To switch or not to switch: Code-switching in a multilingual country

(Orit Shay,2015)

Various aspects are involved in the phenomenon of code-switching, but the most prominent ones are
the sociolinguistic and the grammatical aspects, where the former try to account for different
reasons for using this speech style, and also for factors like language choice and language proficiency
(Cantone, 2007)

Naturally, since code-switching is the practice of moving back and forth between two languages, it is
a widespread phenomenon in bilingual speech, and it is therefore not surprising that a great
proportion of research on bilingualism focuses on this topic (Riehhl, 2005).

Meisel (1994) explained the term code-switching by pointing out the competence of the speaker in
both pragmatic and grammatical aspects of the languages involved. He also stated that code-
switching demonstrates the ability of the speaker to select the language according to the
interlocutor, the situational context, the topic of conversation, and more. In addition, he claimed,
code-switching expresses the speaker's ability to change languages within an interactional sequence
in accordance with sociolinguistic rules and without violating specific grammatical constraints.

There are common terms that are related to code-switching, and sometimes are even used
alternatively, relating to the same phenomenon. Some of these are transfer, borrowing and code-
mixing. In the present paper, the term 'code-switching' will be used as a general term to cover all
aspects of code alternation between two different languages. (Orit Shay,2015)

Poplack (1980) noted that code-switching behavior may be used to measure bilingual ability in such a
way where intra-sentential switches indicate a greater degree of competence in the two grammars
involved, whereas inter-sentential switches do not generally require grammatical competence in
both languages.

Sociolinguistic aspects of code-switching try to account for different reasons for using this speech
style, and also for factors like language choice and language proficiency (Cantone, 2007).

'Bilinguals' are described as persons who use two languages, and bilingualism is the ability to speak
two languages or the habitual use of two languages colloquially (Fabbro, 1999).

In the last decades, developments such as massive population shifts through migration, the
expansion of educational provision to many more levels of society, and technical advances in large
communities have emphasized the existence of a visibly and audibly multilingual modern world
(Milroy & muysken, 1995).

It is a fact that bilingualism is present in practically every country of the world, in all classes of society
and in all age groups. Moreover, it is difficult to find a society that is genuinely monolingual, since
bilingualism is a phenomenon that has existed since a very early stage of human history, and the
history of languages is full of examples of language contact leading to some form of bilingualism
(Grosjean, 2001).

The issue of competence versus performance of language has been widely addressed in the domain
of language testing (Shohamy, 2004)

Chomsky (1965) distinguished between competence and performance pointing out that competence
is the knowledge of language, and performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.
According to this distinction, competence refers to the product, rather than the process, and is
explained as the underlying knowledge of an idealized native speaker of a language in the area of
grammar. Performance, on the other hand, is the language use, which may be flawed because of
memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention or interest and other psychological factors. As a
result, it is very difficult to assess competence without assessing performance; nevertheless, as
Chomsky himself claimed, (1965, p.10): "investigation of performance will proceed only so far as
understanding of underlying competence permits".

Modupeola (2013) claimed that code switching helps learners to enjoy their learning due to their
ability to comprehend the teachers' input. Understanding what is being said constitutes psychological
support for the learners, allows them to feel less stressful and anxious, and makes TL more
comfortable to learn.

In respect of the repetitive function of code-switching, the teacher uses code switching in order to
transfer the necessary knowledge in further clarity. Following the instruction in target language, the
teacher code switches to native language, clarifies meaning and stresses importance on the foreign
language content for efficient comprehension. (Orit Shay,2015)

Similarly, Modupeola (2013) found that a situation where a teacher gives an instruction in one
language and repeats it in another language within the same period of time will slow down the rate
of learning of the TL. This unwanted result is derived from the fact that the learners have mastered
this pattern of teaching and, therefore, may not take seriously what is being taught since they know
for certain that the same message will be delivered in L1.

As opposed to this view, others (e.g. Levine, 2003) supported code-switching in the foreign language
teaching, arguing that L1 can promote the learning of TL. They claimed that code-switching is a good
strategy of efficiency in FL teaching and that the L1 should have a place in this classroom.

Research method :

 The research method chosen for this type of examination is the qualitative one.
 Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have
constructed, namely, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have
in the world (Merriam, 2009).
 According to that interest, qualitative research uses methods such as participant observation
or case studies, which result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice
(Parkinson & Drislane, 2011).
 Denzin & Lincoln (2005) explained that qualitative research is a situated activity that locates
the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the
world visible, transform the world, and turn it into a series of representations, including field
notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self

Target group :
Since the present research aims to examine the phenomenon of code-switching among Israeli
bilingual speakers of Hebrew, English and Arabic, the participants will be of three groups of study
as follows.

 Since the present research aims to examine the phenomenon of code-switching among
Israeli bilingual speakers of Hebrew, English and Arabic, the participants will be of three
groups of study as follows.
 The second group consists of 5 family members. The mother is an American English
speaker, the father is an Israeli Hebrew speaker. The couple has two daughters: the elder
one is 29 years old, married to an American English speaker, and the younger one is 25
years old. All family members speak English and Hebrew alternatively
  The third group consists of nine construction workers who work at a construction site in
Tel-Aviv, Israel. The workers are all bilingual men, speakers of Hebrew and Arabic

Research question:

 What patterns of code-switching can be identified within Israeli society as a multi-lingual

reality?
 In what circumstances do people in Israel code-switch?
 What grammatical/cultural/psychological/educational factors are involved in code-switching
between Hebrew-English and Hebrew-Arabic?
 What are the causes of code-switching (e.g. idleness / family composition / convenience /
schooling)?

Research tool:

participant observations and nonparticipant observations of all 3 groups, which will be recorded, and
transcribing of the parts including code switching for the purpose of using them in the dissertation as
examples for analysis. In addition, the research will include semi-structured interviews of some of the
participants, in order to get some deeper impression about their need to code switch.

Issues in Code-Switching: Competing Theories and Models

(Erman Boztepe,2003)

Milroy and Muysken (1995), for example, define Code Switching as “the alternative use by bilinguals
of two or more languages in the same conversation” (p. 7). They use code-switching as a cover term
under which different forms of bilingual behavior are subsumed.The term intra-sentential is used to
refer to switching within the sentence, in contrast with the term inter-sentential used for switches
between sentences as the relevant unit for analysis.

Myers-Scotton (1993b) also uses code-switching as a cover term and defines it as “alternations of
linguistic varieties within the same conversation”

Gumperz (1982) refers to the term as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of
passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems” (p. 59). I will be
using the term code-switching as an umbrella term in the remainder of this paper to cover the
phenomena of alternating between two languages or dialects of the same language within the same
conversation.
Gal (1978, 1979) looked at the language choice patterns of bilingual speakers of Hungarian/German
in a variety of social contexts. Oberwart is traditionally an agricultural community, but has undergone
rapid social change due to economic developments in the area, which gave the natives ample
opportunities to work in waged jobs as opposed to doing peasant work.

A related finding of Gal’s (1978, 1979) study is that the interlocutor is the most critical factor
influencing a speaker’s code choice.15 Given the social values symbolized by each language, she
looked at the role of speakers’ contacts in the community, i.e., social network, on their language
choice.

Milroy (1987) took the idea of the relationship between social network and code choice even one
step further. In her study of the vernacular working class speech of three inner city communities in
Belfast, she found that the dense and multiplex nature of a working class individual’s social network
gives rise to its imposing the vernacular form, which symbolizes in-group solidarity, on his or her
code choice.

Divergence is a means to create social distance from one’s interlocutor through which social
disapproval is communicated. Bourhis, Giles, Leyens, and Tajfel’s (1979) study gives support to this
latter aspect of accommodation. In their study of intergroup behavior (Tajfel, 1974) among Flemish
university students in Belgium, they found that Flemish-speaking students frequently used CS as a
way of dealing with a perceived ethnic threat coming from an out-group Francophone speaker by
helping them create social distance.

Future research :
Research on CS may help us understand classroom interaction and how differences in interactional
norms in bilingual and multilingual classrooms influence not only the learning environment but also
the level of student achievement. Even this brief review of the issues in the structural and the
sociolinguistic dimensions of CS shows that achieving such ambitious goals is not an easy task, and
may be possible only from a multi-disciplinary perspective.

Reasons and Contexts to Switch and Mix English Code by Pakistani Young Learners
in their Native Speech: A Sociolinguistic Study
(Chughtai, Khan, 2016)

Kuncha and Bathula (2004) studied the role of attitudes in language shift and language maintenance
of Telugu immigrants living in New Zealand. Attitudes, of both Telugu speaking mothers of school-
going children and the school-going children of 11 years and above, were examined. For that
purpose, 14 mothers and 20 children were selected as sample of the study. Self-reporting
questionnaires and structured interviews were administered to collect data. The questionnaire
covered five major areas i.e. language proficiency, attitude towards English, attitude towards Telugu,
attitude towards bilingualism and language maintenance. The analysis of the data showed that there
was significant decrease in L1 (Telugu) use by Telugu families after their immigration to New Zealand.
Mostly, English language was used by them in both formal and informal settings with their children.
Consequently, Telugu community in New Zealand were facing dilemma of either preserving its
mother tongue or let the children shift to English Language for educational attainment in schools.

Ayeomoni (2006) studied the style of language use in childhood in Yoruba speech community. The
particular speech community i.e. the Ikale in Irele and Okitipupa Local Government Areas of Ondo
State was selected. Chosen sample consisted of 30 male and 20 female Yoruba-English bilingual
respondents falling within the age brackets of 25 to 40 years. As a tool of data collection, the
questionnaire was designed. The analysed data illustrated that before entering school Yoruba was
the only language of communication of almost 90% children. Later, even at primary school age,
English started playing an important role as a language of educational institutions in children’s lives.
Hence, their mother tongue faced danger of loss as their home language as well as the outside one.

Ayeomoni (2006) studied the style of language use in childhood in Yoruba speech community. The
particular speech community i.e. the Ikale in Irele and Okitipupa Local Government Areas of Ondo
State was selected. Chosen sample consisted of 30 male and 20 female Yoruba-English bilingual
respondents falling within the age brackets of 25 to 40 years. As a tool of data collection, the
questionnaire was designed. The analysed data illustrated that before entering school Yoruba was
the only language of communication of almost 90% children. Later, even at primary school age,
English started playing an important role as a language of educational institutions in children’s lives.
Hence, their mother tongue faced danger of loss as their home language as well as the outside one.

Reserch method :

The sample of the present study consisted of 138 participants (both male and female) randomly
selected from BA (Hons) 6thSemester session (2012-16) &8th Semester session (2011-15) Semester,
the Department of English and BS (Hons.) 6th Semester session (2012-16) & 8thSemester session
(2011-15) (2011-15), the Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, The Islamia University of
Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan. The reason to select the sample from two different disciplines
belonging to the arts group and the science group was to conduct the comparative study and to
show the differences in their reasons and contexts to switch and mix English Code in their speech.

In order to maintain the same criteria to select the sample, population was taken only from those
two disciplines where the rate of switching and mixing English Code in their speech was felt to be
greater than the rest.

The questionnaire consisted of two separate sections i.e. Section A: Reasons of Switching and Mixing
English Code;and Section B: Contexts for Switching and Mixing English Code. Thus the nature of this
research study was quantitative. The closed-ended questions were analysed statistically.

Result :

It show that participants belonging to both areas of interest switch and mix English Code in their
native language in order to be effective in communicating their messages. It is important for all of
them to influence the listeners so that they may respond properly.

It is not so frequent among all participants to switch and mix English Code in their native language
when they get emotional. They all switch and mix English Code in their native language to pose
better social position and exclude the third person. Moreover, they all do so when they want to show
extreme annoyance with someone.

The reasons which are found more frequent among the participants belonging to the department of
English are that they switch and mix English Code in their native language when they do not find
alternate terms in their own language. Another common reason among these participants is to do so
as they find majority of people doing so around them.

The Practice of Code Mixing and Code Switching among Students of ELDC Muet Jamshoro SHAHIDA
(SHOUKAT and LOHAR, 2021)

(Dilshad 2007) presents perspective on social factors which influence the frequency and nature of
code mixing and switching based on geography, gender, education and socioeconomic issues to
introduce social identity to make inter relation between linguistic choices and social context for valid
patterns of code mixing and code switching.
Niazi (2003) analyzed that students in private schools are bilingual and they find it convenient to use
two languages Urdu and English interchangeably for understanding of various things. Kauser (2006)
has worked on frequency of code mixing and switching in radio programs which shows the increasing
usage of code mixing at structural level.

According to Myers Scotten and Jake (2001), Code switching is the way of utilization of different
languages among multilingual people used as a source of communication. CS is having different levels
for analyses as well as discourse analysis in speech.

Malik (2010) conducted research on practice of alternating languages which can be traced in teaching
back to the end of 19th century, during this time; the Direct Method was first introduced in the field
of education. He further explains the different functions and importance of code mixing. He worked
on 11 major functions from 406 school teachers of Pakistan. The results show that code mixing and
switching plays a vital role in classrooms.

Kamisah and Misyana (2011) had worked on code switching for many reasons; they argued that code
switching takes place due to participants’ needs and discourse related. The major results include
topic change signals, differentiating texts, social relations maintenance and explanation of lessons.
They also presented the fact that there is a big influence of technology in behavior of students to
adapt code mixing in their speech.

Liu (2010) in Chinese scenario conducted a study in more than two universities in array to prove that
the code-switching in Chinese plays positive role in the classrooms of universities of China. The
research was carried out in both qualitative and quantitative methods. In this Liu (2010) distributed a
questionnaire to 261 undergraduate students from three universities in China to investigate their
attitudes towards their teachers code-switching in classroom. In another work, Liu (2010) collected
data from universities, recorded lectures more than 50 to analyze the practice of code switching. The
results proved that 65% of students agreed with the habit of code mixing among students and
teachers. The final results showed three major reasons. The first one is to explain the basics of
grammar, the second is class management and last is to translate and understand the new
vocabulary.

In (2006), Gwee conducted research on code switching from Singapore schools. She collected data
with the help of tape recording and transcription. He collected data from primary classes of English,
Mathematics and Science. The results concluded that it is efficient to use code switching in
classrooms for understanding lessons and it avoids unrealistic taste of reading.

Research method :

 Descriptive design also known as diagnostic design is used in this research, the reason is that
the researcher wants to analyze the practice of code mixing and code switching in classrooms
 This research was conducted from English language development center (department)
Mehran University of engineering and technology, Jamshoro, Sindh Pakistan. In this
university, English is medium of instructions in all departments.
 This study is based on qualitative research strategy which involves direct experience at the
place to interpret and understand the setting and ideas of participants
 There are two methods of data collection used in this study, class observation and interviews
 In this study, 5 teachers and 40 students were participants.

Result :

 The main reason behind the usage of code mixing and switching in English language
classroom is the medium of instructions. When teachers teach in English language, at some
 time they need to utter the words of native language to clear the concepts as similarly,
students feel difficulty to understand the whole lecture in English because of inadequate
vocabulary and knowledge.
 The researcher observed the lecture of BS English class; the teacher was using English
language for delivering lecture as well as communication. He was describing a topic of
Morphology. He divided sub topics among students. At some places the teacher was mixing
words, especially at the time of examples. Those were taken from real life, to connect them
with topic, students and teachers took support of switched words
 The study includes that due to code mixing and switching, students are unable to understand
the basic things in English and are filed to communicate in second language (SL). They are not
able to write correctly in exams because they don’t know the exact usage of grammar,
words, adjectives, verbs and tenses. The reasons contain the lack of teachers. They are not
involving students in English language learning activities such as quiz, speech, debates, lesson
roles, group discussions and other learning programs. They are not guiding students to solve
exercises in English composition tasks

The study further raises the point that there is a big role can be played by government. The
policy makers and ministry of education can get strong steps for avoidance of code mixing
and code switching. They should make one language compulsory to deliver the lecture. For
this, they should design sessions and trainings for teachers according to the levels such as
primary, secondary and higher level.

Code-Switching And Code-Mixing In English Language

Teaching And Learning At SMA Negeri 2 Kendari
(Arlan, sailan,lio, 2019)

Sert (2005) asserted that code-switching can be seen as an effort to overcome the difficulties
encountered in the delivery of foreign languages, especially English as a foreign language in the
classroom.

Codeswitching is language behavior that seemed to be not only accepted but also often encouraged
by teachers in order for students participate actively in classroom interactional practices and to
facilitate students comprehension (Baker,2011; Garcia, 2009).

Accordingly, Sert (2005) argued that the student needs some strategies, whether related to the
diction (use or selection of language) or the material delivery strategy, to gain a better
understanding.

Baker (2011) gave some examples of switches between languages in conversation. He mentioned
that the term „codemixing‟ has sometimes been used to describe changes at the word level (e.g.,
when one word or a few words in a sentence change).

A mixed language sentence such as "Leo un magazine" (I read a magazine) might be called
codemixing. In contrast, "Come to the table. Bwyd in barod" (food is ready) (Baker, 2011, p. 107)
might be called codeswitching.

The speaker is usually unaware of the switch (Gafaranga, 2007).

Hudson, (1996: 53) provides an explanation that the switch of the language used by the bilingual
speaker is due to a change of situation, while the mixed language change code is not accompanied by
a change of situation
Code-switching in a bilingual community context means that code-switching can be used for self-
expression and is a way of modifying language for the sake of personal intentions, and may be used
in order to build intimate interpersonal relationships among members of a bilingual community
(Muysken, 2000).

Switching is often triggered by the teacher‟s assumption that the class (or specific learners) have not
understood on the basic, for instance, of a marked lack of response (Probyn 2006, Altinyelken, 2010).

CS and CM can also help teachers to guide learners‟ conception of curricular concepts in order to
guide subsequent teaching (Rollnick and Ruther ford, 1996).

Most teachers who CS-CM do so because they are free to do so as McGlynn and Hardman (2009) in
Gambia found out that, teachers have right to CS in their classrooms, despite an English only policy
but learners do not.

According (Suwito, 1983:77) describes that there are three reasons code mixing occurs: 1. Role
identification such as social, educational and register role. 2. Variant identification refers to the kinds
of language used by the user. 3. Social status identity that refers to the sense for people to
recognized as educated people when they use certain language.

Research method :

 The type of this research is both quantitative and qualitative data (mixed method). Mixed
method is a method which focuses on collecting and analyzing the data by combining
between quantitative and qualitative ( Creswell, 2013).
 The sample of the research is 5 of the population with take sampling about 3 teachers in that
school.
 The sample of this research was all of English teachers who teach English in the school of
SMA Negeri 2 Kendari second semester of 2018/2019 academic year, wherein this research
the participant is 3 English teachers.
 Observation, video recording and interview

Result :

 Type of code-switching carried out by teachers in English learning, namely intra-sentential

code-switching, and inter-sentential codeswitching, while emblematic code-switching was
not found in the study.
 The act of teacher student communication during the teaching and learning process in the
classroom is known that teachers tend to use English more than Indonesian. This is because
the learning to provide at that time is learning English.
 The reason students use code-switching and a mixed code is more dominated by the
speakers themselves. In detail, the reason for coding switching and code mixing occurs
because speakers are less targeted language vocabulary or phrases, perceiving the need to
insert or borrow some lexicons from other codes.
 Third, to imply the use of code switching and code mixing by students in the teaching and
learning process in the classroom. The positive impact of the use of code-switching and
mixed code in English language learning is to facilitate students in understanding the
information conveyed by the teacher.
 For the negative effects of using code switching and code mixing in learning in class, most of
the students where the findings in the study there is no profound impact on English learning,
especially in the bilingual context, namely from English to Indonesian utterance or vice-versa
  The teacher uses code-switching and mixed code to encourage students to become better,
both from encouragement and motivation in learning.
 The teacher also uses codeswitching and mixed code because usually, new terms appear in
English learning. So that there is no misunderstanding in delivering the material the teacher
mixes the language, from English to Indonesian.

Teachers’ Code Mixing and Code Switching: Insights on Language Barriers in EFL Classroom
(Siddiq, Kustati, Yustina, 2020)

As an ideal classroom discourse is in line with the communicative language teaching principles in
which teacher must consistently encourage students to communicate (talk, share, and express ideas)
in the target language (Little, 2007; Savignon, 2008, 2018; Tanveer, 2007).

According to Atkinson (2000); Cohen (2010); Dörnyei (2000); Parks & Guay (2009); Pedersen & Liu
(2003), teacher‘s motivation and strategies which are given to the students become as the key point
to hold that process. There are many strategies to proof and floor it into the class

Teacher‘s decision to switch the language is influenced by the cultures (Gabillon, 2012).

As the focus of the study to Indonesian students who learn English as foreign language, they have
many cultures. They also become part of bilingual and multilingual society (Bin Tahir, 2015; Cahyani
et al., 2018, 2018; Clyne et al., 2004; Cohn & Ravindranath, 2014; Hamied, 2012; Kirkpatrick, 2011;
Lamb & Coleman, 2008; Rasman, 2018; Saddhono & Rohmadi, 2014).

The phenomenon of code-switching is found in bilingual and multilingual society, because they are
usually required to select a particular code whenever they chose to speak, and they may also switch
from one language to another language (Al-Azami, 2006; Kamiya, 2006; Wardhaugh, 2011)

Bilingual teachers commonly used two languages to teach the students in the classroom, especially
while English teachers were teaching. They switched between the languages in at least three ways;
spontaneously, for direct translation intentionally (Barent, 2004).

Teaching English as foreign language in some schools was not an easy matter. One of the problems
was the used of English as the medium of instruction in delivering the materials (Lamb & Coleman,
2014).

Research method :

 A qualitative research design was used where the data taken from observation and interview
in EFL classroom in form of written or oral forms. I
 They choose two teachers from many English teachers in Junior High School 14 Padang.
 There were 72 students involved in the research. We came into the class observe some less
on sand teaching activities that were given by the teachers.
 The data of this study comprised of three data namely types of code mixing used by the
teachers, types of code switching used by the teachers, and also the reasons by the teachers
who use code mixing and code switching
 The data were taken from observations and interviews

Result :

 The current study shows that there are several types of code mixing and code switching
found in English teachers’ and students’ utterances in teaching speaking at EFL classroom.
Those were intra-sentential code mixing, intra-lexical code mixing, and pronunciation shifting
  The English teachers are expected to think more critically about the phenomenon in teaching
and learning context. From this study, it is found that code switching and code mixing can
also be done in teaching and learning process in the classroom.
 We are aware of the using of code switching and code mixing can help both of the teachers
and the students in teaching and learning English speaking at EFL classroom, especially at
secondary EFL classroom schools

The Effects of Code-Mixing on Second Language Development

(Spice, 2018)

Goldrick, Putnam, and Schwarz (2016) define CM, also termed intrasentential CS, as “the fluent
integration of two languages within a single utterance” (p. 857).

Hasan and Akhand (2014) state that inter-sentential and intra-sentential CS is “where elements are
mixed from both languages that are used in the same sentence and/or in the same conversation” (p.
63).

They further define CM as a “third, new code” (p. 64) formed from two languages blending together
(Hasan & Akhand, 2014)

The first reason why multilinguals code-mix is effective communication (Ahire, 2015; Lu, 2014).

if the listener has low competency in the language spoken, the speaker may code-mix to be better
understood by the listener (Gilead, 2016; Kustati, 2014).

For many multilinguals, CS and CM are used to show their identity (Daniel, 2016)

One reason why multilinguals code-mix is to maintain their identity in both languages while also
forming a “hybrid/third space identity” (Casielles-Suarez, 2017, p. 155).

This hybrid language identity can be likened to the cultural identity of a Third Culture Kid, someone
who grew up in two different cultures and does not identify fully with either one but creates a unique
third culture that is a mixture of both home and host cultures (Pollock & Van Reken, 2009).

CM can be useful for filling in the gaps in one’s speech with words from more than one language (Lu,
2014)

CM may occur “when a bilingual is rapidly unable to recall a concept, but is capable [of]
remember[ing] it in another language. [CM] fills in unfamiliar or unavailable concepts in one
language” (Al-Azzawi, Saadoon, & Mahdi, 2017, p. 116).

The use of CM essentially makes multilinguals’ recall quicker by allowing them to choose the word or
phrase that comes to mind first rather than limiting themselves to one language (Ahire, 2015; Gilead,
2016).

they must supplement words they have not learned or do not remember in the Target Language with
words from another language, often their mother tongue (Keller, 2016; Kustati, 2014).

CM can be used as scaffolding for one’s TL at the beginning stages of language learning (Keller, 2016;
Nguyen, Grainger, & Carey, 2016)

By CM, language learners can use their L1 to help them start speaking in L2 sooner than they would
be able to only using words they know in their L2 (Kustati, 2014).
On one side of the debate linguists argue that CM has positive implications for one’s language
development. They say CM evidences a language user’s high level of proficiency in both languages
used (Humran & Shyamala, 2018; Kustati, 2014; Scotton & Jake, 2014).

Lu (2014) vehemently argues against the idea that CM reflects low language competence.

If CM is used too much, language learners may come to rely on CM and “reduce the sense of
necessity to speak [the target language]” (Kustati, 2014, p. 179). Moderation with CM is perhaps
especially important with language learners

While scaffolding by CM is a useful tool at the beginning stages of language learning, CM has the
potential to become a permanent habit constraining speakers’ use of L2 if overused (Kustati, 2014).

Additionally, CM can have an adverse effect on a speaker’s accent in a language (Goldrick, Runnqvist,
& Costa, 2014).

One’s accent can become even less native-like when mixing two languages with very different
phonology, “as speakers tend to follow the dominant phonology of the language they speak” (Hsueh,
2013).

Other studies have also found that CM can result in negative transfer between one’s L1 and TL
(Keller, 2016).

Teachers code-mix to enhance communication between them and their students and to increase
students’ understanding of the material (Gilead, 2016; Keller, 2016; Makulloluwa, 2013).

Teachers code-mix in order to gauge their students’ comprehension of the TL, especially in lower
proficiency levels where students may not yet possess enough knowledge of L2 to express such lack
of understanding (Gilead, 2016; Keller, 2016; Makulloluwa, 2013).

CM has the potential to create a classroom environment that is more conducive to language learning
than an L2-only classroom might be (Makulloluwa, 2013).

Language teachers’ use of L1 can also make students see their teacher as more sympathetic
(Makulloluwa, 2013), which is another way CM can lower the affective filter of language learners in
the classroom. This is connected to the idea of showing identity through CM: by using the students’
L1, the teacher is identifying with the students through language.

A strategy used by many lower-level students is repeating back in L1 or in mixed language what the
teacher said in the TL, inserting L1 in the parts requiring clarification (Gilead, 2016; Keller, 2016)

CM has the additional advantage of maintaining the flow of conversation and helping the speaker
hold the floor instead of pausing for long stretches of time in an attempt not to use L1 (Keller, 2016).

It is largely agreed that CM is a useful tool at the beginning stages of language learning, but as
learners progress to greater fluency, CM should decrease and eventually even disappear altogether
in the classroom (Keller, 2016; Kontio & Sylvén, 2015; Makulloluwa, 2013)

According to Makulloluwa (2013), use of L1 in the language classroom is encouraged and even
necessary in lower proficiency levels; it is seen as a last resort in intermediate levels, while it is
completely discouraged in advanced levels

Teachers’ use of CM in the classroom, although having the potential to be a valuable pedagogical
tool, should be limited, as “after a certain threshold of teacher L1 use, there is a rise in student L1 use
with possible effects on learning” (Macaro, 2001, p. 537, as cited in Makulloluwa, 2013, p. 587).
In order to avoid negative transfer from L1 or excessive L1 use in place of the TL, teachers ought to
code-mix when necessary without overusing CM (Keller, 2016; Makulloluwa, 2013).

One study found that “learners used to hearing the teacher use the L1 tended to ignore the L2 and,
therefore, failed to fully benefit from valuable L2 input” (Keller, 2016, p. 14-15).

While some CM for clarification and classroom management is good, the “tendency to repeat the
instruction in the native language may result in demotivating the learner to listen to the instruction in
L2” (Keller, 2016, p. 29)

Research method :

 Qualitative method

Result :

 CM would have lowered her affective filter so she could start using her TL sooner.
 the idea of CM relating to affective filter by stating that L2-only instruction may cause some
students not to want to speak L2 because they are intimidated.
 CM can eventually become a crutch in language acquisition; therefore, language learners
should decrease CM as they increase language proficiency.
 CM is encouraged and even necessary at the beginning stages of language acquisition, as it
allows language learners to scaffold for their TL
 CM can be used in the language classroom to lower students’ affective filter and heighten
motivation to learn the TL (Keller, 2016; Makulloluwa, 2013).
 research has shown the benefits of mixed-language instruction in the L2 classroom,
particularly in low-proficiency levels (Gilead, 2016; Jiang, Garcia, & Willis, 2014; Keller, 2016;
Kustati, 2014).
 CM can be a valuable pedagogical tool in low-proficiency level classrooms, and it should be
utilized as such.