquiry.
o It is reported in past tense form of work completed.
o The problem objectives, hypotheses, assumptions, and delimitations of the study are
reported precisely. If an introduction is required, the researcher should make certain
that it is an introduction that generates an interest and appropriate mental set which
introductions are regarded as capable of producing. It must be long enough to do its
jobs and nothing more.
2. Literature Review: This chapter surveys previous literature and studies relevant to the field
of study.
 The literature review should be comprehensive and include recent publications.
3. Methodology: This chapter indicates the line of approach of the study.
o The first aspect deals with the method, population and sample of the study and second part
provides the tools and techniques employed in the research. It also presents the procedure of
the study. The whole plan of the study is discussed in detail under this chapter.
4. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form
of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main
text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several
chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions
of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and
splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report.
5. Discussion: this chapter contains the interpretation of the results. The findings of the research
should be compared and contrasted with those of previous studies presented in the literature
review. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the findings of the research.

136 | P a g e
6. Conclusion: in this section, the findings are summarized and their implications discussed. This
section may include suggestions for future work.
7. Supplementary: Specific items which were not included in the main body of the text should
be put in this Supplementary Section. Typically, this section includes the following:
 Instrumentation: Research instruments such as questionnaires, maps or computer
programmes.
 Appendix: Appendices consist of additional illustration of data sources, raw data and
quoted citations which are too long to be placed in the text. The appendix supports the
written text of the research report/dissertation/thesis. Appendices can be divided into
Appendix A, B, C.
8. Bibliography: All works or studies referred to in the research, report/dissertation, / thesis in
the form of quotations or citations must be included in the bibliography. The references should
be written consistently in the American Psychological Association (APA) format or in another
format approved by the subject experts. Each reference should be written in single spacing
format and a double space should be left between references. This list of references should not
be numbered.
9. Index and Glossary: When a research report is published in index, must be given. The index
includes authors and subjects and topics or words in alphabetical order. In the report glossary
should be provided. It includes the meanings or definitions of some words and terms ‘used in
the research report. Some notations symbols or abbreviations should be explained what
actually they mean or indicate in the study.

7.2.3. Types of reports

o Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and
the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand.
Generally two types of reports could be produced:
A. Short Reports: are more informal and are appropriate for studies in which the problem is
well defined, of limited scope, and for which methodologies are simple and
straightforward. Example: interim reports, etc.
 At the beginning, there should be a brief statement on the problem.
 Next comes the conclusions and recommendations, followed by findings that support
the conclusions.
B. Long Reports: are long and follow well-defined formats. Several formats for long reports
exist.
 The logical format, the psychological format, and the chronological format.
i. The logical format
 The introductory information covering the purpose of the study, the methodology
is followed by the findings.
 The findings are analyzed and then followed by the conclusions and
recommendations.

137 | P a g e
 ii. The psychological format: The conclusions and recommendations are presented
immediately after the introduction with the findings coming later.
 Readers are quickly exposed to the most critical information i.e. conclusions and
recommendations.
iii. The chronological report - is based on time sequence or occurrence.

1. Usually long reports are of two types

o The popular report and the technical or base report.
o A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required whether
for recordkeeping or for public dissemination.
o A popular report is used if the research results have policy implications.
a. Technical Report: This report should include a full documentation and detail - it is the major
source document. In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed,
(it) assumptions made in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings
including their limitations and supporting data.

1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three
pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation
of the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis
and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample
size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics, and limitations.
If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully
assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be
fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables
and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the
report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications
drawn from the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and
attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of
analysis, and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
 The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the
order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in
other words, means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different

138 | P a g e
 sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any
particular report. It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple
presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as
such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered desirable.

b. Popular Report: is designed for the non-technical audience with no research background and
interested only in results rather than on methodology.
 Decision makers need help in making decisions.
 It gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness and on practical aspects and policy
implications.
 It should encourage rapid reading, quick comprehension of major findings and
prompt understanding of the implication and conclusions.
 The course of the study.
 The detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting
data. A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of
most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of
the study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along with
the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques
used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of
the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study
are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such
as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented
in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely
meant for general public.

7.2.4. Research Presentation consideration

 Reports should be physically inviting, easy to read and match the comprehension abilities
of the designated audiences (reader).
 Style of writing: Remember that your reader:
 Is short of time
 Has many other urgent matters demanding his or her interest and attention
 Is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research jargon’
 It is always good to use words that convey thoughts accurately, clearly and efficiently.
 Therefore the rules are:
o Simplify- Keep to the essentials.
o Justify- Make no statement that is not based on facts and data.

139 | P a g e
 o Quantify when you have the data to do so - Avoid ‘large’, ‘small’; instead, say ‘50%’,
‘one in three’.
o Use short sentences.
o Be consistent in the use of tenses (past or present tense).

 Layout of the report: A good physical layout is important since it will:

 make a good initial impression,
 encourage the readers, and
 give them an idea of how the material has been organized so the reader can make a
quick determination of what he will read first.
 Poor reproduction, incorrect spelling, and typographic errors, overcrowding of text,
inadequate labeling of charts and tables, etc. reduce the credibility of a report.
 So, make sure that there is:
 An attractive layout for the title page and a clear table of contents.
 Consistency in margins, spacing, headings and subheadings,
 Numbering of figures and tables, provision of clear titles for tables, and clear
headings for columns and rows, etc.
 Accuracy and consistency in quotations and references.
7.2.5. Oral presentation
 At times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective, particularly in
cases where policy recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of this
approach lies in the fact that it provides an opportunity for give-and-take decisions which
generally lead to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.
o At a university or college to other students or tutors, at a conference to other
researchers or work colleagues, or in a work place to colleagues, employers or
funding bodies.
 If you want people to take notice of your results, you need to produce a good presentation.
 Good seminar presentation improves both the research and the reputation of the researcher.
 Power Point is a useful presentation graphics program which enables you to create slides
that can be shared.
 You can enhance your presentation with animation, artwork, and diagrams which make it
more interesting for your audience.
 A successful presentation typically requires a condensation of a lengthy and complex body
of information.
 About 20 minutes presentation is usually required.
 An outline of what one is going to say includes
 Opening
 Findings and conclusions
 Recommendations
 The most important thing to keep in mind:

140 | P a g e
  The time will usually pass a lot more quickly than you think
 the reason we run out of time is because we wasted half an hour on the stupid
preview!
 Keep focused on the main ideas: The motivation, the problem, and the main results
 You do not have to mention all of the difficulties and shortcomings; people can ask during
the presentation

 Since showing the main results is the only reason you came, why not just start right now!
 Since time is limited, it’s especially important to get to the point.
 You don’t need any literature review in a seminar.
 Just get to the point.
Reference

o C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Second Revised
Edition
o Jayanta Kumar Nayak and Priyanka Singh (2015). Fundamentals of Research Methodology:
Problems and Prospects. Published by SSDN PUBLISHERS AND DISTRIBUTORS. SBN
No. 978-93-8357-556-5.

“END OF CHAPTER SEVEN”

“END OF THE COURSE”

141 | P a g e